LECTURE NOTE ON

FOREST MENSURATION

FOR

STUDENTS IN FORESTRY AND WOOD

TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND WOOD TECHNOLOGY, FEDERAL

UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE, ONDO STATE

BY

DR. J. A. OLUSOLA

1
 COURSE OUTLINES
1. Meaning and Scope of Forest Measurement
2. Important of Forest Measurement
3. Theory of Forest Measurement (Height, Diameter and bark thickness).
4. Estimation of Volume- Individual Tree, a Stand/ Plantation.
5. Indicator of Tree Forms. Form factor, Form quotient, Form class and Form
point.
6. Volume Table.
7. Volume Equation
8. Yield Table.
9. Stand Density, Stocking, Site quality and Site index.
[Link] of Growth: MAI, CAI and PMAI.
[Link] Affecting the Growth of a Tree and Stand.

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 MEASUREMENT IN FORESTRY

What is measurement? It is defined as the act, process, art or science or measuring: that branch
of mathematics concerned with measures or approximate measure of lengths of lines, area of
surfaces and volumes of solids.

Other Definitions:
i. Bruce and Schumacher (1950). Defines forest measuration as the determination of
diameters, lengths or volume either of standing timber or product got there from such as
sawn logs and the determination of rates of growth.
ii. Graves (1906). Defines it as the determination of volume of logs, stress, and stands and
with the study of increment and yield.
iii Iloessals (1965): Defined measuration as the inclusion of forest land areas, a measuration
and the estimation of volume of tress, stands and forests. The investigation of
development of tree and stand as well as the determination of the production of forest.
iv. Hunch et al (1972), Defines forest measuration as being one of the main stores in the
foundation of forestry, whether one considers forest measuration to deal only with the
determination of the volume of logs, trees and stands and the study of growth and yield
of. In a wider more modern context, its main objectives are to provide quantified
information for intelligent decision making.

PURPOSE OF MEASUREMENT IN FOREST

1. Valuation: The more intensive the utilization the nearer will be out-turn approaches the
total volume of the tree. Measurement will prevent cheating between the seller and buyer
and consequently a standard would be set. Therefore, it helps to place a accurate
monetary value on a wood.
2. Management: Measurement is undertaken to meet a continuous demand, the wood
producer is interested in the quantity of the materials standing in the forest. Measurement
helps to know the harvest time as well as when to carry out silvilcultural operation.
3. Research: Measurement is adopted to meet future demand in quality and of the forest
produced. Research is conducted into the system on silvicultural and management which
may result in higher rate of production or into maximum production of the desired
material product.

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4. It also helps to know the quality and volume of woods available at a particular time.
5. It also helps to determine the productivity and capacity of a particular site. By determine
site quality.
THEORY OF TREE MEASUREMENTS
The following definitions are of relevance.
1. STEM: - The stem is divided into 2 forms:
(a) For tree of deliquescent form. Stem is the length of the trunk between ground level and the
Crown Point. E.g. deciduous trees
(b) For trees of recurrent form. A stem is the length of the trunk between ground level and the
top of the tree. E.g. coniferous trees.
2. CROWN POINT: The Crown Point is located at the origin of the lower crown – forming
branches, living or Dead. In many broadleaved species the stem starts to disperse into the crown
at this point
3. D.B.H.:- The diameter at breast height (dbh) is the Diameter at (1.3m/4.5 feet) above
ground level. For trees standing on slopes, the point of measurement must be determined on the
up hill side.
Also, DBH is the diameter at any other level of the stem. Measurement is made on standing trees
or felled trees especially for their assessment of volume.
But ground level is usually the average of the average of the uphill and down hill side of the trees
or simply the uphill’s side. The up hills side is preferred because:
1. Is more easily and accurately determined.
2. It put better footing
3. Always above ground level.
4. Reduces problem of buttress and swelling.

Abnormalities in DBH Measurement

1. Buttressing: Tree with buttress is measured immediately above the buttress while it
ceases to affect the normal stem.
2. Defect Trees: E.g. Knots, swelling, Bumps, depression. To overcome the problem
measure immediately above the problems.

