Theodor Schwann

Theodor Schwann (German pronunciation: [ˈteːodoːɐ̯

ˈʃvan];[1][2] 7 December 1810 – 11 January 1882) was a Theodor Schwann
German physician and physiologist.[3] His most
significant contribution to biology is considered to be
the extension of cell theory to animals. Other
contributions include the discovery of Schwann cells in
the peripheral nervous system, the discovery and study
of pepsin, the discovery of the organic nature of
yeast,[4] and the invention of the term "metabolism".[5]

Early life and education

Theodor Schwann was born in Neuss on 7 December
1810 to Leonard Schwann and Elisabeth Rottels.[6]
Schwann in 1857
Leonard Schwann was a goldsmith and later a printer.
Theodor Schwann studied at the Born 7 December 1810

Dreikönigsgymnasium (also known as the Neuss, First French Empire

Tricoronatum or Three Kings School), a Jesuit school Died 11 January 1882 (aged 71)
in Cologne.[6][7] Schwann was a devout Roman Cologne, German Empire
Catholic. In Cologne his religious instructor Wilhelm Education Humboldt University of Berlin
Smets, a priest and novelist, emphasized the (1834)
individuality of the human soul and the importance of University of Bonn
free will.[8]: 643 [6][7]
University of Würzburg
In 1829, Schwann enrolled at the University of Bonn Known for Cell theory
in the premedical curriculum. He received a bachelor Schwann cells
of philosophy in 1831.[9] While at Bonn, Schwann met
Pepsin
and worked with physiologist Johannes Peter Müller.[3]
Müller is considered to have founded scientific Awards Copley Medal (1845)
medicine in Germany, publishing his Handbuch der Scientific career
Physiologie des Menschen für Vorlesungen in 1837– Fields Biology
1840.[10]: 387 It was translated into English as Elements
of Physiology in 1837–1843 and became the leading physiology textbook of the 1800s.[6]

In 1831, Schwann moved to the University of Würzburg for clinical training in medicine.[7][11] In 1833,
he went to the University of Berlin, where Müller was now Professor of Anatomy and Physiology.[7]
Schwann graduated with an M.D. degree in medicine from the University of Berlin in 1834. He did his
thesis work in 1833–1834, with Müller as his advisor. Schwann's thesis involved a careful study of the
necessity for oxygen during the embryonic development of the chicken. To carry it out, he designed and
built an apparatus that enabled him to pump the gases oxygen and hydrogen out of the incubation
chamber at specific times. This enabled him to establish the critical period in which the eggs needed
oxygen.[12]: 60

Schwann passed the state examination to practice medicine in the summer of 1834, but he chose to
continue to work with Müller, doing research rather than practicing medicine.[11] He could afford to do
so, at least in the short term, because of a family inheritance.[12]: 60 His salary as an assistant was only
120 taler. For the next five years, Schwann would pay the other three-quarters of his expenses out of his
inheritance. As a long-term strategy, it was not sustainable.[12]: 86

Career
From 1834 to 1839, Schwann worked as an assistant to Müller in at the Anatomisch-zootomische
Museum at the University of Berlin.[11] Schwann carried out a series of microscopic and physiological
experiments focused on studying the structure and function of nerves, muscles and blood vessels.[13] In
addition to performing experiments in preparation for Müller's book on physiology, Schwann did research
of his own. Many of his important contributions were made during the time that he worked with Müller in
Berlin.[6]

Schwann used newly powerful microscopes to examine animal tissues. This enabled him to observe
animal cells and note their different properties. His work complemented that of Matthias Jakob Schleiden
in plants and was informed by it; the two were close friends.[14][12]: 60

Described as quiet and serious, Schwann was particularly gifted in the construction and use of apparatus
for his experiments. He was also able to identify important scientific questions and design experiments to
systematically test them. His writing has been described as accessible, and his logic as a "clear
progression".[12]: 60 He identified the question that he wanted to answer and communicated the
importance of his findings effectively to others. His co-worker Jakob Henle spoke of him as having an
"inborn drive" to experiment.[12]: 60

