Buddhism Philosophy

Buddhist Literature
The term “Tripitakas,” which translates to “A threefold basket,” is used to refer to the
Buddhist scriptures written in the Pali language.
➢ Vinaya Pitaka: This book contains the regulations for behaviour in Buddhist
monasteries. The "Basket of Discipline" that contains the rules for the monastic
order.
➢ Sutta Pitaka: The "Basket of Discourse" that contains the Buddha's sermons. The
most comprehensive compilation of Buddha’s teachings.
➢ Abhidhamma Pitaka: This book explains the intellectual underpinnings of
Buddhism. The "Basket of Doctrine" that contains doctrinal summaries and
systematizations
Introduction: The creator of Buddhism, Gautama Buddha, (563 B.C.- 483 B.C.) was
born in Lumbini, close to Kapilvastu, today in Nepal, in the fifth century on Vaishakha
Poornima Day. His original name was Siddhartha. Suddhodhana was his father. Seven
days after his delivery, Mahamaya, his mother, passed away. Gautami, his stepmother,
raised him. married Yashodhara when he was 16; they had a son called Rahul.
After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse (A dead body), and an ascetic,
he left his luxurious existence. He then made the decision to start travelling. At the age of
29, he set out from his house with his trusted steed, Kanthaka, and charioteer, Channa.
He left them and wandered for nearly six years in pursuit of the truth. He was referred to
as practising “Mahabhinishkramana,” or the Great Renunciation, during his quest for
the truth. Alara Kalama (Scholar of Samkhya Philosophy) was his first mentor and the
person he acquired meditation techniques. At the age of 35, he achieved “Nirvana” or
Enlightenment in Gaya, a town in Magadh, Bihar, under a Ficus religiosa (peepal tree).
Buddha is a title applied to him afterwards as a sign of enlightenment. The Tathagata or
Sakyamuni are other names for the Buddha. At Sarnath, he preached his first sermon to
his five followers. Dharmachakrapravartan, or “Turning of the Wheel of Law,” is the
name of the opening lecture. His 80-year-old life indicates that he achieved
“Mahaparinirvana” in the Malla republic’s Kushinagar, which is the same as the village
of Kasia in the Deoria district of Uttar Pradesh.
Buddhism gives importance to the impermanence of existence and the sufferings
associated with it. All existence, animate or inanimate, being in a state of flux, undergoes
changes incessantly. Nothing is permanent. Life is suffering. The impermanence itself is
the greatest pain (dukkha). Ignorance leads to sufferings and bondage. Karma is born out
of ignorance.
The most 'striking' feature of Buddhism is the doctrine of non-self (Anatma). In
a glaring and sharp contrast to the major philosophies, the Buddhism does not accept the
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permanent entity such as 'soul' or the 'atman'. It maintains that there is no permanent and
enduring entity in man. There is no distinct entity as the self or the soul. Buddhism
advances the theory of Nirvana. Nirvana is a state of total freedom and no sufferings.
With perfect knowledge, perfect peace and perfect wisdom, man is free from all bondage
in a state of Nirvana.
Lord Buddha has presented Four Noble Truths:
(1) There is suffering. Existence is invariably associated with suffering.
(2) Every suffering (dukkha) has a cause.
(3) Suffering can be eliminated if the cause is eliminated.
(4) There is a path to Nirvana which puts an end to all sufferings.