4
 3. Forked Trees: If the point of forked is below 1.3m, take the forked tree as separate trees.
But if it is above 1.3m take it as one tree.
4. Learnward Trees: Measured the tree at the side.
5. Slanting Trees: Measured the tree at the slanting side.
If buttresses occur up to higher than breast height level, dbh measurement are difficult to
measure at standard breast height with accuracy and their dimensions have a loose relationship
with the volume of the tree.
4. HEIGHT AND LENGTH: - Height refers to trunk measurements in standing trees while
length refers to felled trees. The various classifications of height and length are as follow:-
- Total Height: The vertical distance between ground level and top of the tree.
- Bole Height: The difference between ground level and crowns point, it expresses the
height off the clean main of the tree.
- Merchantable: The distance between the ground level and terminal position of the last
portion of a tree. Many tables in forestry use merchantable height instead of the total
height.
- Merchantable Height: Is the height from the stump to a specified top diameter or a top
position. The enumerator himself chooses, because of tree form or defect or branching.
Some conifers tree the merchantable height points not often easy to locate while in many
hardwood, it is determined by sudden point of branching.
- Stump Height: The Distance between ground level and the basal position of the main
stem where a tree is cut.
- Merchantable Length: The sum of the length of the portions of the tree which are cut
and utilized, this includes material such as trim allowance which may be wasted in the
manufacturing process.
- Defective Length: The sum of the length of the portions of the stem which diameter is
larger than the minimum acceptable but which cannot be utilized because of some kind of
defect. E.g. disease, knots
- Crown Length: the Distance between Crown Point and the tip of the tree.

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 THEORY OF MEASUREMENTS
Estimation of the volumes of trees of the field sample and of the stands is made through
measurement of characteristics of these trees. Dbh and diameter at any other level of the stem,
height up to a given level of the stem, or length along the stem or branches and bark thickness
generally at breast only on standing trees. Measurements are made on standing trees or on felled
trees especially for the assessment of volume relationships.

DIAMETER MEASUREMENT
The principal of trees concerns the Diameter at Breast Height, (DBH). The result of this
measurement is presented as both Diameter Distribution and basal areas and is also employed in
volume computation. The diameter DBH is usually measured at 1.3m or 4.5ft above ground
level.
The instruments for the measurement of dbh:
1. Tree calipers
2. Girth Tapes.
3. Relaskope (Spiegel)
4. Biltmore stick.
Note: The relaskope can measure both the diameter and height of the tree.

Important of Diameter Measurement

Diameter which can be measured at any point on the bole (level or base point, stump point, top
point, middle point and at the dbh itself). It is very important in forestry because:
1. It is measures the period growth and yield of the tree (PMIA)
2. It is the easiest variable that can be obtained or measured on the field.
3. It is used to determined the basal area of the tree
4. When used combined with height it can be used to derived the volume of tree
5. When measured at various point on the bole, it gives the indication of the tree fall or
tapering.
6. Diameter distribution in any given stand can be used to determine the type of forest
whether even or uneven age distribution, distort or undistorted forest, thinned or
unthinned forest.

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 7. It helps to determine the quality and quantity of tree in the stands; it can be used as
indication of growth and performance of a stand.

Derivation of Diameter
The derivation of diameter is the basal area. This is the cross sectional area of a tree at DBH and
is given as
𝝅𝑫𝟐
BA = or BA= πr2
𝟒

HEIGHT MEASUREMENT
Height measurement is either by
1. Indirect measurement made by optical instruments and is consequently time
consuming. Height measurement can be done by
a. Geometric principle (e.g. Simple Hypsometer, Merit Hypsometer, Chapman
Hypsometer and Christen Hypsometers).
b. Trigonometric principle (e.g. Topographic Abney level, Haga altimeter and Spiegel
relaskope.
2. Direct measurement by climbing and measurement with tape or by using a graduated
pole. Another direct method is to fell the tree and determine the length of the tree. This
last method is destructive in nature.

THE USE OF SPIEGEL RELASKOPE FOR DIAMETER AND HEIGHT

MEASUREMENT
The available relaskope is the wide scale type by which height measurement is made through the
percentage scale. At the far right of the instruments field of vision, there are two scales. The left
hand one is the percentage scale, while the right hand one reads degrees.
For height measurement, the enumerator should take a convenient position and stand at a point
where the tree is clearly visible for proper recognition of the points of measurement. Pressing the
brake button in front of the relaskope, and viewing through the eye window as at the lease is
sighted.

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The brake button is released and pressed alternately to steady the scale wheel becomes locked in
position. The reading is then taken at the horizontally formed by the edge of the visible scale in
the centre of the field of view. A similar sighting of the point of measurement at the top is also
done and the reading taken. The height is then calculated as
H = Rt – Rb X Distance
100
(Rt = Reading at the top, Rb = Reading at the based).
N.B: The enumerator should watch the horizon when reading the number of percent units. If
the base is below the horizon, the reading there (Rb) will be a negative value (i.e. below zero).

For Diameter measurement, the next set of hands to the left of the % scale should be used. The
bands are four small ones (white, black, white and black) and a big white one. Each of the small
hands is a quarter of the big white band. The number of hands occupied by the Diameter being
measured is observed. The big white Diameter is calculated as
Diameter = no of quarter units x Distance
2
Although any distance to the tree can be adopted when the relaskope is use for diameter
measurement, height determination requires that measurements be carried out from
approximately the same distance as the stem is high.

