THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS (INDIA)

8 GOKHALE ROAD, KOLKATA700020

PROJECT REPORT
ON
“MANUFACTURING OF STEAM TURBINE BLADE”
SUBMITTED BY:
ANITA
(ST-602613-9)
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
ER. RANJEET SINGH
(M-158776-5)

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 ABSTRACT

In the era of Mechanical Engineering, Turbine, a prime mover is a well known machine most
useful in the field of power generation. This Mechanical energy is used in running an Electric
Generator which is directly coupled to the shaft of turbine. From this Electric Generator, we get
electric power which can be transmitted over long distances by means of transmission lines and
transmission towers.

In our Industrial Training in B.H.E.L, Hyderabad we go through all sections in Turbine

Manufacturing. First management team told me about the history of industry, Area, Capacity,
Machines installed & Facilities in the Industry. After that they talked about the Steam Turbine its
types parts like Blades, Casing, Rotor etc. Then they told frill explanation of construction
features and procedure along with equipment used. They also told the material of blade for a
particular desire, types of Blades, Operations performed on Blades.

During my training I was guided, and was made aware of the processes of manufacture of
different types of blades used in a steam turbine.

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 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION
The most critical aspect of steam turbine reliability centers on the bucket design. Since
buckets, or rotating blades, are subjected to unsteady steam forces during operation, the
phenomenon of vibration resonance must be considered. Resonance occurs when a stimulating
frequency coincides with a natural frequency of the system. At resonance conditions, the
amplitude of vibration is related primarily to the amount of stimulus and damping present in
the system. High bucket reliability requires designs with minimum resonant vibration. The
design process starts with accurate calculation of bucket natural frequencies in the tangential,
axial, torsional, and complex modes, which are verified by test data. In addition, improved
aerodynamic nozzle shapes and generous stage axial clearances are used to reduce bucket
stimulus. Bucket covers are used on some or all stages to attenuate induced vibration.

These design practices, together with advanced precision manufacturing techniques,

ensure the necessary bucket reliability. Almost all of the blading used in modern mechanical
drive steam turbines is either of drawn or milled type construction. Drawn blades are machined
from extruded airfoil shaped pieces of material stock. Milled blades are machined from a
rectangular piece of bar stock.

As will be seen later, a certain percentage of steam turbine blades are neither drawn nor
milled type construction. These blades are usually large, last-stage blades of steam turbines or
jet gas expanders. They are either made by forging or a precision cast process.

To keep the lowest natural frequency of the blades principally above the sixth
harmonic frequency of the turbine speed, the aspect ratio, i.e., the ratio of blade lengt

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profile chord length, is limited to a value below 5. In the transition zone, which is particularly
endangered by vibration failures, this ratio is further reduced. Transition zone means the range
of the turbine blading, which depending on the turbine operating point, alternately admits
superheated steam or wet steam. The operating point is determined by the power generated by
the turbine and the live steam conditions. As a general rule the width of the axial gap between
guide blades and moving blades is made at least 20 percent of the profile chord length.

The actual value may be larger and is determined by the expected relative expansion
between guide blades and moving blades. Manufacturers usually standardize shroud
dimensions for each profile chord length. The clearance between moving blade shrouds and
guide blade carrier, as well as between guide blade shrouds and rotor is several millimeters.
Sealing is effected by caulked-in sealing strips a few tenths of a millimeter thick. The moving
blades are held in the shaft groove by T-roots. Axial root dimensions typically equal the profile
chord length. All sizes of T-roots produced by a given manufacturer are geometrically similar.
For all the reaction blading only a single profile shape and a single root shape is necessary.

Blade roots and shrouds are sometimes designed in rhomboid shape. The rhomboid
faces are ground and thus provide an optimal fit for the blade roots and blade shrouds. Some
notes on the stresses acting on the turbine blading will be of interest. The turbine blading is
subject to dynamic forces because the steam flow entering the rotor blades in the
circumferential direction is not homogeneous. Blades alternate with flow passages so that the
rotating blades pass areas of differing flow velocities and directions. Since the forces affecting
the rotor blading are generated by this flow, the blade stresses also vary. The magnitude of the
stress variation depends very much on the quality of the blading. Poorly designed blading will
often experience flow separation. This induces particularly high bending stresses on the blades.
Dynamic blade stresses are also produced by ribs or other asymmetries in the flow area.

