Weed biology and crop improvement

BL354C.

5. WEED BIOLOGY

Weed biology is concerned with the establishment, growth, reproduction and dispersal of weeds
and influence of environment on these processes. The study of weed biology is important to
understand the survival mechanisms of weeds to minimise the negative effects of weeds and
promote positive characteristics in the agro ecosystem. Weed biology includes the biology and
ecology of individual weed species and weed communities.

5.1. Weed seed dispersal

Weed seeds are dispersed in time and space. Weed seeds dispersal in time means the capacity
of many weed seeds to remain dormant for a period. Seed dispersal in space refers to the
physical movement of seeds from one place to another

Dispersal in time: Weeds show periodicity in germination whereby the weed seeds have the
tendency to have germination flushes at certain times in the growing season. Some weed
species have one germination while others have more than one germination. All weed species
will show peak germination between March and June. So, most broadleaf weeds are
predominating in the early season while grasses are more serious in the late (dry) season due
to the low soil moisture, high soil temperature, land use patterns and cropping practices

Dispersal in Space: The quantity of weed seeds falling on a unit area of land is affected by:

(i) Height and distance of the source of seed

(ii) The concentration at the seed source.

5.2. Weed Seed Germination

Germination is the resumption of vegetative growth by a seed resulting in the production of

seedling. The best indicator of seed germination is the emergence of plumule (broadleaf plants)
or the coleoptiles (monocots). Elongation of radicle and plumule takes place at the expense of
food stored in the endosperm. The aerial parts of the seedlings emerge above ground. Seedling
emergence could be Hypogeal (Cotyledons remain below the soil surface), or Epigeal
(Cotyledons are forced above ground by elongation of the epicotyl. Independence growth starts
with the onset of photosynthetic activity by the seedling plant.

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Weed safe site

It is a site that provides favourable conditions for the weed seed to germinate. This site provides
the following:

 Stimuli required for the breaking of dormancy

 Conditions required for the germination process to proceed.
 The resources (water, and oxygen) which are consumed during germination etc.

Factors Affecting Weed Seed Germination

Temperature: It is specific for a given non-dormant weed species

Soil moisture: Adequate moisture at the safe site

Depth of seed burial-Tillage affects depth of weed seed burial. Seedlings of small seeded
weeds (< 2mm) cannot germinate from soil depth > 5cm

Aeration – can be influenced by type of soil. Clay soils are more airtight than sandy soils

Light: it is a necessity for photosynthesis. In weeds can be suppressed if they grow below
canopy

Soil nutrient level: the more nutrient availability the easier will be the germination

Dormancy characteristics of weed seeds: Dormancy is the situation whereby the viable seeds,
spores or buds fail to germinate under conditions of moisture, temperature and oxygen
favourable for vegetative growth.

Weed invasion techniques

Weeds shows outstanding features to survive and suppress crops. Some are invasion
techniques used by most weeds to enable them to survive: -.

Quick turnaround: annual weeds grow and a mature in a short period of the seasons and
produce seeds

Tolerance: weeds reproduce in adverse conditions for example during drought, low light
intensity floods etc.

Long term seed survival: weeds seeds can survive long in the soil waiting for favourable time to
come so as they can regenerate

Huge quantity of seeds: weeds produce many seeds to ensure survival

Regeneration techniques- weeds can regenerate from roots if they have lost their aerial parts

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Effective seed distribution: – seeds of the weed have various mechanisms to move from one
place to another.

Efficient vegetative propagation: weeds can not only reproduce by seeds but also through well
mechanized vegetative parts

WEED MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL

Weed control involves any action that seeks to restrict the spread of weeds and destroys or
reduces their population in each location. There are several weed control methods, depending
on the weed and the farmer.
Preventive weed control Mechanical weed control
Cultural weed control Chemical (Herbicides)
Biological weed control Integrated weed management

I.1. Preventive weed control

Preventive weed control refers to those measures to avoid new weed species entering a given
geographical area or habitat. These methods include: -