BARK THICKNESS:
All dbh and diameters in the upper stem are measurements over bark on the standing trees, but
merchantable volumes do not include the volumes of the bark. The problem is to relate the
volume under bark of the tree with Diameter over bark and possibly with measurements of the
bark.
If the volumes of the standing trees of the sample are estimated without the help of volume
equation, volumes under bark have to the estimate from volumes over bark using a conversion
factor calculated from bark measurements at breast height. In felled trees, bark thickness is
measured with a rule on the face of the logs. The most common bark gauge for measuring bark
thickness at breast height on standing trees are the Swedish Bark gauges.

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 MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME ESTIMATION
The form of the volume to be estimated is usually related to the stage of conversion. There are
four main form of conversion of the tree;
1. The standing individual tree which is unconverted.
2. The felled tree with partial primary conversion for transport but with identity of the
original tree retained.
3. Primarily converted produce collated for transport with the individual tree identity lost
e.g. cord wood or fuel wood.
4. Produce after subsequent indusial conversion e.g. saw-wood, veneer or composite woo-
chips, practices or saw dust etc.

METHODS OF VOLUME ESTIMATION

There are three main methods of volume estimation
1. Analytical volume Estimation
2. Volume Estimation by Displacement of water (Displacement method)
3. Graphical method of volume Estimation

DISPLACEMENT METHOD
In this method, cylometer is used for obtaining absolute measures of solid volumes. It is the most
accurate method and it is based on the principle of fluid displacement. The cylometer is in form
of a water tank with a device for measuring water volume. The cylometer is filled with water and
the volume is known, and then drops the log inside the water trough and increase in volume
shown the volume of logs. The main disadvantage of this method is that it is destructive in
nature. Also to get the quantity of the drum that will contain the log is also difficult.

GRAPHICAL ESTIMATION
The graphical method is suitable for both felled and standing trees. Over bark and bark thickness
measurement are taken at various points of the stem. The closer the point of measurement, the
greater the accuracy of the volume obtained. Diameter squared of sectional area is plotted against
lengths as the – x – axis. Volume is obtained (which is more accurate than the analytical method
by the area enclosed by the curve. An estimate therefore obtained which is more accurate.

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 Overbark
0.3 Under bark
0.2
0.1

Length (m)

ANALYTICAL METHOD
This is the most favored method although the basal sections may be troublesome. Stilt and
buttresses are normal not measured. A butt swell may be estimated by approximation as stump
volume of a stem of uniform taper. Volume is estimated in sections.
Volume is estimated in sections of straight and non straight stem.
* The crow and branches (branch wood) require small sectional lengths. The relation between
section volume and staked volume is used and is usually labor saving.

Analytical method formulae; or Geometric formulas. Trees are approximated to the following
geometric solids: nelloid, cone, parabola and cylinders.
1. Newton’s formula; V= h/6 (Ab + 4Am + At)

Where V = Volume in cubic meter or other units.

H = total height above stump
Ab = Sectional area at the base
Am = Sectional area at the middle
Au = Sectional area at the top.
Newton’s formula is the most flexible for determining volume of a whole stem of portion of it.
The formula is applicable to any of the tree forms be it parabola, cone, neiloid.

2. Modified Formulae Called Schiffeel’s Formulae;

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 V = h (0.16 Ab + 0.66 Am)
This is a modification of Newton’s formulae. It sis only used for determiner total stem
volume 1.e. Volume from ground level on stump height to the tip of the stem i.e. (At) tip’s cross
sectional area is equals to zero.

3. Smalian’s Formula;
V = h (Ab + At)
2 This deal with frustum of a parabolic.

4. Huber’s Formula;
V = h. (Am). The also deals with the volume for frustum of a paraboloid.

Both smalian’s and Huber’s formula give inaccurate estimated of volume of stem section
which are none truly frustum of paraboloid. Smalian’s formula tend to overestimate while
Huber’s formula under-estimates. The error due to using Smalian’s formula is usually twice
that of Huber’s formula. Smalian’s formula is apparently easier to apply especially with regards
to felled logs.
Compared with Newton’s formula for the same tree/log the smalian’s formula overestimate by
about 10% and the Humber’s formula underestimate by about 3%.
The accuracy of estimating total or merchantable stem volume by means of either smalian or
Huber’s formula is increased by dividing the stem into a number of short sections and adding
together the section volumes.

5. Presser’s Formula
V = 2/3 (Ab h 1/2D) V = 2 (AbxHx1D)
3 2
Where H = height above ground
1/2D = half the basal diameter.
6. Hossfield’s formula
V = h/4 (3A1/3 + Ab) V = h/4 (3A1 =Ab)

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Where A1/3 = the cross sectional area in square unit at one third of the height above stump.
The two formulae above i.e. 5 and 6 aim at reducing the amount of work necessary in
obtaining requisite measurements. There formula refers essentially to cubic measure.