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 If the steam turbine is driving a compressor, surge events can induce high dynamic
stresses in the rotor blades. These surges excite torsional vibrations of the turbine rotor which
in turn excite bending oscillations in the blades. The severity of the alternating bending load in
the blade due to the dynamic blade stresses depends on such parameters as magnitude of the
dynamic blade force, frequency level of the blade, and the damping properties of the blade.
The frequency level is determined by the ratio of natural frequency to exciting frequency. With
constant dynamic blade force the vibrational amplitude and thus the bending load increase
with the decreasing difference of these two frequencies (resonance conditions). With a given
dynamic blade force and a given resonance condition the alternating bending stress is
determined by the damping. Large excitation forces and resonance conditions are not
dangerous as long as the damping is high. So much of the vibration energy is transformed into
heat that the vibration amplitude remains small.

The vibration of a blade is damped by the material-damping capacity, by the damping

at the blade root and by the steam surrounding the blade. All cylindrical blades on drum rotors
from such notable manufacturers as Siemens are machined with integral shrouds. When the
blades of a row are assembled, these shrouds are pressed against each other and form a closed
shroud ring. The complete shroudband links all blades of the stage to a coupled vibration
system whose natural frequencies are substantially higher than those experienced by individual
freestanding blades. The transmitted energy of a vibration excitation into the linked blade
system will be equally distributed to all blades within a row; the entire blade row has to be
excited. For comparison, in an unlinked system (freestanding blades) the excitation energy will
mainly be absorbed by the blade that has a natural frequency equal to the excitation frequency.
This blade is then susceptible to breakage. Some considerations of the effect of narrow gaps,
which may form between the shrouds during operation, are given as follows (Fig. 6.12).

Gaps could occur by:

1. Insertion of blades made from martensitic material (chrome steel) into

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expansion coefficient than the martensitic material. As shaft and blading heat up, there will be a
proportionally larger expansion of the shroud in the radial direction than in the circumferential
direction.

2. Expansion of shaft and lengthening of blades due to the centrifugal force at operating
speed. Gap formation will be eliminated through selection of suitable root and shroud
geometry. Assembly-related forces on blade roots in the circumferential direction cause
a small angular deflection in the blade profile/shroud section. In a completed blade row
the counteracting torsional moment from each blade to its respective shroud prevents
the formation of gaps as described by effects 1 and 2.

If the pressures in the shroud area is still not sufficient and gaps form because of
extreme changes of the steam temperature in the blading, the vibration behavior of the
circumferential unlinked shroud band is still substantially different from that of a row of
freestanding blades. All drum rotor blades have manufacturing and assembling tolerances,
which cause the natural frequencies of the blades of a rotating row to be spread over a wide
range. Therefore it is statistically impossible for all blades to get into resonance
simultaneously. The blade that is exactly in resonance is prevented from developing its
maximum resonance amplitude by the neighboring blade, which is not in resonance. The
shrouds of the neighboring blades act as amplitude limiters, and the vibration energy is
transformed into heat by impact forces.

Energy is also dissipated from vibration amplitude by the following effect: Because of
machining tolerances the existing gaps are not of uniform width, but wedge- shaped, crowned
or another shape. This, for instance, causes the energy of vibration about the axis of minimum
inertia to be partly converted into a torsional vibration by impact against the neighboring
shroud. The available vibration energy is thus distributed over several forms of vibration so
that the maximum possible amplitude is decreased. With existing gaps the shrouds act as
amplitude limiters and vibration converters. The shrouds add further to the operational safety
between

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Shrouding and guide blade carrier. If because of a drop of the steam temperature the rotor or the
casing should suffer distortion, the thin sealing strips are damaged without generation of
excessive friction heat, but the radial clearance is never taken up so that the rotor cannot touch
the casing.

1.1 TURBINE
A turbine is a device that converts chemical energy into mechanical energy,
specifically when a rotor of multiple blades or vanes is driven by the movement of a fluid or
gas. In the case of a steam turbine, the pressure and flow of newly condensed steam rapidly
turns the rotor. This movement is possible because the water to steam conversion results in a
rapidly expanding gas. As the turbine’s rotor turns, the rotating shaft can work to accomplish
numerous applications, often electricity generation.