(1) There is suffering (dukkha): Life is full of misery and pain. Even the so-called
pleasures are really fraught with pain. There is always fear lest we may lose the so-called
pleasures and their loss involves pain. Indulgence also results in pain. That there is
suffering in this world is a fact of common experience. Poverty, disease, old age, death,
selfishness, meanness, greed, anger, hatred, quarrels, bickering, conflicts, exploitation are
rampant in this world. That life is full of suffering none can deny.
(2) There is a cause of suffering (duhkha-samudaya): Everything has a cause. Nothing
comes out of nothing. The existence of every event depends upon its causes and
conditions. Everything in this world is conditional, relative, limited. Suffering being a
fact, it must have a cause. It must depend on some conditions. "This being, that arises',
'the cause being present, the effect arises', is the causal law of Dependent Origination.
(3) There is a cessation of suffering (duhkha-nirodha): Because everything arises
depending on some causes and conditions, therefore if these causes and conditions are
removed the effect must also cease. The cause. being removed, the effect ceases to exist.
Everything being conditional and relative is necessarily momentary and what is
momentary must perish. That which is born must die. Production implies destruction.
(4) There is a way leading to this cessation of suffering (duhkha-nirodha-gamini
pratipada): There is an ethical and spiritual path by following which misery may be
removed and liberation attained. This is the Noble Eight-fold Path.
The Noble Eight-fold Path consists of eight steps which are: (1) Right faith (samyak
drishti), (2) Right resolve (samyak sankalpa), (3) Right speech (samyak vak), (4) Right
action (samyak karmanta), (5) Right living (samyak ajiva), (6) Right effort (samyak
vyayama), (7) Right thought (samyak smrti) and (8) Right concentration (samyak
Samadhi).

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Schools of Buddhism
Though Buddha was very particular in avoiding metaphysical discussions, there arose
different schools of Buddhist philosophical thought after his death. Buddha devoted
himself to the sole task of finding the path of which the sorrows and sufferings of life
could be put to an end forever. Buddha was not in favour of speculative metaphysics. A
person hit by an arrow should, first of all, try to put it out immediately and to try to heal
up the wound. (He would certainly be reckoned a foolish man if he whiled away his time
in speculating about the origin, maker and the thrower of the arrow, without first trying
to pull the arrow out. Similarly, a man should not indulge in vain metaphysical
speculations which will take him nowhere). The knowledge of these things does not
conduce to progress in holiness, does not contribute to peace and enlightenment.
Discussion of these problems (metaphysical questions) is futile, because there is not
sufficient ground for the solution of them, and because these insufficient grounds lead but
to partial and conflicting views.
The most urgent problem before him is to end misery. So instead of being
engaged in meta physical speculation about the nature of soul or the world, one should
deem it one's primary and most urgent duty to end miseries.
Buddha's reluctance to discuss metaphysical questions regarding thing beyond
our experience and his silence about them came to be interpreted by his followers in
different lights, and thus arose different system of Buddhist philosophy.
Questions which have not been discussed by Buddha have been called 'Avyaktani'
(indeterminable questions) in Pali. They are followings:
(i) Is the world eternal?
(ii) Is it non-eternal?
(iii) Is it finite?
(iv) Is it infinite?
(v) Is the body and self the same?
(vi). Is the self different from body?
(vii) Was the Tathagat reborn after death?
(viii) Was he not born after death?
(ix) Is there rebirth and also no rebirth?
(x) Are the rebirth and no rebirth both false?
In process of answering these questions, Buddhism divided into two main religious
schools:-

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(1) Hinayāna
(2) Mahāyāna
The Hinavanist admits the existence of external objects along with the reality of mind.
He is, therefore, called Sarvastivadi (those who hold the reality of all things). The
Mahayanist does not admit the reality of non-mental things. He is, therefore, called
idealist. Madhyamika or Sunyavada and Yogacara or Vijnanavad belong to the Mahayana
school. Sautrantika and Vaibhasika philosophies, on the other hand, belong to the
Hinayana school.
Buddha philosophy has been classified into four main schools according to the answer
given to two chief questions, of which one is metaphysical or concerning reality, and the
other epistemological or concerning the method of knowing the reality. The metaphysical
question is: "Is there any reality at all, mental or non-mental?" The epistemological
question is: "How the reality can be known to exist?" (a) The Madhyanrika holds that
there is no reality, mental or non-mental. All is void (Sunya). He is, therefore, known as
sunyavādin. (b) The Yogacara holds that only the mental is real, and the non-mental world
is devoid of reality. He is thus known as subjective idealist or Vijñānavädin. According to
Sarvastivada, both the mental and the non-mental are real. But on the epistemological
question this last school holds two different views. (c) The Sautrantika holds that the
external objects are not directly perceived, but known by inference. (d) The Vaibhasika,
on the other hand, holds that the external objects are directly perceived.
The following table will show the classification of Bauddha thought:
Buddhism