ESTIMATION OF THE VOLUME OF A STAND/ PLANTATION

Stand is the aggregate of tree in a particular area that demonstrate sufficient uniformity in age,
composition arrangement and size to distinguish it from adjourning forest.
Stan volume estimation involves what is referring to sampling techniques. There are three major
approaches to stand volume estimation.
1. Sampling tree method
2. Graphical or regression method
3. Volume from the aerial photograph
1. SAMPLE TREE METHOD:
Sample trees are selected. Their volume are obtained and then extrapolated to give estimate for
stand volumes. This approach is the oldest method of stand volume estimation in forestry but it is
being superseded by volume table method. Relatively, few trees are measured into details and
stand volume is derived generally from the formula
V = V (mean tree) x No. of trees in stand
Three systems are distinguishable:
a. concrete / Direct – crop volume is calculated from concrete sample trees by proportion.
b. Concrete / Graphical – (as for “a”) but graphical methods are used.
c. Abstracts – Volume is calculated from abstract sample trees obtained from graphs and
volume tables.
CONCRETE / DIRECT METHOD
i. Selection of sample trees: Sample trees are chosen from trees with diameters as near as
possible to tree of mid basal area and are expected to conform in height, stem and crown shape to
the mean tree. This is impossible in practice.
ii. No. of Tree: This variable, general rules are impracticable because of varying
circumstances of stands and growth. The more varied the stand the greater the number of sample
trees required.

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iii. Measurement of sample Trees: Where possible sample trees should be felled for
measurement and are usually selected from thinning or the surrounds.

2. GRAPHICAL OR REGRESSION METHOD:

In the graphical method, relationship is established between individual stem volume and an
easily measurable statistics (Dbh or Gbh). Graph is then plotted and used to estimate sample tree
volumes which are subsequently applied to stand enumeration to obtain stand volume.

3. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH VOLUME ESTIMATION METHOD

This method entails directly estimation of stand volume from aerial photographs through prior
knowledge of the relationship of air crown and stand volume.

Method 1 – Simple Sample Tree Selection.

Enumerated trees are grouped in diameter classes (1 or 2.5cm). One or more trees are selected
from each class and measure for volume. There is therefore a disproportionate weight in sample
in this method. Using the formula
𝑣𝑥𝑠
V=
𝑠
Where v = volume of diameter class
v= volume of sample tree (s)
s= basal area of diameter class
s= basal area of sample tree (s)

Method 2 – Arithmetic Mean Method: Enumeration and calculation are done as in Method 1.
The basal area of plot mean tree is calculated from the formula.
Sum of Basal Area
Total no. of trees
Mean basal area is converted to diameter. About 3 – 5 mean trees are selected and measured for
volume. Volume of the plot is calculated using the formula:

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 𝑣𝑥𝑠
V=
𝑠

Method 3 – Huber’s Method: Group enumerated trees into equal number of diameter classes.
Several classes are then grouped together and a mean tree is calculated for each group. The
procedure for method 1 is then followed. This method requires fewer sample trees than method
1.
Method 4 – Urich’s Method: A more efficient method than method 3. Grouping is done in such
a way that each group has the same number of trees. Equal number of sample trees is measured
from each group.
𝑣𝑥𝑠
Volume of the plot, = V=
𝑠
Where v = total volume of sample tree
s = total basal area of sample tree
s = total basal area of plot.
This method is used by the British Forestry Commission for determining volume of temporary
sample plots for Yield Table Construction. It Is not necessary to calculate group volume in this
method.

Method 5 – Hartig’s Method. This involves groups of equal basal area. It is assured that errors
of volume estimates are proportional to group volumes and are compensating. Group volumes
are calculated separately using the usual formula.
Method 6 – Block Method: This method aims at removing defects in the former methods. The
defects are that the same trees are not being sampled at each re-measurement of a permanent
sample plot and that final crop trees are grouped in the thinning at each measurement. In this
method therefore, that largest threes are in group one, the next largest in group two etc, the
number of trees increasing in the lower groups. There is therefore a selection of greater number
of sample trees for groups containing the larger trees on account of the greater economic
importance of the latter. The volume of each group is calculated a before from mean basal area
sample trees. Not less than 2 trees are measured for each group.

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 INDICATORS/EXPRESSION OF TREE FORMS
There are four different indicators of tree forms, they are:
1. Form Factors
2. Form point
3. Form quotient
4. Form Class.