Fig 1 Sectional View of a Steam turbine

In a steam turbine, the steam’s energy is extracted through the turbine and the steam
leaves the turbine at a lower energy state. High pressure and temperature fluid at the inlet of
the turbine exit as lower pressure and temperature fluid. The difference is energy converted by
the turbine to mechanical rotational energy, less any aerodynamic and mechanical
inefficiencies incurred in the process. Since the fluid is at a lower pressure at the exit of the
turbine than at the inlet, it is common to say the fluid has been “expanded” across the turbine.
Because of the expanding flow, higher volume occurs at the turbine exit (at least for

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compressible fluids) leading to the need for larger turbine exit areas than at the inlet.

The generic symbol for a turbine used in a flow diagram is shown in Figure below. The
symbol diverges with a larger area at the exit than at the inlet. This is how one can tell a
turbine symbol from a compressor symbol. In Figure, the graphic is colored to indicate the
general trend of temperature drop through a turbine. In a turbine with a high inlet pressure, the
turbine blades convert this pressure energy into velocity or kinetic energy, which causes the
blades to rotate. Many green cycles use a turbine in this fashion, although the inlet conditions
may not be the same as for a conventional high pressure and temperature steam turbine.
Bottoming cycles, for instance, extract fluid energy that is at a lower pressure and temperature
than a turbine in a conventional power plant. A bottoming cycle might be used to extract
energy from the exhaust gases of a large diesel engine, but the fluid in a bottoming cycle still
has sufficient energy to be extracted across a turbine, with the energy converted into rotational
energy.

Fig 2 Flow diagram of a steam turbine

Turbines also extract energy in fluid flow where the pressure is not high but where the
fluid has sufficient fluid kinetic energy. The classic example is a wind turbine, which converts
the wind’s kinetic energy to rotational energy. This type of kinetic energy conversion is
common in green energy cycles for applications ranging from larger wind turbines to smaller
hydrokinetic turbines currently being designed for and demonstrated in river and tidal
applications. Turbines can be designed to work well in a variety of fluids, including gases and
liquids, where they are used not only to drive generators, but also to drive compressors or
pumps.

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 One common (and somewhat misleading) use of the word “turbine” is “gas turbine,” as
in a gas turbine engine. A gas turbine engine is more than just a turbine and typically includes
a compressor, combustor and turbine combined to be a self-contained unit used to provide
shaft or thrust power. The turbine component inside the gas turbine still provides power, but a
compressor and combustor are required to make a self- contained system that needs only the
fuel to burn in the combustor.

An additional use for turbines in industrial applications that may also be applicable in
some green energy systems is to cool a fluid. As previously mentioned, when a turbine extracts
energy from a fluid, the fluid temperature is reduced. Some industries, such as the gas
processing industry, use turbines as sources of refrigeration, dropping the temperature of the
gas going through the turbine. In other words, the primary purpose of the turbine is to reduce
the temperature of the working fluid as opposed to providing power. Generally speaking, the
higher the pressure ratio across a turbine, the greater the expansion and the greater the
temperature drop. Even where turbines are used to cool fluids, the turbines still produce power
and must be connected to a power absorbing device that is part of an overall system.

Also note that turbines in high inlet-pressure applications are sometimes called
expanders. The terms “turbine” and “expander” can be used interchangeably for most
applications, but expander is not used when referring to kinetic energy applications, as the
fluid does not go through significant expansion.

1.2 TYPES OF STEAM TURBINES

There are complicated methods to properly harness steam power that give rise to the
two primary turbine designs: impulse and reaction turbines. These different designs engage the
steam in a different method so as to turn the rotor. As water converts into steam, the molecules
grow further apart.

While steam can exert pressure, it cannot exert the correct pressure needed to spin the
rotor quickly enough to generate electricity. Thus, a special design of rotor is required to
properly harness the steam and spin.

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 In an impulse turbine, nozzles direct the steam towards the rotors, which are equipped
with concave panels called buckets. The nozzles are able to project a jet of steam that spins the
rotor at a loss of roughly 10 percent energy. As the jets change their position, they can increase
or decrease the rate of rotor spin.