Hinayana (Realism) Mahāyāna

i. Sautrantika i. Madhyamika (sunyavādin)
ii. Vaibhasika ii. Yogacara (Vijñānavād)

Mahayana (meaning “Great Vehicle” in Sanskrit):

o It believed in the divinity of the Buddha.
o Encouraged idol worship within Buddhism.
o Followers of the Mahayana sect can be found in China, (South) Korea,
Japan, and Tibet.
o Scriptures were written in Sanskrit.
o Thinkers: Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga and Vasubandhu
o Sub-schools: Madhyamika, Yogachara school
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Hinayana (meaning “Small Vehicle” in Sanskrit):
o It did not believe in the divinity of the Buddha, rather it
emphasised individual salvation through self-discipline and
meditation.
o Followed by Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.
o Scriptures were written in Pali.
o Sub-Schools: Sautratiak and Vaibhasik
Pratityasamutpada or Dependent Origination:

The doctrine of Pratityasamutpada or dependent origination is regarded as the foundation

of all the teachings of Buddha (central teachings of the Buddha). It is the causal law both
of the universe and the lives of individuals. It is important from two points of view. Firstly,
it gives a very clear idea of the impermanent and conditioned nature of all phenomena.
Secondly, it shows how birth, old age, death and all the miseries of phenomenal existence
arise in dependence upon conditions, and how all the miseries cease in the absence of
these conditions.
Pratityasamutpada means arising (samutpada) after getting (pratitya). It means
the production of an effect out of a complement of cause and conditions. Nothing is
spontaneous. Everything that happens in the mental or physical world is dependent on
something. The existence of everything is conditional, dependent on some cause. When
the cause and conditions disappear, the effect disappears. The casual formula is: Asmin

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 Sati, Idam Bhavati means, this being that arises, i.e. 'Depending on the cause, the effect
arises.' Thus every object of thought is necessarily relative. And because it is relative. it
is neither absolutely real (for it is subject to death) nor absolutely unreal (for it appears to
rise).
Pratityasamutpada is a middle path between the principle of eternity
(saswatavādaj and the principle of annihilation (uchedavada). According to
Shaswatavada somethings are eternal, they have neither beginning nor end, they are
uncaused and do not depend on anything else. According to Uchedavada nothing remains
after destruction of things. The doctrine of Pratityasamutpada maintains a middle path
between the two extremes. It maintains that things have existence, but they are not eternal.
On the other hand, they are never completely annihitated but something always remains.
The origin of a thing is owing to another. External or mental happenings are always owing
to some cause.
The origin of life's evil is explained by Buddha in the light of his conception of
natural causation (Known as Pratityasamutpada). Nothing is unconditional; the existence
of everything depends on some condition. This doctrine is contained in the second Noble
Truth which propounds the cause of the suffering (dhukha samudaya) and in the Third
noble Truth which present the cessation of suffering (dukha nirodha).
According to Buddha life is suffering which is called jara-marana, it is because
there is birth (jäti). Birth is due to the will to be born (Bhava). Bhava is the cause of
life after death. The force of the predisposition to be born which causes our birth. The
cause of this tendency is our mental clinging (upädäna) to the objects of the world. This
mental clinging is owing to our thirst (trisna) to enjoy objects. Previous sense-
experience tinged with pleasant feeling (vedana) is the cause of our thirst. But the
question arise why do we have sense-experience. It is because of sense-object contact
(sparsa). This contact again would not arise had there not been the six sense organs
(Sadayatana). These six sense organs depend for their existence on psychophysical
organism (nama-rupa) which constitutes the perceptible being of man. Again question
arises why do we have this organism? It is because of the initial consciousness of the
embryo (vijñāna). This consciousness of the embryo is because of our predispositions
or impressions of Karma (Samskara) of our past existence. The impressions which
make for rebirth are owing to ignorance (avidya) about truth. Hence ignorance is the root
cause of all our suffering.
The Twelve Links of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda) describe the inter-
connected chain of causes that sustain samsara (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth).
Here's an explanation of each link, focusing on its meaning and role in the cycle:
1. Aging and Death (Jarā-maraṇa)
Meaning: The natural process of decay, suffering, and eventual demise inherent in
life.
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 Role: Aging and death signify the culmination of one life cycle and the continuation
of samsara, perpetuating suffering.
2. Birth (Jāti)
Meaning: The actual arising of a being in a new life, based on previous karma and
conditions.
Role: Birth marks the beginning of a new cycle of life within samsara, leading
inevitably to aging and death.
3. Becoming (Bhava)
Meaning: The process of existence or becoming in a particular realm of samsara (e.g.,
human, animal, or heavenly realm).
Role: Karmic energy drives the process of becoming, setting the stage for a new birth.
4. Clinging (Upādāna)
Meaning: The intensified attachment to objects, ideas, or self-identity arising from
craving.
Role: Clinging strengthens karmic bonds and leads to further mental and physical
entanglements.
5. Craving (Tṛiṣṇā)
Meaning: A deep desire or thirst for pleasurable experiences, existence, or non-
existence.
Role: Craving perpetuates suffering by binding beings to samsara, motivating actions
to attain or avoid certain experiences.
6. Feeling (Vedanā)
Meaning: The sensations or feelings that arise from contact, categorized as pleasant,
unpleasant, or neutral.
Role: Feelings influence the mind’s response to stimuli, often leading to craving or
aversion.
7. Contact (Sparśa)
Meaning: The interaction between the sense bases, sense objects, and consciousness.
Role: Contact enables experiences to occur, such as seeing an object or feeling a
sensation, forming the basis of sensory perception.
8. The Six Senses (Ṣaḍāyatana)