1. FORM FACTORS: Tree stem forms generally does not approaches that of any solid
revolution, but stem volume can be approximated by the formula for solid of the same basal
diameter and height. Any difference in stem volume and that of solid revolution is due to the
variation in stem forms from the standard chosen. The ratio of the two (2) volumes is termed as
Form Factors.
Form factors can be defined as volume of tree of a given dbh and height compared with solid
usually a cylinder with the same basal diameter and height.
FORM FACTORS (ff) = Volume of tree (True Volume
Vol. of Geometrical solid
Depending on the geometrical solid used which may be cylindrical or conical frustum, neiloid. In
determine form factors a coefficient can be used to obtain tree volume.
Advantage: Form factor is used to get the tree true volume.
True Volume= Cylinder Volume X Form Factor.

The cylinder is the usual reference geometric solid in determining stem form factor which is
usually defined s the – coefficient by which the volume of a cylinder having the same cross –
section as the tree must be multiple to obtained to obtained tree volume.
Form Factor = Tree true Volume (V)
Vol. of cylinder of same Ht & DBH (gh)
Where V= Volume of the tree
g= basal area, h= height.
TYPES OF FORM FACTORS
Form factor can also be classified according to the position of basal diameter used.

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1. Absolute Form Factors: In absolute from factor, the basal diameter is taken at ground level.
But basal diameter is usually taken above ground level because of the difficulties due to
irregularities and buttress at ground level.
2. The Basal Height/Artificial Breast Form Factor: Here, basal diameter is usually taken at
breast height i.e. 1.3m and this resulted in Breast Height factor
3. The Normal Form Factor: The basal diameter is taken sometimes at arbitrary point say 5 or
10% f the total height of the tree to obtain a normal form factor.
ADVANTAGES
1. The advantage of normal form factor is that the basal diameters are closely related in
trees (in trees of different form and height).
2. The normal form factor also describes actual tree form much more accurate.
DISADVANTAGES
The disadvantage in using normal form factor is the difficulty in determining the position of
the basal diameter (i.e. position of 5%).

The portion of the tree, the volume of which is being determined can also be used in classifying
form factor e.g. Merchantable form factor is one in which the merchantable length of the stem is
used as the height while in the stem form factor total height of the tree is taken. A tree form
factor results if the total height is used and the tree volume contains the volume of branches,
wood volume of the frustum of a cone.
USES OF FORM FACTOR
Form factor is used for estimating volume of standing trees. Diameter at breast height and
height are used.
V=Sxhxf
Where V = Volume
S = basal area (cross sectional area)
H = tree height
F = form factor
Note: S X h is volume of a geometric solid usually a cylinder
Form factor varies with tree species especially according to the position occupied in the
canopy. Volume estimation by form factor is a circuitous and unsatisfactory approach. It is of

16
interest essentially where the labor has already gone into the computation and presentation of
statistics of form and taper of individual species. Form factor tends to decrease as tree mature.
For a perfectly cylindrical tree, form factor is equal to one (1).

FORM QUOTIENTS
Form quotient is another expression of tree form. In contrast to form factor which is a ratio of
volume. Form quotient is a ratio of 2 stem diameters. The lower diameter being taken at breast
height which is dbh, with any other diameter on the tree stems. This is a comparison of another
diameter on the tree stem which is dbh.
The following are four types of form quotients;
1. Normal form Quotient:
The original concept of form quotient is based on the diameter at ½ heights to diameter at breast
height.
d (1/2)
Form Quotient = (dbh)
The defect of this form quotient is that, as the tree height becomes shorter a stage is
reached when d (1/2) will coincide with diameter at breast height i.e. (d (dbh) for a tree whose
height is double the breast height.

2. Absolute form Quotient:

This is formulated to remove the defect of normal form quotient.
Absolute form Quotient =diameter at ½ ht after diameter breast height.
(dbh)
3. Girard form Quotient = d(u.b.) at 17.3ft This is the diameter at the top of first
(dbh. over bark) log divided by the diameter outside
the bark at dbh.

4. Gieruszynsky form Quotient

A (0.5)
A (0. 1)

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Where A (0.5) = cross sectional area at ½ stem length starting from the base
A (0.1) = cross sectional area at 0.1 stem length starting from the base.