• Clean seeds - Use of clean crop seeds for planting can help to avoid carrying weed seeds
from one source to another. Clean seeds can be obtained from reliable seed sources such
as certified shops and seed companies.
• Fallowing – is a process of plowing and harrowing a land and leave it unseeded for one or
more growing seasons. Fallow will help to suppress available weeds but also parasitic or
epiphytic weeds.
• Use of clean machinery and tools: machinery such as harrowing or ploughing discs or even
hand hoe should be cleaned before being moved from one area to another
• Controlled movement of livestock: livestock may carry weed seeds in their bodies
unintentionally therefore moving them from one area to another should be controlled.
• Irrigation canal screening: Screening of irrigated canals help to prevent weeds from being
transported from infested field to clean areas through waterways.
• Quarantines: is the way of introducing laws and services to prevent accidental introduction
of exotic plants or propagates.
• Use of weed resistant cultivars - Through the help of genetically engineering in seed

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improvement various weed tolerant seeds have been developed. In Kenya, the
introduction of Striga-resistant maize has helped to reclaim up to 20,000 ha of arable land
that had been rendered unproductive because of the weed.

I.2. Cultural Weed Control

This involves all aspects of good crop husbandry (Good agricultural practices – GAPs) used by
farmer to minimize weed interference with crop or any practice adopted by the farmers which
aid in weed suppression. This method includes:

Hand weeding: This can be done by using hand pulling, hand hoeing, and hand slashing or
push type weeders.

Mechanical weeding: This can be done with animal drawn weeders or machine-powered
weeders.

Tillage: is the operation, practice or art of tilling the ground. It does not include cleaning the
bush. First step in tilling is the ploughing then followed by harrowing and levelling. Ridges,
bunds and seed bed formation are last steps depending upon a type of crop to be cultivated.

Burning: This is clearing the bush by burning the field. Burning is sometimes not recommended
because it kills the microorganisms in the soil. Therefore, a special place should be designated
the field to burn unwanted material

Flooding: is the way of suppressing terrestrial weeds by drowning them (video)

Mulching and ground covers: Mulching can be done by covering the topsoil with plant material
such as leaves, grass, twigs, crop residues, straw etc. Mulching can also be done by physical
barriers such as black plastic or woven weed matting to exclude sunlight and prevent weed
establishment. A mulch cover enhances the following activity of soil organisms such as
earthworms soil structure (pores) to reduce run off allowing more water to infiltrate into the soil
the content of organic matter in the soil as mulch material decomposes. Ground covers are
designed to inhibit weed germination, block sunlight and exert physical pressure on emerging
weed seedlings. All in all, ground covers work like mulch in that they keep out the sunlight and
prevent weeds from getting the opportunity to grow or sprout up. Using ground covers such as
sheets of plywood or plastic tarps over the garden in the off-season can help prevent weeds
from sprouting, making weeding.

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Avoid Watering Weeds: This is the way when irrigation is done only at the crop that need water
e.g. by using drip irrigation method. If you can water only the plants that need it, you may avoid
cultivating weeds in unplanted areas, paths, and areas where they are not ...

Crop rotation is the system of varying successive crops in a definite order on the same ground.
Crop rotation (e.g., soybeans and maize) helps to avoid depleting the soil and to control weeds,
diseases, and pests.

Fig. Basic crop rotation

Use of boiling water: Using boiling water to kill weeds is another inexpensive and easy way to
battle them. Heat water in a kettle and then pour it over the weeds. Just grab your kettle off the
stove, bring it to the garden, and pour a stream of water.

Use of vinegar: Vinegar is an aqueous solution of acetic acid and trace compounds that may
include flavourings. Vinegar typically contains from 5% to 18% acetic acid by volume. A
horticultural vinegar (10-20% acetic acid) is a popular short-term natural weed controller. By
mixing one part vinegar with one part water and spraying the solution on the weeds can
effectively kill weeds

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I.3. Biological Weed Control

This refers to the control or suppression of weeds by the action of one or more organisms
through natural means or by manipulation of the weed, organism or environment. This involves
the use of the following:

Live mulch: is any plant that is used to cover an area of soil and adds nutrients, enhances soil
porosity, decreases weeds and prevents soil erosion, among other attributes. Basically, living
mulch is a low-growing ground cover that is planted for a variety of reasons. For maximum
smothering power to keep weed pests out of the field, a combination of legumes and grasses is
the best mixture for green manure, since the legume introduces the nitrogen but the grass
increases soil porosity and add carbon when tilled in as dried hay.

