Chapter 7

How do Organisms Reproduce

Asexual Reproduction

• It involves only one parent.

• There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
• The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to
the parent cell.
• Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favourable environmental
conditions and when there is an abundance of food.
• It is a faster method of reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular Organism

(i) Binary Fission:

Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these first pseudopodia
withdrawn (karyokinesis) the nucleus of the parent cell divides and then the
cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of two daughter cells). It
occurs during highly favourable conditions. The cell division can occur in any plane
as in case of Amoeba. However, organisms like Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which
have a whip like flagella at one end, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in
relation to the flagellum.

Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.

(ii) Multiple Fission:

Seen in Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite). In this during unfavourable conditions,

the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself forming a cyst. Within the
wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form many plasmodia. When conditions
become favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the Plasmodium are released.
(iii) Budding:

Seen in Yeast (a fungus). The parent yeast cell develops a protrusion or an outgrowth
at its upper end. The nucleus of the parent cell divides and one of them moves into
the outgrowth which grows bigger and finally separates from the parent cell to lead
an independent existence. Very often if the conditions are highly favourable, a chain
of buds is formed.

Types of Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms :

(i) Fragmentation:

Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively simple body organisation like
Spirogyra. Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into smaller pieces or
fragments). Each fragment has the capacity to form a new individual.
However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as cells from
tissues which form organs. These organs are placed at definite positions in the body.
Hence, they need to use more complex methods of reproduction.
 .

(ii) Regeneration:

It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts. Some organisms show have
high regenerative capacity it is also a means of reproduction for example; Planaria.
(Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells which redivide to form a mass of
cells from which different cells undergo changes to become different cell types and
tissues. These changes occur in an organized sequence known as development).

(iii) Budding:

Seen in Hydra. Parent Hydra develops a bud at its lower end. This grows in size and
finally breaks off to live independently.
(iv) Spore Formation:

Seen in Rhizopus (a fungus). Rhizopus body is made up of thread-like structures

called hyphae. The erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which reproductive structures
called spores are formed. Spores are asexually reproducing bodies having a thick
protective wall. They are produced during unfavourable times and help to tide over
the unfavourable environmental conditions. When the spores fall on a suitable
medium, each one forms a new individual.

(v) Vegetative Propagation:

Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative parts such as roots, stems, and
leaves.

Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types

• Natural vegetative propagation.

• Artificial vegetative propagation (Tissue culture).
Mint reproduces naturally by roots. Sugarcane, jasmine by stems and Biyophyllum
by leaves. In biyophyllum buds are produced in the notches along the leaf margins
and when they fall on the soil, they develop into new plants.

Importance of Vegetative Propagation

• Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

• Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also
reproduce by vegetative propagation.
• All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
• Seedless varieties can be obtained.
• The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in
developing methods like layering, grafting to grow many plants like
sugarcane, roses, or grapes.

Tissue Culture:

The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient medium
under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient medium where it
forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to another nutrient
medium where it differentiates and forms a new plant.

Sexual Reproduction:

Sexual reproduction in plants, Sexual reproduction in human beings. The mode of

reproduction that takes place with the involvement of two individuals of two
different sexes i.e. male and female.
During sexual reproduction, male organism having male sex organs produces male
gametes i.e. sperms which are small and motile and the female organism having
female sex organs produces ova which are generally large and store food. Male and
female gametes fuse to form a zygote that grows into a new organism.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction :

• Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two

different organisms which promotes diversity of characters in the
offspring.
• Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a
new combination of genes which increases the chances of genetic
variations.
• Sexual reproduction results in the origin of. new species.

• Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the
DNA matter to half so that the zygote formed after fusion has the same
amount of DNA as the parents it maintains DNA in a species.

Limitation of Sexual Reproduction:

Sexual reproduction involves the process of combining DNA from two different
organisms which may bring some undesirable features also.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

• The reproductive parts are present in the flower.

• The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
• Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower
is in bud stage.
• Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.
• Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that
contain male gametes. Each stamen has two parts—
• Filament i.e. stalk and Anther i.e. swollen top part which has large
number of pollen grains.
The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female
gametes. It has three parts—Stigma which is top sticky part and receives pollen
grains during pollination. Style which is the middle long part and ovary which is the
swollen part and contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg cell i.e. female gamete.