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 Meaning: The six sense bases: eye (sight), ear (hearing), nose (smell), tongue (taste),
body (touch), and mind (mental perception).
Role: These senses serve as the avenues through which beings interact with the
external world and form experiences.
9. Name-and-Form (Nāma-rūpa)
Meaning: The combination of mental and physical components that make up a being.
Name (Nāma): Mental factors like perception, feeling, intention, attention, and
contact.
Form (Rūpa): The physical body or material aspect.
Role: Together, they create the framework of a sentient being, enabling interaction
with the world.
10. Consciousness (Vijñāna)
Meaning: The awareness or discernment that connects the mind to objects. It is the
foundation of a being's experience of life.
Role: Consciousness arises due to formations and begins the process of individual
existence in a new life, linking past karma to the present experience.
11. Formation (Samskāra)
Meaning: Mental formations or volitional activities that arise from ignorance, such
as desires, intentions, and karmic tendencies.
Role: These karmic actions, driven by ignorance, shape future experiences and
perpetuate the cycle of rebirth.
12. Ignorance (Avidyā)
Meaning: A lack of understanding or awareness of the Four Noble Truths and the
nature of reality. It is the root cause of suffering.
Role: Ignorance blinds beings to the truth of impermanence, suffering, and non-self,
leading to misguided thoughts and actions.
Inter-connectedness of the Links
Each link arises due to the preceding one, forming a cycle that perpetuates samsara. By
breaking the chain—starting with ignorance—one can end suffering and achieve nirvana,
the cessation of the cycle.
Out of these twelve links the last two are related to the past life, the first two to
the future and the rest to the present. So the twelve links cover the past, the present and
the future life which are causally connected.

