Module 2

Air Pollution Meteorology

Lapse Rate
The lapse rate is a key concept in meteorology that describes how temperature changes with altitude in the
atmosphere. It is a critical factor in determining atmospheric stability, which in turn influences weather patterns, cloud
formation, and air pollution dispersion.
Key Aspects of Lapse Rate
1. Definition:
o The lapse rate is the rate at which air temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. It is typically
expressed in degrees Celsius per kilometer (°C/km).
2. Types of Lapse Rates:
o Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR):
▪ This is the actual, observed rate of temperature change with altitude in a specific location at a
specific time.
▪ It varies based on factors like time of day, geographical location, and weather conditions.
o Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR):
▪ This is the rate at which the temperature of unsaturated (dry) air decreases as it rises. The
DALR is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometer.
▪ As air rises, it expands due to lower atmospheric pressure, leading to a decrease in
temperature. This rate applies when the air parcel is not saturated with water vapor.
o Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate (MALR):
▪ This is the rate of temperature change in rising saturated (moist) air, typically ranging
between 4-7 °C per kilometer.
▪ As saturated air rises, it cools more slowly than dry air because condensation releases latent
heat, partially offsetting the cooling. The exact rate varies depending on the amount of
moisture in the air.
3. Importance in Atmospheric Stability:
o The lapse rate is essential for determining atmospheric stability:
▪ Stable Atmosphere: When the environmental lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse rate,
the atmosphere resists vertical motion, which can trap pollutants and limit cloud formation.
▪ Unstable Atmosphere: When the environmental lapse rate is greater than the adiabatic lapse
rate, the atmosphere encourages vertical mixing, aiding pollutant dispersion and potentially
leading to cloud formation.
▪ Neutral Stability: When the environmental lapse rate equals the adiabatic lapse rate, there is
no tendency for air to rise or sink, allowing for horizontal movement.
4. Applications:
o Understanding the lapse rate helps in predicting weather patterns, determining air quality
conditions, and analyzing plume behavior for pollutant dispersion from industrial sources.

Atmospheric Stability
Atmospheric stability refers to the atmosphere’s tendency to resist or encourage vertical motion, which impacts
weather, cloud formation, and air pollution dispersion. The degree of stability influences whether air will rise, sink, or
remain at its level, directly affecting pollutant dispersion, cloud development, and weather phenomena.
Key Concepts in Atmospheric Stability
1. Definition:
o Atmospheric stability is determined by the difference between the temperature of an air parcel and the
surrounding atmosphere. If a parcel of air is warmer (and therefore less dense) than the surrounding
air, it will tend to rise, indicating instability. Conversely, if the parcel is cooler, it will tend to sink,
indicating stability.
2. Types of Atmospheric Stability:
o Stable Atmosphere:
▪ Occurs when the environmental lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse rate (both dry and
moist).
▪ In a stable atmosphere, vertical movement is suppressed, preventing air parcels from rising or
falling significantly.
▪ Pollutants and other particles tend to stay close to the ground, often resulting in poor air
quality.
▪ Stable conditions are common in clear, calm weather, particularly at night when cooling near
the surface can lead to temperature inversions.
o Unstable Atmosphere:
▪ Occurs when the environmental lapse rate is greater than the adiabatic lapse rate.
▪ An unstable atmosphere promotes vertical motion, allowing air parcels to rise and potentially
form clouds and precipitation.
▪ Pollutants disperse more easily due to increased mixing.
▪ This often happens on warm, sunny days when the ground heats the air above it, creating
conditions for convective currents and cloud development.
o Neutral Stability:
▪ Occurs when the environmental lapse rate equals the adiabatic lapse rate.
▪ In this scenario, an air parcel neither rises nor sinks, and there is minimal vertical movement.
▪ Pollutants spread out horizontally but experience limited vertical dispersion.
▪ Neutral stability is common on overcast days with light winds.
3. Influence of Temperature Inversions:
o Inversions are special cases where temperature increases with altitude, creating highly stable
conditions. Inversions trap pollutants near the ground, leading to increased pollution levels and
reduced air quality.
o Types of inversions include:
▪ Radiation Inversion: Often occurs at night as the ground loses heat.
▪ Subsidence Inversion: Happens when descending air compresses and warms, often under
high-pressure systems.
▪ Frontal Inversion: Occurs when warm air overrides a cold air mass.
4. Applications of Atmospheric Stability:
 o Pollutant Dispersion: Atmospheric stability is crucial in determining how pollutants disperse. In
stable conditions, pollutants remain close to the source, while in unstable conditions, they disperse
more widely.
o Weather Forecasting: Stability helps forecasters predict weather conditions, cloud formation, and
potential storms.
o Aviation: Knowledge of stability is essential for aviation, as turbulence is more common in unstable
conditions, affecting flight safety.