The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both stamens and carpels for example;
Mustard China Rose (Hibiscus).
The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving either stamens or carpels for example;
Papaya, Watermelon.

Pollination:
The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the flower is
pollination. Two types of pollination are:

(i) Self-pollination:
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or
another flower of the same plant.

(ii) Cross-pollination:
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower or
another flower of a different plant of the same species. It generally takes place with
the help of some agents like insects, birds, wind and water.
Fertilization:
Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote
during sexual reproduction. Pollination is followed by fertilisation in plants. The
events are Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary. Pollen tubes grow out of the
pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the ovary, through micro pyle.
Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a female
germ cell (egg). Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the ovule, one of
them fuses with female germ cell and forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant
i.e. embryo, the fusion is known as syngamy. The other male germ cell fuses with two
polar nuclei, the process is known as triple fusion. So in flowering plants two fusions
take place during fertilisation. It is called double fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the
flower.
Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.

• The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
• The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
• Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.
Flower Diagram With Labels And Explanation

The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms. It is meant for sexual
reproduction. A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged
successively on the swollen end of the stalk or pedicel, called thalamus or receptacle.

These are calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. Calyx and corolla are accessory
organs, while androecium and gynoecium are reproductive organs. In some flowers
like lily, the calyx and corolla are not distinct and are termed as perianth. When a
flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual. A flower having either
only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.

In symmetry, the flower may be actinomorphic (radial symmetry) or zygomorphic

(bilateral symmetry). When a flower can be divided into two equal radial halves in
any radial plane passing through the centre, it is said to be actinomorphic, e.g.,
mustard, datura, chilli. When it can be divided into two similar halves only in one
particular vertical plane, it is zygomorphic, e.g., pea, gulmohur, bean, Cassia. A
flower is asymmetric (irregular) if it cannot be divided into two similar halves by any
vertical plane passing through the centre, as in canna.

A flower may be trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous when the floral appendages

are in multiple of 3, 4 or 5, respectively. Flowers with bracts-reduced leaf found at
the base of the pedicel – are called bracteate and those without bracts, ebracteate.
Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e.
embryo.

Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future
plant.

Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and
radicle develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate
conditions is known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Being:

Human beings show sexual reproduction. Male parent produces male gametes called
sperms. Female parent produces female gametes called ova. Sperms have tail and are
therefore, motile. They are produced in large numbers in the testes. Ovum is bigger,
non-motile and only one ovary produces one ovum in one month. There is no food
stored in the sperms whereas ova contain stored food. Both the gametes are
microscopic unicellular and have half the number of chromosomes as compared to
the body cells.

Human beings become reproductively active from the onset of puberty. Puberty is
the period during adolescence when the rate of general body growth begins to slow
down and reproductive tissues begin to mature. Onset of puberty in human males is
between 11 to 13 yrs of age, while in human females is between 10 to 12 yrs. of age.
Puberty is associated with many physical, mental, emotional and psychological
changes in boys and girls which occur slowly over a period of time. These are called
secondary sexual characters. For instance thick dark hair start growing in new parts
of the body such as arm pits and genital area between the thighs. Thinner hair appear
on legs, arms and face. Skin becomes oily and pimples may appear on the face.
Individuals become more conscious of their bodies become more independent, more
aggressive etc.

In case of boys beard and mustache start appearing, voice begins to crack,
reproductive organs develop and start producing releasing sperms.
In case of girls, breast size begins to increase, skin of the nipples darkens,
menstruation starts.
The act of mating between the male and female partner is termed as copulation.

Male Reproductive System:

Male reproductive system consists of the following components

• 1 pair of testes
• A system of ducts
• Epididymis
• Vas deferens or the sperm duct
• Urethra
• A system of glands
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostrate gland
• Cowper’s gland
• A copulatory organ called a penis.

One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies
outside the abdominal cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position. This is so
because the testes have to be maintained at 1-3 degree lesser temperature than the
body in order to produce functional sperms.

Functions of testes

• To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.