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 Thus, we have the twelve links in the chain of causation or causal wheel of
dependent origination. It is also known as the twelve sources (dvādasa-nidāna). It has
been popularized among Buddhist by various epithets such as Bhava-chakra (the wheel
of rebirth), Samsara-chakra (Janama-marana chakra), Dharma-chakra, Pratityasamutpada
chakra, etc.
According to Hinayanists Pratityasamutpada is a temporal sequence of real
entities between which there was a causal relation.
According to the Madhyamika, Pratityasamutpada does not mean the principle of
temporal sequence, but the principle of essential dependence of things on each other. In
one word, it is the principle of relativity. Accordingly to Chandrakirti -
Pratityasamulpada means the manifestation of entities as relative to causes and
conditions.
Relativity is the most important discovery of modern science. What science has
discovered today, the great Buddha had discovered two thousand seven hundred years
before. In interpreting Pratityasamutpada as essential dependence of things on each other
or relativity of things, the Madhyamika means to controvert another doctrine of the
Hinayanist. The Hinayanists had analysed all phenomena into elements (dharmas), and
believed that these dharmas had a separate reality of their own. The Madhyamika says
that the very doctrine of Pratityasamutpada declares that all the dharmas are relative; they
have no separate reality (svabhava) of their own. Nis-svabhavatva is synonymous with
sunyata i.e. devoid of real, independent existence. Phenomenas are devoid of independent
reality. Pratityasamutpada or Interdependence means Relativity, and Relativity connotes
the unreality of the separate elements. According to it al! phenomenal existence, all
entities in the world are conditioned, are devoid of independence existence.
Importance: The twelve links as interpreted to causality explain the past, the present and
the future life. Pratityasamutpada is the central teaching of Buddha and his other teachings
are deduced from it as corollaries. Hence Pratityasamutpada is considered as the base for
all other Buddhist philosophical doctrines like
Theory of Karma
Theory of Momentariness (Ksana-bhanga-vada)
Theory of no-ego/no-Self (Nairatmavāda)
Theory of aggregates (Sanghatavada)
Theory of causal efficiency (artha-Kriya-Käritva)
Ksanika-vāda (Theory of Momentariness):
Buddha's theory of Pratityasamutpada was further developed in the form of theory of
momentariness. According to this doctrine everything changes from moment to moment,
everything comes into existence just for a moment gives birth to its effect and is
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exhausted. Things last not even for short periods of time, but exist for one partless
moment only, is what Ksanika-vada lays down. Everything is momentary. Nothing is
permanent. Body, sensation, perception disposition, consciousness, all these are
impermanent and sorrowful.
There is neither being nor not-being, but only becoming. Life is a series of manifestations
of becoming. There is nothing which changes only ceaseless change goes on. Everything
is merely a link in the chain. a spoke in the wheel, a transitory phase in the series.
➢ Everything is subject to birth and death, to production and destruct to creation and
decay. There is nothing, human or divine, that permanent.
➢ To quote the excellent words of SHELLEY "Worlds on worlds are rolling
over. From creation to decay. Like the bubbles on a river. Sparkling, bursting,
borne away".
Whatever exists originates from some condition and disappears when condition ceases to
be. Therefore Buddha says 'know that whatever exists arises from causes and conditions
and is in every respect impermanent'. Whatever is produced or arise or is born,
necessarily be subject to death and destruction and if so, they are not permanent and if
they are not permanent, they are momentary. This view is deduced from criterion of
existence as causal efficiency (artha-kriya-karitva) which states that the criterion of the
existence (sat) of a thing is its capacity to produce some effect.
The Buddhist logicians support the theory of momentariness by a logical
argument called Arthakrya-karitva or the efficiency of production. They maintain that the
criterion of existence (satta) is its capacity to produce some effect. An existent thing must
produce an effect. A seed produces a plant. It means that the seed exists because it has the
capacity to produce a plant. Only a non-existent thing like a hare's horn or a sky-flower
cannot produce any effect because they are non-existent. Hence the Buddhist logicians
deduce that a thing is momentary and impermanent. If a thing has the capacity to produce
some effect, it must change. Hence change is the stuff of reality. It is impossible to
conceive a thing that continues without change. Buddhism denies unity in the sense of
identity, but recognizes continuity in its place. From this it can be validly deduce that a
thing having existence must be momentary.
There are two important propositions of Ksanikavada.
1. "Everything is momentary".
To it only momentary atoms and ideas exist. There is no eternal reality. This view has
been explained with the help of two theories.
(i) Santänavāda or theory of streams. According to it there is a continuous flow of
momentary atoms-conscious (idea) and unconscious (matter) in the series of cause and
effect.