By 1838, Schwann needed a position with a more substantial salary. He hoped to return to Bonn, a
Catholic city. He attempted to gain a professorship there in 1838 and again in 1846, but was
disappointed.[9]: 85–86 Instead, in 1839, Schwann accepted the chair of anatomy at the Université
Catholique de Louvain in Leuven, Belgium, another Catholic city.[11][9]: 85–86

Schwann proved to be a dedicated and conscientious professor. With his new teaching duties, he had less
time for new scientific work. He spent considerable time perfecting experimental techniques and
instruments for use in experiments. He produced few papers. One exception was a paper in 1844 that
reported on a series of experiments on dogs and established the importance of bile in digestion.[12]: 87 [13]

In examining processes such as muscle contraction, fermentation, digestion, and putrefaction, Schwann
sought to show that living phenomena were the result of physical causes rather than "some immaterial
vital force".[8]: 643 Nonetheless, he still sought to reconcile "an organic nature" with "a divine plan."[8]: 645
Some writers have suggested that Schwann's move in 1838, and his decreased scientific productivity after
that, reflect religious concerns and perhaps even a crisis relating to the theoretical implications of his
work on cell theory.[13][9]: 85–86 However, other authors regard this as misrepresenting his thinking, and
reject the idea that Schwann went through an existential crisis or a mystical phase.[9]: 85–86 Ohad Parnes
uses Schwann's laboratory notebooks and other unpublished sources along with his publications to
reconstruct his research as a unified progression.[15]: 126 Florence Vienne draws on unpublished writings
to discuss the ways in which cell theory, as a "unifying principle of organic development", related to the
philosophical, religious, and political ideas of various proponents including Schwann.[8]

In 1848, Schwann's compatriot Antoine Frédéric Spring convinced him to transfer to the University of
Liège, also in Belgium.[11] At Liège, Schwann continued to follow the latest advances in anatomy and
physiology but did not himself make major new discoveries. He became something of an inventor. One of
his projects was a portable respirator, designed as a closed system to support human life in environments
where the surroundings cannot be breathed.[13] By 1858 he was serving as professor of physiology,
general anatomy and embryology. In 1863, the American Philosophical Society elected him an
international member.[16] As of 1872, he ceased to teach general anatomy, and as of 1877, embryology.
He retired fully in 1879.[11]

Schwann was deeply respected by his peers. In 1878, a festival was held to celebrate his years of teaching
and his many contributions. He was presented with a unique gift: a book containing 263 autographed
photographic portraits of scientists from various countries, each of them sent by the scientist to be part of
the gift for Schwann. The volume was dedicated "To the creator of the cell theory, the contemporary
biologists."[13]

Three years after retiring, Schwann died in Cologne, on 11 January 1882.[7] He was buried in the family
tomb in Cologne's Melaten Cemetery.[17]

Contributions
When viewed in the context of his unpublished writings and
laboratory notes, Schwann's research can be seen as "a coherent
and systematic research programme" in which biological
processes are described in terms of material objects or "agents",
and the causal dependencies between the forces that they exert,
and their measurable effects. Schwann's idea of the cell as a
fundamental, active unit then can be seen as foundational to the
development of microbiology as "a rigorously lawful
science".[15]: 121–122

Muscle tissue
Bronze statue of Theodor Schwann
Some of Schwann's earliest work in 1835 involved muscle at the entrance of the Institute of
contraction, which he saw as a starting point for "the introduction Zoology, University of Liege,
of calculation to physiology".[15]: 122 He developed and described Belgium
an experimental method to calculate the contraction force of the
muscle, by controlling and measuring the other variables
involved.[15] His measurement technique was developed and used later by Emil du Bois-Reymond and
others.[18] Schwann's notes suggest that he hoped to discover regularities and laws of physiological
processes.[15]