• To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is
responsible for producing sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics
in males.
Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms are
stored here and they mature in the epididymis.
Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens
rises up and enters into the abdominal cavity. It unites with the duct coming from the
urinary bladder to form a common duct called urethra which passes through the
penis and opens to the outside. Along the way the ducts of the three glands also open
and pour their secretions into the vas deferens.

Function of the vas-deferens:

It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male body.

Functions of the glands:

They produce different secretions which provide nutrition as well as medium for
locomotion to the sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen.

Function of the urethra:

It is the common passage for both semen and urine from the body to. the outside.

Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is
richly supplied with blood vessels.

Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following components

• 1 pair of ovaries
• 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts

• A uterus/womb
• A vagina/birth canal.

Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the abdominal cavity. At the time of
birth each girl child already contains thousands of immature ova. These ova start
maturing only from the time of puberty. Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in
one month and each ovary releases an ovum in alternate months. The release of an
ovum from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is known as ovulation.

Functions of ovary

• To produce and release ova

• To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close to the ovary has finger like
structures called fimbriae. The two fallopian tubes unite to form an elastic bag like
structure called uterus.

Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male
and the female gametes and formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as
endometrium. The narrow end of the uterus is called cervix.

Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and
gets attached to the endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next nine
months till the baby is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a
muscular tube through which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months. It also
serves as the canal for receiving the semen at the time of copulation.

The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation. The sperms travel
upwards and reach the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the ovum to form
the zygote. The zygote divides and redivides as it descends into the uterus and the
embryo gets implanted in the endometrium. The endometrium thickens so as to
receive the embryo.

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
called placenta, which is a disk-like structure embeded in the uterine wall. It contains
finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on the mother’s side blood spaces surround
the villi. Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to the
mother through the placenta. When the embryo starts resembling a human is
formed, it is termed as a foetus. The foetus continues
to develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the baby is delivered
as a result of rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.

Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and
the ruptured cells and tissues of the endometrium through the vagina of the female.
It is a 28-day cycle which occurs in every reproductively active female (from
puberty). The flow of blood continues for 2 to 8 days. If the ovum does not get
fertilized, then the endometrium starts sloughing off and there is loss of blood and
mucous etc. through the vagina. In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the
endometrium becomes thick and spongy for nourishing the embryo and hence
menstruation does not occur. A lady with a developing embryo in her womb is
termed as pregnant. The beginning of menstruation at puberty is known as
menarche. The stopage of menstruation when the woman is 45-55 yrs of age is called
menopause.

Reproductive Health: Sexually transmitted diseases and birth control.

A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is
infected. These are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be
caused by bacteria for example; syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for
example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The transmission of these diseases can be avoided by
using birth control measures such as wearing a condom during the sexual act.

Birth control measures: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the
follopian tube :
(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes worn over the penis before
sexual intercourse. The semen gets collected in this and is not discharged into the
vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible metal ring which is fitted over
the cervix in a woman’s

body by a doctor.
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus
and its insertion causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the
embryo in the uterine wall.
Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects.
Chemical methods

• Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available

in the form of creams, jellies etc. which are injected into the vagina just
before copulation.
• Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent
ovulation but do not stop menstruation.

Surgical methods

• Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.

• Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the
fallopian tubes in females.
• Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to
eliminate the developing embryo. This practice can, however, be
misused to carry out female foeticide which involves the killing of the
female foetus. It should be avoided at all cost as it disturbs the male-
female ratio in a population.

Reproduction: It is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals

similar to themselves.

• Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth.

• It is a bridge to hereditary transmission.
• It involves a continuation of characters from the parents to daughter
cells by copying of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in
the chromosomes of the cell.
• Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof exercise, even minute changes
bring about variation in the blue print of the offsprings.
• The useful variations are retained while the harmful ones do not go
beyond.
• Actually, variations help the species to withstand drastic environmental
changes, thus save the species from becoming extinct and promotes its
survival for a longer time.
• This inbuilt tendency of variation is the “basis” for Evolution.

Asexual Reproduction: It is extremely useful as a means of rapid multiplication.