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(ii) Sanghātavāda or the theory of Aggregates. According to this theory soul is only an
aggregate of the five fleeting Skandas (panch skandha) and the so called matter is only an
aggregate of the momentary atoms.
The denial of an eternal substance is called Pudgala-nairatmya. If everything is
momentary then there is neither being, nor not being but only becoming.
2. "Everything is changing"
It is the logical outcome of the first proposition. If everything is momentary then only
change is real. From this it is clear that there is neither being nor non-being but becoming.
Everything is becoming, change, flux. All substances are mere aggregates of impermanent
qualities. They are devoid of permanence and substantiality. All existences are essenceless
and impermanent. This is a universal law.
The Buddhist logicians illustrate the theory of momentariness with the help of
two classical similes of the stream of river and of the flame of lamp. The stream of a river
is sustained in its flow by ever new water. It is continuous flow of different water.
Similarly, a flame is not the same flame in the next moment. Every moment it is another.
A river is not the same river the next moment. It is only a continuous flow of different
waters. Similarly, a flame is not one and the same flame. It is a series of flame. One
volume of water or one flame continually succeeds another volume of water or another
flame. The rapidity of succession preserves continuity which is not broken. Similarity is
mistaken as identity or sameness. The so- called 'same flame is only a succession of so
many similar flames, each flame lasting for a moment. Rapidity of succession gives rise
to the illusion of unity or identity or permanence.
Therefore, the so-called same river and the same flame is only an appearance.
They are never the same for two consecutive moments. Heraclitus said: "You cannot bathe
twice into the same river.

NAIRĀTMYAVĀDA Or No-Soul Theory (नैरात्मवाद):

The logical consequence of the Doctrine of Dependent Origination is the doctrine of non-
self (nairatmyavada).
Pratityasamutpada → anityavāda→ ksanikavāda → nairātmyavāda
According to the doctrine of Dependent Origination everything exists dependently and
conditionally. Its logical consequence is that nothing is permanent and unchanging.
Everything is momentary either it is physical or non-physical element. Impermanence is
the inexorable law of all existence. Everything is becoming change, flux. The law of
change is universal, hence here the existence of a permanent soul is denied. Soul is also
changeable in nature.