Fig. Function of mulch

Use of invertebrate animals: e.g. the use of insects to control weeds for example the use of
grasshoppers (Paulina acuminata) to control Salvinia molesta (Kariba weed) in Zambia.

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Fig. Paulina acuminata (left) and Salvinia molesta (right)

Use of vertebrate animals: e.g. goats to graze down woody weeds; ducks and fish for control of
aquatic weeds. (see video- duck farming system)

Fig. Goat (left) and duck (left) to control weed

Use of Microbes: This involves the use of microorganisms (or plant pathogen) such as fungi,
bacteria, nematodes and viruses to control weeds. E.g. of microbial weed control is the use of
soil borne fungi (Phytophthora palmivora) now sold as mycoherbicides to control strangler vine
(Morrenia odorata) and the use of aerial fungus (Collectotrichum gloeosporoides sold as
mycoherbicides) for the control northern jointvetch (Aeschynomene virginica) in rice (Oryza
sativa) and soybeans (Glycine max)

Plant canopy: The major effect of plant canopy is to shade the understory plants and limit their
ability to synthesize carbohydrates. Shed lover crops (e.g. vanilla and cardamom) can be
protected from weeds when planted under the shade (canopy) of big trees.

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Disadvantages (Risks) of Biological Control

Interference with ecosystem - While it's supposed to manage one pest, there is always the
possibility that the introduced species may switch to a different target e.g., eating other crops
instead of the targeted weed and runs the risk of disrupting the natural food chain.

Slow process - It takes a lot of time and patience for the biological agents to work their magic
on a weed population compared to other methods like herbicides which give rise to immediate
results.

Ineffective to weed eradication – Biological weed control is not capable to completely wipe out
a weed, biological control is not the right choice. Therefore, they can only reduce the number of
harmful weeds.

Risk to be used as weapon – Biological control can be switched by bad people to be used as
weapon to harm human’s interests e.g., killing crops, livestock and even human as a whole

I.4. Chemical Weed Control

Chemical weed control is a practice whereby undesirable vegetation (weeds) is killed with
herbicide. A chemical used to control, suppress or kill plants or to severely interrupt their normal
growth process is called herbicides.

Herbicides can be selective or non-selective

Selective herbicides Nonselective herbicides

are those that can suppress certain member are those that are generally toxic to all plants
of weeds species and leave others unhurt. (they destroy any weeds that come their way)
E.g. Atrazine (used to prevent pre- and post- e.g. glyphosate, paraquat.
emergence broadleaf weeds in crops such as
maize (corn) and sugarcane)
Propanil (used against numerous grasses
and broad-leaved weeds in rice)

Glyphosate (C3H8NO5P) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an

organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by inhibiting the plant

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enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase. This is a nonselective (round up)

herbicide that controls any green plant on which it is applied. It is used to kill weeds, especially
annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crops. It is applied to the leaves of
plants to kill both broadleaf plants and grasses. The negative side of it is that skin exposure to
ready-to-use concentrated glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and it has been recently
named as carcinogenic.

The European Union voted on Monday to extend its authorization for the world’s best-selling
herbicide for an abbreviated period of five years, with France and Germany splitting over the
move.
President Emmanuel Macron of France said after the decision was announced that he had
asked government officials to draw up a plan for banning the herbicide, glyphosate, in his
country within three years. He also posted a message on Twitter with the hashtag #Make Our
Planet Great Again. France led the opposition to allowing the use of glyphosate, the main
ingredient in Monsanto’s Roundup and in weed killers made by other companies.
Source: Aljazeera news 28.11.2017

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I.5. Integrated Weed Management (IWM)

This is a form of weed management that involves the combination of two or more weed control
methods at low inputs to obtain a level of weed suppression superior to the ordinarily obtained
when one weed management system is used. e.g.