FORM POINT
This is another index of tree form. It is based on the mechanistic theory i.e. the form of
tress depends on mechanical stress to which a stem is subjected e.g. dynamic stresses resulting in
banding moment induce by wind and static forest induce to crown weight.
Form point represents the ratio of height at the center of wind resistant in the crown to the total
height. The form point is usually taking at the centre of gravity of the crown. It is the assumed
that the form of a stem is dependent of the position of the point of greatest resistance to wind
pressure called the form point.
Form Point = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛
----------------------------------------------------
Total height

FORM CLASS
This is the expression of form point as a percentage of tree total height. The following procedure
is used to determine the form class of trees. The position of form point is represented by the
height and the ratio of this height from the tree height in percentage will constitute the form
class. The ratio of this height (from tree base) to the total height in percentage constitutes the
tree’s form class:

Height of form point x 100

Form Class = Total trees height 1

VOLUME EQUATIONS
A volume equation is an equation that gives the volume of a tree (dependent variable) as a
function of the measurable tree parameters (mainly dbh and height) and derived from statistical
regression analysis.
The advantage of the use of volume equations in forest inventory is evident: they permit from
detailed measurements on a limited number of trees judiciously selected within the forested area

18
(sample trees), the objective estimation of the volume of a much larger number of trees within
the inventories area.
Decision must be taken on the need to construct new volume tables. Field tests should be carried
out to check the usefulness of existing equations. However these tests may reveal major
discrepancies even in the most important diameter and height classes.
Three main phases of the derivation of volume equation are identifiable vis:-
i. Selection of a sufficient number of sample trees. The number of sample trees is
dependent on many factors, and varies between one hundred and several thousands.
ii. Measurement and computation of the variables.
iii. Computation and testing of different functions for selection of the optimum volume
equation.
The methods used for volume estimation by volume equation are statistical methods.
Some of them-method of least squares, principally, but also some non-parametric multivariate
analysis methods and automatic classification consist purely in mathematical computations and
are used for the assessment of the equations. In other words, it is always possible to establish by
mathematical methods a relation of a statistical nature between the volume and some
characteristics of sample trees.
The most significant measured characteristic to which the volume of a tree is related is its dbh.
Therefore all functions of dbh as independent variables.
Volume equations can be grouped into the three following categories:

a. Local volume equation which relate the volume(s) of a tree only to dbh and functions of
dbh e.g. basal area.
V = ao +a1d2
Log v = bo + b1logd2.
b. Standard volume equations which include as many independent variables such as dbh
and other tree variable for its. It can be dbh or height.
V = bo + b1x1+ b2X2
Where
X1= dbh, X2= total height,
At times the variable could be combined to have

19
 Y= b0 + b1 (dbh) bnXn
.
c. More Elaborate Volume Equations: Especially developed for research purposes or for
national forest survey which include dbh, one several heights and other soil
characteristics e.g. (N2, phosphorus e. t.c.)

TREE VOLUME TABLE

The volume of tree can be put in the form of a table for future use. They are generally classified
into 3 groups based on which measurement is used to form or construct them. A volume table is
a tabulation that provides the average content for standing tree of various sizes and species. It
can be divided into:
1. Local Volume Table: This is simply a table using only one measure i.e. dbh. The term
local is used because such table is generally restricted to the local area for which the
height diameter relationship hidden in the table is relevant. They are particular useful in
conifers where tapper is fairly constant and height does not varies or is strongly prolated
with dbh. It is usually used in a single forest type’s i. e. Plantation.
2. Standard Volume Table: They are constructed using dbh and height. It can either be
total height or merchantable height. They are the most popular form of volume table.
They are accurate for use in several forest strata. They can be defined to a single or small
group of several species. This is accurate for the use in several forest strata.
3. The form Class Volume Table or Universal Volume Table: These used dbh, height
merchantable height and some indication of form, such as Girard, form class or any form
description. Other variable like elevation, habitat type, and stand age are sometimes
added to this form of volume table.
NOTE
Local or standard volume table can be obtained in book form; this offers a range of table from
which a single one is choosing for a particular use.
Volume table for some reasons have been replaced with volume equation because;
1. Volume table represent species not found in this country but the volume equation is
useful at any time.
2. Volume equation is simple to generate.

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 3. It is flexibility.
4. It is very attractive.
YIELD TABLE

Yield table is a tabular presentation of volume per unit area, and other stand characteristics of

even aged stands or plantation by age, classes, site classes, species and density.

This is applicable to even- aged stands only because volume cannot be shown at specified

volume for an uneven age stand since there is no one representative average age. Yield table are

prepare from yield studies and it is the relationship between a dependent variable which can be

volume, basal area, or number of trees and independent variable (X) describing stand conditions

such as age, site quality, measure of tree parameter e.g. Height, dbh and stand density.

USES OF YIELD TABLE

1. For estimating current and future yield of a stand. The future yield can be estimated by

extrapolation of relationship, volume as dependent variable on some tree parameters, site

index and age. The yield of a species in the second rotation can be predicted from the

yield table from its first rotation.

2. Yield table is useful for management activities such as regulating the cut, determines t he

length of rotation, and forest evaluation.

3. For determine growth activities

TYPES OF YIELD TABLE

Yield table are different types depending on independent variable use to calculate it.