It is common in lower plants and animals.
Different forms of Asexual Reproduction:

• Fission: The parent cell divides/splits into two daughter cells —Binary
fission and splits into many cells —Multiple fission.
• Budding: A new organism is produced as an outgrowth of the parent
body part.
• Spore Formation: Spores are small, the bulb-like structure which
develops at the top of the erect hyphae of the fungus-plant, when
released into the air germinate, into new individuals after landing into
food or soil.
 • Fragmentation: It is the accidental process when the broken pieces of
an organism (fragments) grows into a complete organism. Example,
fragmentation in Spirogyra.
• Regeneration: When simple animals like a hydra, planaria develop a
new individual from their broken older part it is known as regeneration.
It is carried out by specialised cells which grow large numbers of cells.

Vegetative Propagation: A mode of reproduction in which parts like the stem,

root, leaves develop into new plants under favourable conditions.
Benefits:

• Plants can bear flowers, fruits more quickly than those produced from
seeds.
• Growing banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to
produce seeds.
• The genetical similarity is maintained in the plants. Example, sugarcane,
rose, grapes by layering or grafting.

Sexual Reproduction: When reproduction takes place as a result of the fusion

between two gametes, one from each parent, it is called sexual reproduction.

• This process of fusion between two gametes is called fertilization.

• The formation of gametes involves an exchange of chromosomal
(genetic) fragments between homologous chromosomes causing genetic
recombination which leads to variation.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants: It occurs mostly in flowering plants.’ In fact,

flowers are the reproductive organ of plants.

• Pollen grains of a flower transfer to the stigma of the carpel of the same
flower (Self-Pollination) or to the carpel of another flower (Cross-
Pollination).
• This transfer of pollens is achieved by agents like wind, water or
animals. After pollination, the pollen grains reach the egg cell in the
form of a pollen tube.
• Fertilization. The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It
occurs inside the ovary. The zygote is produced in this process.
• The zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
The ovule develops a rough coat and is converted into a seed.
• Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form fruit, while the seed contains the
future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under suitable
conditions. This process is known as Germination.

Reproduction in Human Beings:

• Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction.

• It needs sexual maturation which includes the creation of the germ cells,
i.e., egg (ova) in the female and sperm in the male partner and this
period of sexual maturation is called Puberty.
 • Human beings have a well-developed male and female reproductive
system.
• The formation of the male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes
(male reproductive organ)

• Actually, a pair of testes are located inside scrotum situated outside the
abdominal cavity. It is meant to keep a relatively low temperature
needed for the production of sperms by testes. Testes release a male sex
hormone called testosterone whose function is to:
• regulate the production of sperms;
• brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time
of puberty; and
• the sperms along with the secretion of the prostate gland
and seminal vesicle, together constitute semen, which is
released and made to enter into the female genital tract
during Copulation.

Female Reproduction System:

• The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries, a pair of which is
located in both sides of the abdomen.
• When a girl is bom, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature
eggs. At the time of puberty, some of these eggs start maturing. One egg
is produced every month by one of the ovaries.

• The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a fallopian tube.
These two fallopian tubes unite into an elastic bag like structure known
as the uterus.
• The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
• Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube of the female genital tract.
• The fertilized egg also called zygote gets implanted in the lining of the
uterus, and starts dividing. The uterus is richly supplied with blood to
nourish the growing embryo.
• If the zygote is not formed, the inner wall of uterus breaks which causes
bleeding through vagina. This process is called Menstruation. It occurs
at a regular interval of 28 days.
• The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a
special tissue called Placenta.
• Placenta provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass
from the mother to the embryo. Similarly the wastes from developing
embryo are removed to mother’s blood through placenta.
• The child is bom as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in
the uterus after nine months (36 weeks) of development inside the
mother’s womb, called Gestation Period.
• The sexual cycle in a woman continues upto the age of 45 to 50 years.
After that the ovaries do not release eggs. This stage is called
Menopause. It also marks the end of menstruation in the woman.
• Reproductive Health: Reproductive health means total well-being in all
aspects of reproduction, z.e., physical, emotional, social and behavioural.

• Contraception: It is the avoidance of pregnancy through different

methods—Natural methods, Barrier method, Oral contraceptives, Surgical
methods.

• Advantages of contraception: Help in birth control, prevent sexually

transmitted diseases, prevent unwanted pregnancies, keep population
explosion in check.