Pepsin
In 1835, relatively little was known about digestive processes. William Prout had reported in 1824 that
the digestive juices of animals contained hydrochloric acid. Schwann realized that other substances in
digestive juices might also help to break down food.[6] At the beginning of 1836, Schwann began to study
digestive processes. He conceptualized digestion as the action of a physiological agent, which, though not
immediately visible or measurable, could be characterized experimentally as a "peculiar specific
substance".[15]: 124–125

Eventually Schwann found the enzyme pepsin, which he successfully isolated from the stomach lining
and named in 1836.[19][6][3] Schwann coined its name from the Greek word πέψις pepsis, meaning
"digestion" (from πέπτειν peptein "to digest").[20][21] Pepsin was the first enzyme to be isolated from
animal tissue.[19] He demonstrated that it could break down the albumin from egg-white into
peptones.[17][22]

Even more importantly, Schwann wrote, by carrying through such analyses one could eventually "explain
the whole developmental process of life in all organized bodies."[15]: 126 During the next year, he studied
both decomposition and respiration, constructing apparatus that he would later adapt for the study of
yeast.[15]: 128

Yeast, fermentation, and spontaneous generation

Next Schwann studied yeast and fermentation. His work on yeast was independent of work done by
Charles Cagniard de la Tour and Friedrich Traugott Kützing, all of whom published work in
1837.[6][23][24][25] By 1836, Schwann had carried out numerous experiments on alcohol fermentation.[6]
Powerful microscopes made it possible for him to observe yeast cells in detail and recognize that they
were tiny organisms whose structures resembled those of plants.[26]

Schwann went beyond others who simply had noted the multiplication of yeast during alcoholic
fermentation, first by assigning yeast the role of a primary causal factor, and then by claiming it was
alive. Schwann used the microscope to carry out a carefully planned series of experiments that
contraindicated two popular theories of fermentation in yeast. First he controlled the temperature of fluid
from fermenting beer in a closed vessel in the presence of oxygen. Once heated, the liquid could no
longer ferment. This disproved Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac's speculation that oxygen caused fermentation.
It suggested that some sort of microorganism was necessary for the process to happen. Next, Schwann
tested the effects of purified air and unpurified air.[27] He sterilized the air by passing it through heated
glass bulbs.[24] Fermentation did not occur in the presence of purified air. It did occur in the presence of
unpurified air, suggesting that something in the air started the process. This was strong evidence against
the theory of spontaneous generation, the idea that living organisms could develop out of nonliving
matter.[27]

Schwann had demonstrated that fermentation required the presence of yeasts to start, and stopped when
the yeasts stopped growing.[28] He concluded that sugar was converted to alcohol as part of an organic
biological process based on the action of a living substance, the yeast. He demonstrated that fermentation
was not an inorganic chemical process like sugar oxidation.[27] Living yeast was necessary for the
reaction that would produce more yeast.[23]

Although Schwann was correct, his ideas were ahead of most of his peers.[6] They were strongly opposed
by Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler, both of whom saw his emphasis on the importance of a living
organism as supporting vitalism. Liebig, in contrast, saw fermentation as a series of purely chemical
events, without involving living matter.[29] Ironically, Schwann's work was later seen as being a first step
away from vitalism.[23]: 56–57 Schwann was the first of Müller's pupils to work towards a physico-
chemical explanation of life.[3] Schwann's view furthered a conceptualization of living things in terms of
the biological reactions of organic chemistry, while Liebig sought to reduce biological reactions to purely
inorganic chemistry.[30]

The value of Schwann's work on fermentation eventually would be recognized by Louis Pasteur, ten
years later.[6] Pasteur would begin his fermentation research in 1857 by repeating and confirming
Schwann's work, accepting that yeast were alive, and then taking fermentation research further. Pasteur,
not Schwann, would challenge Liebig's views in the Liebig–Pasteur dispute.[30] In retrospect, the germ
theory of Pasteur, as well as its antiseptic applications by Lister, can be traced to Schwann's influence.[3]