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It is commonly believed that in man there is a permanent and abiding substance called
soul or self or spirit (atma), which persists through all the changes in the body and the
mind, and which exists before birth and continues after death, and migrates from one
body, after death, to another body. Consistently with his theory of dependent origination,
Buddha denies the existence of such soul or self. Whenever we look towards what we call
'mind', we see a stream of ideas or thoughts. Thoughts, feelings, desires etc, arise at one
moment and vanish at the next, and this process continues perpetually. No mental idea
lasts for more than an instant. Our mental process like a stream is a continuous flux. The
self is nothing but the series of successive mental and bodily processes which are
impermanent. There is no permanent self behind this stream.
The doctrine of anatmavada or theory of no-ego in a wider sense stands for not only the
denial of eternal soul but also the denial of material objects. In this context they sometimes
talk of pudgal nairatmya and dharma nairatmya. According to this view soul is a
continuous stream of momentary ideas.
According to this doctrine, the soul is a bundle of five 'Skandhas' (aggregates) of changing
elements (In 'Milindpanho' soul has been described as Nam-rupa or the aggregate of five
Skandha).
1. Rupa' or form (matter) (:Ik): It consists of different material factors which we
perceive in this body. It is a physical body which produces the form of the body.
2. 'Vedana' (feeling)( osnuk): It consists of pleasure, pain and other kinds of feeling.
3. 'Sanjñā' (perceptions) (laKk): It consists of perceptions, concepts or ideas including
naming.
4. 'Samskara' (disposition) (laLdkj): It consists of instincts, tendencies and urges etc.
5. 'Vijñāna' (consciousness) (foKku): It is a constant flow or series.
The first is material (rupa) and the last four are psychical (Nama). Hence
psychologically, a man is a collection of five groups (pancha-skandha). Each part of the
group is only a momentary existence. Man is only a conventional name for a collection
of different constituents, just as a chariot is a collection of wheels, axles, shafts, etc. This
is illustrated beautifully in a dialogue between king Milinda and sage Nāgasena.
Nagasena, a Buddhist teacher, brings out the nature of the soul by means of the
parallel of the chariot.
"One day when Milinda went to see Nagasena, the sage discoursed upon the
doctrine of no-self; but finding him unconvinced said: 'Great king, hast thou come on foot
or on a chariot? 'I do not travel on foot, sire; I have come on a chariot. If thou hasi come
on a chariot, great king, then define chariot. Is the pole the chariot? Are the wheels the
chariot?' when similar questions were 'put about the axle and so forth, the prince was
able to see that none of its component parts, when examined singly. is the chariot and
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that the word is a mere symbol for these parts 'assembled' or placed together in a
particular way. Then the sage added: In the same way, the word 'self' also is only a label
for the aggregate of certain physical and psychical factors. Not one of the objects of
experience stands for an entity apart from the constituent parts. The important thing to
bear in mind here is the sameness of the explanation given of both the self and the material
world. The doctrine of nairatmya should not accordingly be understood as applicable to
the soul alone as it is apt to be done. Both soul and matter exist only as complexes and
neither is a single self- contained entity."
Just as a chariot is nothing but an aggregate of wheels, axle and the body, so the
self is nothing but the name of the five aggregates of body, feelings, perceptions,
predispositions and consciousness. The five aggregates constitute the empirical
individual. There is no eterna! soul behind the collection of the five aggregates.
Hence according to Buddha the self is nothing but a conventional name for a
series of discrete, momentary states of which the individual is directly and immediately
aware in all kinds of experience. To him. The self or soul is simply an abbreviation for
the aggregate of these skandhas and not some entity over and above the aggregate. Thus
there is no distinct substance known as the 'self' or 'soul' which is permanent and
immortal.
Here it is important to dispel a common misunderstanding concerning the
doctrine of anatta. It is often said that through his doctrine of anatta the Buddha denies
man å self or soul. This view is mistaken, for the Buddha does not deny the existence of
self or soul understood as the collection of the skandhas; what he does deny is the belief
that there exists behind and beyond the skandhas a self or soul as a permanent and
unchanging entity. To put it differently, the Buddha readily acknowledges a changing self,
but rejects an unchanging substantial self as an illusion traceable partly to our linguistic
habits and partly to such psychological factors as craving, grasping, insecurity and most
importantly, fear of vanishing away with death.
Arguments in favour of Anatmavada or Nairatmyavada:
➢ We can't get the knowledge of eternal soul by perception.
➢ The theory of Pratityasamutpada also leads to the non-permanence of soul.
➢ Permanent and eternal soul cannot produce non-permanent actions (karmas). Thus,
belief in eternal soul is against the law of Karma.
➢ Rebirth cannot be explained because eternal soul can neither take birth nor can die.
➢ Bondage and liberation cannot be explained because pure eternal soul can never
fall in bondage and if it is impure then it can never get liberation. If it is sometimes
pure, sometimes impure then it cannot be eternal.
➢ If we will accept anatmavada moral responsibility creates no problem. A man is
held responsible for his actions, not because he possesses a permanent soul, but
because his existence is an unbroken stream in which the past, present, and future
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 are bound together by causal chains. In other words, it is by virtue of the continuity
of his existence and not because he possesses a permanent soul that a man is
responsible for his action.
NIRVANA:
Nirvana is the chief aim of Buddhism. It is discussed in the third noble truth called Dukha
Nirodha which means cessation of suffering. It is a state of enlightenment, an ultimate
experience.
Etymologically, the word is a combination of two words (Nirvana) which means
freedom or departure from craving. Again, 'Nirvana' means 'blowing out'. It is the
cessation of the vicious circle of Samsara or becoming, the dissolution of the five
skandhas (aggregation). It is a realization of the free state of consciousness, the tranquil
state of the eternal nature and blessedness. The ideal monk (saint) who has attained
nirvana is called an Arhat or perfectly pure, one who has blown himself out of existence
by annihilating all desires and passions. This highest idea is described both positively and
negatively. Positively, Nirvana is identified with bliss. It is the mental illumination
conceived as light, insight, state of happiness, cool, calm and content. It is happiness here
and hereafter, it is fearless goal. Hence, positively, it is the ideal of place, safety and purity.
Negatively, it is the assimilation of passion, hatred and delusion ('raga', 'dwesa' and
'moha'). It is wearing out of all evils and cessation of the sense of discordance.
The Hinayana School favours mostly the negative description of Nirvana. It is
described as Nirodha or Nirveda (Cessation of suffering). It is the annihilation of
existence for ever. Samsara and nirvana are entirely different in the Hinayana School.
samsara is the way of becoming and Nirvana is the end of becoming. But, according to
the Mahayana school, Samsara and Nirvana are two relative ideas and as such there is no
absolute distinction between the two. Both stand on the same footing in respect of each
other as regard their significance. Suffering is samsara and cessation of suffering is
Nirvana. Both are only aspects of the same reality.
Pratitya Samutpada in it samutpada aspect is samsara and the same in its nirodha aspect
is Nirvana.
In the Bauddha literature a distinction has been drawn between two kinds of
nirvana-
(1) Upadhisesa, where only human passions are extinct, and
(2) Anupadhisesa, where all being is extinct.
The former indicates the condition of a perfect saint where the five skandhas are still
present, though the desire which attracts us to being is extinct. In the later we have the
cessation of all being consequent on the death of the monk. Upadhisesa and Anupadhisesa
are respectively known as nirvana and parinirvana, dying out and completely dying out.