A reaction turbine works opposite the impulse turbine. The steam nozzles are attached
to the rotor blades on opposite sides. The nozzles are so positioned that when they release jets
of stream, they propel the rotor in a spinning motion that keeps it rotating as long as steam is
being expelled.

It can reach high speeds because the nozzle designs focus the steam into a thin stream,
although the initial warm up period may take several moments.

Fig 3 High inlet pressure reaction turbine, back-pressure type

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1.3 TURBINE FUNCTION
There are different methods for producing steam to propel a steam turbine. Condensing
steam turbines typically employ low-pressure steam that is not fully condensed—it is usually
approximately 90 percent steam. When steam has lower pressure than the atmospheric
pressure surrounding it, it can be expanded to a greater degree for turning standard piston
engines. Non-condensing steam turbines also work with low pressure steam, usually at
refineries or pulping plants, where low pressure steam is typically available. These turbines
take advantage of exhaust steam, a product of other applications.

Turbines also require a governor, or speed limiter, which controls the speed of the rotor
rotation. Turbines require a slow warm up period to prevent accidents or damage. The
governor can control the pressure and amount of steam emitted so as to properly monitor and
control the speed of the spinning rotors. This is necessary in applications like electrical
generation. The electrical grid in the United States and in other countries utilizes droop speed
control. When a plant is functioning in a full-load output capacity, it runs at 100 percent speed,
while it runs at 105 percent speed when at no-load. The speed variance is required because of
the myriad power plants operating simultaneously, which need to provide dependable
frequency despite constant changes, drop offs and capabilities of power.

1.4 PARTS OF STEAM TURBINE

Steam turbines are the most common and versatile prime movers used today. The
capabilities and flexibility of operation, as well as the range of power provided is unparalleled
in today's power generation and process markets. The components of Steam Turbine are:

(1) The rotor that carries the blading to convert the thermal energy of the steam into
the rotary motion of the shaft.

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 (2) The casing, inside of which the rotor turns, that serves as a pressure vessel for
containing the steam (it also accommodates fixed nozzle passages or stator vanes
through which the steam is accelerated before being directed against and through the
rotor blading)

(3) The speed-regulating mechanism and

(4) The support system, which includes the lubrication system for the bearings that
support the rotor and also absorb any end thrust developed.

Steam turbines consist of circularly distributed stationary blades called nozzles which
direct steam on to rotating blades or buckets mounted radially on a rotating wheel. In a steam
turbine nozzles apply supersonic steam to a curved blade. The blade whips the steam back in
the opposite direction, simultaneously allowing the steam to expand a bit. A stationary blade
then redirects the steam towards the next blade. The process repeats until the steam is
completely expanded. The moving blades are mounted radially on the rotor. The stationary
blades are mounted to the case of the turbine.

A compact machine can be built economically with ten or more stages for optimum use
of high pressure steam and vacuum exhaust by mounting the wheels of a number of stages on a
single shaft, and supporting the nozzles of all stages from a continuous housing. Large axial
turbines must be operated under such conditions that the exhaust steam does not contain more
than 10 to 13% of liquid since condensate droplets could seriously erode the high velocity
nozzles and blades. The moisture content of the exhaust is dependent upon the inlet steam
pressure/temperature combination. Special moisture removal stages may be incorporated in the
design when the steam superheat temperature is limited.

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 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 STEAM TURBINE BLADE

Blades are the heart of a steam turbine, as they are the principal elements that convert
the thermal energy into kinetic energy. The efficiency and reliability of a turbine depend on the
proper design of the blades. It is therefore necessary for all engineers involved in the steam
turbines engineering to have an overview of the importance and the basic design aspects of the
steam turbine blades.

Fig 4 View of blades on a rotor

Blade design is a multi-disciplinary task. It involves the thermodynamic, aerodynamic,

mechanical and material science disciplines. A total development of a new blade is therefore
possible only when experts of all these fields come together as a The development process of a

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new profile took years of development and testing in the earlier years. But with the advent of
CFD and FEM packages, there is a significant reduction in design and testing times. The
feasibility of 3-D designs also has improved because of the advances in these software
packages.

This paper deals mainly with the mechanical aspects of the blade design. It aims
mainly at understanding the principles of design of the existing blades, and giving an overview
of other related issues to blades which a designer should be aware of.