Cell theory
In 1837, Matthias Jakob Schleiden viewed and stated that new plant cells formed from the nuclei of old
plant cells. Dining with Schwann one day, their conversation turned on the nuclei of plant and animal
cells. Schwann remembered seeing similar structures in the cells of the notochord (as had been shown by
Müller) and instantly realized the importance of connecting the two phenomena. The resemblance was
confirmed without delay by both observers. In further experiments, Schwann examined notochordal
tissue and cartilage from toad larvae, as well as tissues from pig embryos, establishing that animal tissues
are composed of cells, each of which has a nucleus.[14]

Schwann published his observations in 1838 in the Neue notisen geb. nat.-heilk.[31] This was followed in
1839 by the publication of his book Mikroskopische Untersuchungen über die Uebereinstimmung in der
Struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen (Microscopic investigations on the similarity of
structure and growth of animals and plants). It is considered a landmark work,[14] foundational to modern
biology.[32]

In it Schwann declared that "All living things are composed of cells and cell products".[33] He drew three
further conclusions about cells, which formed his cell theory or cell doctrine. The first two were correct:

1. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.[32]
2. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the construction
of organisms.[32]
By the 1860s, these tenets were the accepted basis of cell theory, used to describe the elementary
anatomical composition of plants and animals.[3]

Schwann's theory and observations created a foundation for modern histology.[3] Schwann claimed that
"there is one universal principle of development for the elementary parts of organisms, however different,
and this principle is the formation of cells."[34] Schwann supported this claim by examining adult animal
tissues and showing that all tissues could be classified in terms of five types of highly differentiated
cellular tissues.[23][6]
 1. cells that are independent and separate, e.g. blood cells
2. cells that are independent but compacted together in layers, e.g. skin, fingernails, feathers
3. cells whose connecting walls have coalesced, e.g. cartilage, bones, and tooth enamel
4. elongated cells forming fibers, e.g. tendons and ligaments
5. cells formed by the fusion of walls and cavities, e.g. muscles, tendons and nerves[6]
His observation that the single-celled ovum eventually becomes a complete organism, established one of
the basic principles of embryology.[23]

Schwann's third tenet, speculating on the formation of cells, was later disproven. Schwann hypothesized
that living cells formed in ways similar to the formation of crystals. Biologists would eventually accept
the view of pathologist Rudolf Virchow, who popularized the maxim Omnis cellula e cellula—that every
cell arises from another cell—in 1857. The epigram was originally put forth by François-Vincent Raspail
in 1825,[35] but Raspail's writings were unpopular, partly due to his republican sentiments. There is no
evidence to suggest that Schwann and Raspail were aware of each other's work.[8]: 630–631

Specialized cells
Schwann was particularly interested in nervous and muscular tissues. As part of his efforts to classify
bodily tissues in terms of their cellular nature, he discovered the cells that envelope the nerve fibers,
which are now called Schwann cells in his honor.[17] How the fatty myelin sheaths of peripheral nerves
were formed was a matter of debate that could not be answered until the electron microscope was
invented.[36][37] All axons in the peripheral nervous system are now known to be wrapped in Schwann
cells. Their mechanisms continue to be studied.[36][38][39]

Schwann also discovered that muscle tissue in the upper esophagus was striated.[17] He speculated that
the muscular nature of the esophagus enabled it to act as a pipe, moving food between the mouth and the
stomach.[40]

In examining teeth, Schwann was the first to notice "cylindrical cells" connected to both the inner surface
of the enamel and the pulp. He also identified fibrils in the dentinal tubes, which later became known as
"Tomes's fibers". He speculated on the possible structural and functional significance of the tubes and
fibrils.[17][41]

Metabolism
In his Microscopical researches, Schwann introduced the term "metabolism", which he first used in the
German adjectival form "metabolische" to describe the chemical action of cells. French texts in the 1860s
began to use le métabolisme. Metabolism was introduced into English by Michael Foster in his Textbook
of Physiology in 1878.[42]