1. Normal Yield Table: This shows relationship on a per unit area basis between the two

independent variables. Such as stand age and site index and one or more dependent

variable. This yield table is prepared for fully stocked conditions and even aged stands.

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 Variables used are age and mean dbh since normal yield table only two independent

variable they are easily constructed graphically.

2. Empirical Yield Table: This is based on sample plots of average rather than normal fully

stocking. The problem of selecting fully stocked stand in normal yield table is avoided

here, making collection of data to be smaller. This type of yield table shows stand

characteristics for average stand density during data collection.

3. Variable Density Yield Table: This makes use of the stand density and shows yield of

variable level of stocking and sample plots of any density.

GROWTH AND INCREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL TREES AND STANDS

Growth: Phenomenon of increase in size of general process.
Increment: The quantitative increase in size which results from the phenomenon of growth.
Yield: Refers to the accumulated increment, the aggregation of material useful for some purpose
at a particular time. Estimating the increment of individual of trees is only a means to the end of
estimating stand environment.

1. PHYSICAL NATURE OF GROWTH

a. Tree Growth and time scale;
1. Growth may be expressed in linear terms (height growth, Diameter growth),
11. Dimensional Growth (basal area) or dimensionally (volume). Increase in basal area
and volume. Linear growth occurs with the elongation of the main stem, root, and
branches. The easily recognizable aspect of diameter growth is obtain by repeated
measurement and the total size at the beginning and the end of specified growth period
and by measurement of increment. The chief evidence of growth is linear – by elongation
of the main stem roots and braches. Increment consists of the size beginning of the
growth period and its termination.

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b. MENSURATIONAL TECHNIQUE:
Height or diameter growth is obtained by repented in measurement and the total size at
the beginning and end of specified growth periods, and by measurement of increments
themselves.
c. INSTRUMENTS:
Height; Measuring pools, Hypsometers, Diameter, Increments; precision dendrographs,
increment, boring, increment harmer; automatic recordings.

2. STAND GROWTH
Stand growth is usually on land area basis, like km, hectare and it is more complex than
individual tree growth. Important factors are:
- Stand structure -Number and distribution of species, -Tree size.

3. FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH DETERMINATION

The following case studies illustrate the factors that influencing growth determinations
Case 1: Individual in a plantation with known date of planting growth is estimated by
measurement between two points in time. Confusion may arise from beating up,
irregular seeding or vegetative reproduction.
Case 2. A tree in a plantation or natural matrix for which size measurement has been taken on
two or more occasions. Critical factors are unequivocal identification and
invariability of point of measurement.
Case 3. Tree in plantation with lost records, or in natural matrix with no previous records, but
displaying seasonal growth rings – Intrinsic record of growth is available in the
anatomical structure, but prior knowledge of reliable structure/time correlation is
essential.
Case 4. Tree in a plantation or natural matrix with no records, and no seasonal growth rings –
Advance technology, e.g. carbon dating, may be used to detect age.

4. TECHNIQUES OF INCREMENT DETERMINATION

Techniques are considered in terms of case 3.
Basic Methods

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a. Care boring analysis
Borings can be taken for diameter increment at any one point or points along the stem.
Normal procedure is to take borings along an average radius or at a point half way between
the long-and short-axes of diameter. Cores are best studied in the office using a lens.
b. Stem Analysis
Accumulated stem increments of height and diameter are directly measured. It may be
partial (data collected at one point), or complete (information in collected from a number of
points to obtain whole stem records). For standing trees, core – boring method is used; for
felled trees, sections are taken.
Ring counts may be made for nominated periods (5 to 10 years). Marks indicating the positions
of individual periods may be used to identify their locations in successive sections of the stem.
Diameter at each level are plotted according to height, and diameters representing the same
age at each level are connected to form taper curves.

1a. Increment According to Period

Conventional expressions of increment according to period are:
a. Current Annual Increment (C. A. I.) increment over a short period between any two
specific dates e. g. 1998 and 1999. C.A.I. mainly refers to annual growth from year to
year. The problem is that accumulated increment may not be regular yearly hence
periodic increment is usually preferred.
b. Periodic Mean Annual Increment (P.M.A.I.): This is the increment of a short period
normally 5 or 10 years, divided by the no of years in that period. PMAI is usually taken
as nearly equivalent to CAI and is used where annual growth is too small for reliable
measurement.
c. Mean Annual Increment (M.A.I.): This is average amount of volume accumulated each
year over the lifetime of the stand i.e. specified time.

Growth or increment values are obtained by plotting values of C.A.I. and M.A.I. against time or
age. Point of intersection of C.A.I. and M.A.I. curves can be used to indicate the age of
maximum M.A.I. The data will continue to rise (MAI) as long as C.A.I. curve is above M.A.I.