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But even parinirvana cannot mean absolute non- being. It only means absolute perfection
of being. In nirvana, desire is extinct, though there remains unruffled and unperturbed
consciousness. In parinirvana, the unruffled consciousness is also extinct. For this reason,
nirvana has been described as annihilation of existence.
The fourth noble truth lays down that there is a path consisting of eight steps called the
eight fold noble path (astangika-marga) to reach a state free from misery. The path is open
to all, monks as well as laymen. The Noble eight-fold path consists of following eight
steps:
1. Right Views (Samyak-drsti): Right view is defined as the correct knowledge about
the four noble truths. Wrong view (mithyadrsti) about the self and the world is the root
cause of our sufferings. Right view leads us towards nirvana, the final goal.
2. Right Resolve (Samyak-sankalpa): Right resolve is defined as the firm determination
to reform life in the light of truth. The aspirant is asked (i) to renounce worldliness, (ii) to
give up ill feeling towards others and (iii) desist from doing any harm to them.
3. Right Speech (Samyak-vāk): Right speech consists in abstention from lying,
slander, unkind words and frivolous talks.
4. Right Conduct (Samyak-karmänta): Right conduct includes the Panca-sila, the fine
vows of desisting from killing, stealing, lying and intoxication etc.
5. Right Livelihood (Samyak-ajiva): One should earn his livelihood by honest means.
Even for the sake of maintaining one's life, one should not take to forbidden means but
work in consistency with good determination.
6. Right Effort (Samyak-vyayama): Right effort consists is making a constant effort (i)
to root out old evil thoughts (ii) prevent evil thoughts from arising a new (iii) to fill the
mind with good ideas, and (iv) retain such ideas in the mind.
7. Right mindfulness (Samyak-smirti): Right Mindfulness lays down that the aspirant
should constantly bear in mind the things he has already learnt. He should constantly
remember the perishable nature of things. This is necessary for keeping off attachment to
things, and grief over their loss. The practice of such thought is recommended by Buddha
in minute details in Digha-nikaya.
8. Right concentration (Samyak-smadhi): Right concentration through four stages is
the last step in the path that leads to the goal nirvana.
(a) The first state of concentration is on reasoning and investigation regarding the truths.
There is then a joy of pure thinking.
(b) The second state of concentration is unruffled meditation, free from reasoning, etc.
there is then a joy of tranquillity.

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(c) The third stage of concentration is detachment from even the joy of tranquillity. There
is then indifference even to such joy but a feeling of bodily ease still persists.
(d) The fourth state of concentration is detachment from this bodily ease too. There are
the perfect equanimity and indifference. This is the state of nirvana or perfect wisdom.
The noble eightfold path consists of three main things: Conduct (shila).
Concentration (Samadhi) and Knowledge (prajñā) harmonicusly cultivated. They
correspond to Darshana, Jñana and Charitra of Jainism. Shila and Samadhi lead to
Prajña which is the direct cause of liberation.

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