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Further reading
Aszmann, O. C. (2000). "The life and work of Theodore Schwann". Journal of
Reconstructive Microsurgery. 16 (4): 291–5. doi:10.1055/s-2000-7336 (https://doi.org/10.10
55%2Fs-2000-7336). PMID 10871087 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10871087).
S2CID 39746208 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39746208).
Florkin, M. (1958). "Episodes in medicine of the people from Liège: Schwann & the
stigmatized". Revue Médicale de Liège. 13 (18): 627–38. PMID 13591909 (https://pubmed.n
 cbi.nlm.nih.gov/13591909).
Florkin, M. (1957). "1838; Year of crisis in the life of Théodore Schwann". Revue Médicale
de Liège. 12 (18): 503–10. PMID 13466730 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13466730).
Florkin, M. (1957). "Discovery of pepsin by Theodor Schwann". Revue Médicale de Liège.
12 (5): 139–44. PMID 13432398 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13432398).
Florkin, M. (1951). "Schwann as medical student". Revue Médicale de Liège. 6 (22): 771–7.
PMID 14892596 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14892596).
Florkin, M. (October 1951). "Schwann at the Tricoronatum". Revue Médicale de Liège. 6
(20): 696–703. PMID 14883601 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14883601).
Florkin, M. (1951). "The family and childhood of Schwann". Revue Médicale de Liège. 6 (9):
231–8. PMID 14845235 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14845235).
Haas, L. F. (1999). "Neurological stamp. Theodore Schwann (1810–82)" (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1736145). J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 66 (1): 103.
doi:10.1136/jnnp.66.1.103 (https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjnnp.66.1.103). PMC 1736145 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1736145). PMID 9886465 (https://pubmed.ncbi.n
lm.nih.gov/9886465).
Hayashi, M. (1992). "Theodor Schwann and reductionism". Kagakushi Kenkyu. 31 (184):
209–14. PMID 11639601 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11639601).
Kiszely, G. (1983). "Theodor Schwann". Orvosi Hetilap. 124 (16): 959–62. PMID 6343953 (h
ttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6343953).
Kosinski, C. M. (2004). "Theodor Schwann". Der Nervenarzt. 75 (12): 1248.
doi:10.1007/s00115-004-1805-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00115-004-1805-5).
PMID 15368056 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15368056). S2CID 9572873 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9572873).
Kruta, V. (1987). "The idea of the primary unity of elements in the microscopic structure of
animals and plants. J. E. Purkynĕ and Th. Schwann". Folia Mendeliana. 22: 35–50.
PMID 11621603 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11621603).
Lukács, D. (April 1982). "Centenary of the death of Theodor Schwann". Orvosi Hetilap. 123
(14): 864–6. PMID 7043357 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7043357).
Watermann, R. (1973). "Theodor Schwann accepted the honorable appointment abroad".
Medizinische Monatsschrift. 27 (1): 28–31. PMID 4576700 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
4576700).
Watermann, R. (1960). "Theodor Schwann as a maker of lifesaving apparatus". Die
Medizinische Welt. 50: 2682–7. PMID 13783359 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1378335
9).

External links
Works by or about Theodor Schwann (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subjec
t%3A%22Schwann%2C%20Theodor%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Theodor%20Schwan
n%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Schwann%2C%20Theodor%22%20OR%20creator%3
A%22Theodor%20Schwann%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Schwann%2C%20T%2E%2
2%20OR%20title%3A%22Theodor%20Schwann%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Schw
ann%2C%20Theodor%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Theodor%20Schwann%22%29%
20OR%20%28%221810-1882%22%20AND%20Schwann%29%29%20AND%20%28-media
type:software%29) at the Internet Archive
Schwann, Theodor and Schleyden, M. J. 1847. Microscopical researches into the
accordance in the structure and growth of animals and plants. London: Printed for the
Sydenham Society (http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library/data/lit28715?)
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Theodor Schwann" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catho
lic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Theodor_Schwann). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
 Appleton Company.

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