Inversion
Inversion is a meteorological phenomenon where the normal temperature profile of the atmosphere is reversed.
Instead of temperatures decreasing with altitude, as is typical, an inversion occurs when temperatures increase with
altitude over a certain layer. This reversal of the temperature gradient can have significant impacts on weather
patterns, air quality, and pollutant dispersion.
Key Aspects of Inversion
1. Definition:
o An inversion occurs when a layer of warmer air sits above a layer of cooler air near the Earth's
surface. This creates a highly stable atmosphere that suppresses vertical air movement, trapping air
and any pollutants near the ground.
2. Types of Inversions:
o Radiation Inversion:
▪ Formation: Occurs at night when the ground loses heat rapidly through radiation, cooling the
air near the surface. The air above remains relatively warmer, creating an inversion layer.
▪ Conditions: Common during clear, calm nights with little wind, when the ground cools
quickly.
▪ Effect: Radiation inversions are temporary, typically breaking up in the morning as the sun
heats the ground.
o Subsidence Inversion:
▪ Formation: Develops in high-pressure systems where air descends, compresses, and warms.
This warm air layer can trap cooler air below, creating an inversion.
▪ Conditions: Common in areas with persistent high-pressure systems, such as deserts or
regions near subtropical latitudes.
▪ Effect: Subsidence inversions can persist for several days, leading to prolonged periods of
stable air that limit vertical mixing and trap pollutants.
o Frontal Inversion:
▪ Formation: Occurs when a warm air mass overrides a cold air mass, lifting it above the
surface. The boundary between the two air masses forms an inversion.
▪ Conditions: Associated with frontal boundaries, particularly warm fronts.
▪ Effect: Can cause fog or drizzle, as the cold air near the surface is often saturated.
3. Effects of Inversion:
o Air Quality: Inversions trap pollutants, such as vehicle emissions, industrial pollutants, and
particulate matter, close to the ground. This can lead to poor air quality and health risks, especially in
urban areas.
 o Weather: Inversions often lead to calm, clear conditions in the lower atmosphere, as they inhibit
cloud formation and precipitation. However, they can contribute to fog development if moisture is
present.
o Visibility: With trapped pollutants and moisture, visibility often decreases, especially during radiation
inversions when fog is likely.
4. Examples of Inversion Events:
o Urban Smog Episodes: Cities like Los Angeles experience frequent inversions, where pollutants are
trapped and can form smog.
o Wintertime Inversions: In valleys, winter inversions can lead to persistent fog and cold air pooling,
contributing to poor air quality and visibility issues.

Plume Pattern
Plume patterns describe the behavior of a pollutant as it disperses from a source, such as an industrial smokestack,
into the atmosphere. Plume patterns are influenced by factors like wind, atmospheric stability, and temperature
gradients. Understanding these patterns is crucial for predicting how pollutants will spread, determining air quality,
and assessing environmental and health impacts.
Key Plume Patterns
1. Looping Plume
o Description: The plume rises and falls in a looping or oscillating pattern due to atmospheric
turbulence.
o Conditions: Occurs in highly unstable conditions where the air is rising and falling freely, often due
to strong solar heating at the surface.
o Effect: Pollutants mix widely in the vertical direction, leading to good dispersion but potentially high
concentrations in specific areas as the plume moves up and down.
2. Fanning Plume
o Description: The plume spreads horizontally in a fan-like shape but shows limited vertical spread.
o Conditions: Found in stable atmospheric conditions, often during the evening or at night when the
ground cools, and the air near the ground becomes cooler than the air above.
o Effect: Fanning plumes limit vertical dispersion, trapping pollutants in a narrow horizontal layer,
which can lead to high concentrations downwind at ground level.
3. Coning Plume
o Description: The plume disperses in a cone-like shape, spreading fairly evenly in all directions.
o Conditions: Occurs in neutral stability conditions when the environmental lapse rate is roughly
equal to the adiabatic lapse rate.
o Effect: Pollutants are moderately dispersed both horizontally and vertically, providing a balanced
spread without high concentrations at any specific point.
4. Lofting Plume
o Description: The plume rises and disperses above an inversion layer, where it continues to spread
without being trapped near the ground.
o Conditions: Occurs when pollutants are released above a temperature inversion, often in the early
evening as the ground cools faster than the air above it.
o Effect: The plume is lifted away from the ground, which minimizes ground-level concentrations and
reduces immediate pollution impacts on populated areas below the inversion.
 5. Fumigation Plume
o Description: The plume initially rises into a stable layer above but then moves downward as it
encounters an unstable layer below, bringing pollutants toward the ground.
o Conditions: Occurs when pollutants are emitted just below a temperature inversion that later
breaks, allowing the pollutants to disperse downward.
o Effect: Fumigation can result in high ground-level concentrations over a large area, often causing a
sudden increase in pollutant exposure.
Factors Influencing Plume Patterns
• Wind Speed and Direction: Strong winds can spread pollutants more widely, while light winds may allow
pollutants to stay concentrated in a narrow band.
• Atmospheric Stability: Stability determines whether the plume rises, falls, or remains close to the ground.
• Source Height: Higher sources release pollutants into different layers of the atmosphere, affecting how far
they disperse and which plume patterns emerge.