Chemical +cultural method

Herbicide + organic mulch

Biological +Chemical +Cultural methods

Integrated Weed Management (IWM) selects and use a combination of management

techniques that, together, will control a weed species or infestation efficiently and effectively. It
is a multi-technique approach to weaken the noxious weed at hand. The tools used from IWM
are species specific, site dependent, and focus on the ecology of the entire plant
community. IWM is recommended because

 It creates additive effects that weaken the noxious weed

 It prevents the weed from establishing resistance to one control method continually
being used

There is never a fix all solution that will always control a specific weed. The control methods
used in IWM largely depend on the species at hand and the site in which it is found. Some of
these techniques are shown in figure below.

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Fig. Integrated weed management

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Method Recommended on Limit to success
Hand - a few plants or a very small new - On plants that can reproduce through
Pulling infestation rhizomes or vegetative.
- Before the plant has matured and - Aggressive and repeated pulling is
produced seed necessary for complete results
- The weed is an annual or biennial
- The weed does not have a deep,
complex root system
- The weed reproduces by seed
- chemicals, heavier equipment, or
livestock are impossible to use

Mowing - The infested area is flat and - Kills the entire plant
and Cutting relatively dry - If not performed at the correct time and
- The infested area is not easily plants have produced seed, mowing or
accessible to use other control cutting can lead to further spread of the
methods due to overgrowth infestation.
- The plant is an annual or biennial - Not effective for plants that reproduce
that does not reproduce vegetative
vegetative
- When mowing or cutting can be
repeated throughout the season
before the plants fully flower and
set seed

Prescribed - The weed is an annual plant, such - There must be intensive planning to
Burn as yellow star thistle, that ensure the burn is safe and contained
reproduces by seed - There must be a plan for restoration or
- The infested area has a large reseeding after the burn on the newly
amount of decadent material or disturbed area.
thatch - Seed banks of noxious weeds can
- The infested area does not have remain after fire
many desired species that could - Specific noxious weed species respond
be negatively impacted by the fire with increased growth after fire and this
method can be counter productive
Herbicides - In a pure stand of a single weed - If not used properly herbicides can
species and desirable non-target damage or kill non-target plants
plants are scarce or absent - It can be difficult to control small or
- On rhizomatous weed species short weeds with herbicides when they
that are unpalatable to livestock, are found within taller desirable plant
require repeated pulling or species.
cutting for minimal control, or are - can be toxic to humans in varying
in remote areas where other degrees depending on the chemical used
control methods are not feasible if regulations outlined on the herbicide
label are not followed
- certain herbicides cannot be used
around or in water
- populations of weeds may develop
herbicide resistance over time
- timing of application is imperative and
differs depending on the weed species at
hand.
Weed biology and crop improvement BL354C.

1. WEED IDENTIFICATION

It is important to correctly identify a weed to ensure that it is not a native plant and that it is not a newly
invasive species. Correct identification can be an important step in making sure that new weeds can be
eradicated before they become established.

Factors to consider when identifying weeds include:

 where and when the weed is growing

 what group the weed belongs to (i.e. herb, grass, shrub, tree, vine, water plant)
 leaf shape, size, and colour of the weed
 flower, seed head or fruiting body of the weed

If you cannot identify a weed using booklets, fact sheets or websites or application, correct identification
can be gained by sending a sample to plant protection department or Herbarium.

Fig. Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), Tengeru near Arusha in Tanzania.

Photo by S. Reynolds.

Fig. Euphorbia heterophylla is a sparsely branched, annual plant that

can grow from 30 - 100cm tall

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Grasses grow both vegetative and floral stems, and many of their wind-pollinated flowers are showy. Grass
fruits are seeds and are covered by two papery scales. Sedges produce only floral stems, and their wind-
pollinated flowers tend to be inconspicuous. Sedge fruits are nutlets and are enfolded by a single scale.
Grasses have nodes. Sedges do not. The other important point to note is that all grass stems are round in
cross section, and hollow. Sedges are not stems are also round, but not always hollow.

Sedges and grasses

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