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3. Stand Increment
Growth data are obtainable from repeated measurements of permanent sample plots. This
method is generally costly, long term, but yield excellent information/result. Permanent sample
plots also yield information on mortality and in growth. Data from increments boring and stem
analysis yield information on mortality and yield in growth.
a. Stand Growth Specifications
Measurement must be specified according to;
a. Quantitative expression: For stand growth per unit area must be quantified according to:
- Stand growth parameter
- Type of growth (e.g. accretion, net growth, mortality etc).
- Descriptive increment, in accordance with growth period (e. g. Periodic, current annual,
or mean annual increment).

b. Growth period: Concern is for length of time for past growth measurement, and for future
growth prediction.

c. Portion of the tree and portion of the stand.

b. Factors influencing growth of Tree /Stands

1. For individual (isolated) trees the main factors are
- Genetic make-up of the trees.
- Environmental condition (Edaphic, weather, Ph, porosity of the soil).
2. For trees in a stand formation, factors are
- Genetic make up
- Silvicultural or tending operation (weeding, thinning, pruning)
- Climatic factors (rainfall, temperature, wind, relative humidity sunlight etc)
- Edaphic factor: (soil, chemical factors, Biological factors i.e. mesofauna, microbes,
earthworms, microbes.
- Competition (space, light, water, and nutrients.
- Biotic factors (Man and animals, Diseases such as fungi, bacterial
All for a complex and their effects are not easy to separate for measurement purposes.

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 CONCEPT OF STAND STRUCTURE, STAND DENSITY, AND
SITE QUALITY
STAND STRUCTURE
This is the distribution of species and tree sizes on a forest area. Stand structure results from the
growth habits of species, from environmental factors, and management practices under which the
stand originated and developed.
Typical Stand structures are:
a. Even – Aged stands Structure: This usually belongs to a single age class and is fairly
consistent in height. Typically they have a “normal distribution” of diameter classes with
most trees clustering around the average diameters. The trees in even age stand thus
belong to a single age class. The limits of the age class may vary depending on the length
of time during which the stand formed. The age class for an even age stand will extend to
10 to 20 years.
b. Uneven-aged stands: have many ages and many sizes. The constituents originate more
or less continuously with an irregular vertical profile. The distribution is typically J-
shaped. This class consists of many tree species and there are differences in their sizes.
Also uneven age consists of continuous sources of trees, crown canopy is of many
heights and the diameter distribution consists of greater irregularity.

STAND DENSITY AND STOCKING

Measures of stand density and stocking are needed and both are used to describe the
amount or degree to which a given site is utilized by the vegetation occupying it.
Stands Density It denotes a quantitative measurement of the stand. Also it implies the
quality of a commodity per unit volume. This is related to stocking which is quantity of
trees per unit area or unit volume of air space.
Stand density also implies how well a stand is using the site.
i. Requirements or an index of density:
a. It should indicate how well a stand uses the site.
b. It should be simple, and yet universally satisfactory (basically incompatible
conditions).

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 c. It should be objective, readily recognizable and capable of being reliably
measured.
d. It should be independent of site and age.
ii. Measures of density.
a. Number of trees per acre – this is the normal impression given by stand density.
b. Stand Volume: Objective, but not easy to measure.
c. Stand basal area: Simple, objective, but is related to age and site.
d. Number of trees and average dbh.
e. Number of trees, and height.
f. Number of trees diameter and height.
g. Number of trees, diameter, height and taper.
h. Number of trees crown measurement.

STOCKING
Stocking denote the adequacy of a given stand density to meet some management objectives.
Stand may be referring to as understand stocked, fully stocked or overstocked. A stand that is
overstocked for one reason or management objectives may be under stocked for other
management objectives.
Stand density is a quantitative measure of a free stocking, is usually expressed in term of
absolute number of trees, basal area, dbh, volume etc. per unit area basis, resulting from actual
measurement.

Factors Affecting Stand Density

1. Age 2. Site Quality. 3. Area occupied 4. Crowding
5. Intensity of competition.
One important of stand density is that it tells us how far the trees are utilized the site where they
are planted.

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3. SITE QUALITY:
“Site” in forestry implies an area or locality that supports tree growth, and also definable as the
capacity of that area to support tree growth.
In forestry, we are interested in alternative kinds of tree growth an area will support, and the
relative productivity of various parts of the area. Hence, we are mainly concerned with making
statements of the amount of wood material in a forest, and its variation.
ii. Productivity Classification
a. The environment as a criterion for productivity classification.
The relationship between soils and tree growth is important. Soil features used are:
- Relative wetness, i. e. Moisture content.
- Sandiness depth, amount of clay in A and B horizons, Texture, structure.
- Nutrient level, how many essential element and trace element are available?
- Soil temperate, etc.

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