2.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF A BLADE

The blade can be divided into 3 parts:

 The profile, which converts the thermal energy of steam into kinetic energy, with a
certain efficiency depending upon the profile shape.
 The root, which fixes the blade to the turbine rotor, giving a proper anchor to the blade,
and transmitting the kinetic energy of the blade to the rotor.
 The damping element, which reduces the vibrations which necessarily occur in the
blades due to the steam flowing through the blades. These damping elements may be
integral with blades, or they may be separate elements mounted between the blades.
Each of these elements will be separately dealt with in the following sections.
2.2.1 H.P. BLADE PROFILES
In order to understand the further explanation, a familiarity of the terminology used is
required. The following terminology is used in the subsequent sections.

Fig 5 High Pressure Blade Profile

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 If circles are drawn tangential to the suction side and pressure side profiles of a blade,
and their centers are joined by a curve, this curve is called the camber line. This camber line
intersects the profile at two points A and B. The line joining these points is called chord, and
the length of this line is called the chord length. A line which is tangential to the inlet and
outlet edges is called the bitangent line. The angle which this line makes with the
circumferential direction is called the setting angle. Pitch of a blade is the circumferential
distance between any point on the profile and an identical point on the next blade.

2.2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PROFILES

There are two basic types of profiles - Impulse and Reaction. In the impulse type of
profiles, the entire heat drop of the stage occurs only in the stationary blades. In the reaction
type of blades, the heat drop of the stage is distributed almost equally between the guide and
moving blades.

Though the theoretical impulse blades have zero pressure drop in the moving blades,
practically, for the flow to take place across the moving blades, there must be a small pressure
drop across the moving blades also. Therefore, the impulse stages in practice have a small
degree of reaction. These stages are therefore more accurately, though less widely, described
as low-reaction stages.

The typical impulse and reaction stages are plotted in the following figure.

Impulse stage Reaction stage

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 The presently used reaction profiles are more efficient than the impulse profiles at part
loads. This is because of the more rounded inlet edge for reaction profiles. Due to this, even if
the inlet angle of the steam is not tangential to the pressure-side profile of the blade, the losses
are low.

However, the impulse profiles have one advantage. The impulse profiles can take a
large heat drop across a single stage, and the same heat drop would require a greater number of
stages if reaction profiles are used, thereby increasing the turbine length.

The Steam turbines use the impulse profiles for the control stage (1st stage), and the
reaction profiles for subsequent stages. There are three reasons for using impulse profile for
the first stage.

a) Most of the turbines are partial arc admission turbines. If the first stage is a reaction
stage, the lower half of the moving blades do not have any inlet steam, and would
ventilate. Therefore, most of the stage heat drop should occur in the guide blades.
b) The heat drop across the first stage should be high, so that the wheel chamber of the
outer casing is not exposed to the high inlet parameters. In case of -4 turbines, the
inner casing parting plane strength becomes the limitation, and therefore requires a
large heat drop across the 1st stage.
c) Nozzle control gives better efficiency at part loads than throttle control.
d) The number of stages in the turbine should not be too high, as this will increase the
length of the turbine.

There are exceptions to the rule. Turbines used for CCPs, and BFP drive turbines do
not have a control stage. They are throttle-governed machines. Such designs are used when the
inlet pressure slides. Such machines only have reaction stages. However, the inlet passages of
such turbines must be so designed that the inlet steam to the first reaction stage is properly
mixed, and occupies the entire 360 degrees.

16
 There are also cases of controlled extraction turbines where the L.P. control stage is an
impulse stage. This is either to reduce the number of stages to make the turbine short, or to
increase the part load efficiency by using nozzle control, which minimizes throttle losses.

2.2.3 H.P. BLADE ROOTS

The root is a part of the blade that fixes the blade to the rotor or stator. Its design
depends upon the centrifugal and steam bending forces of the blade. It should be designed such
that the material in the blade root as well as the rotor / stator claw and any fixing element are
in the safe limits to avoid failure.
The roots are T-root and Fork-root. The fork root has a higher load-carrying capacity
than the T-root. It was found that machining this T-root with side grip is more of a problem. It
has to be machined by broaching, and the broaching machine available could not handle the
sizes of the root.

The typical roots used for the HP moving blades for various steam turbine applications
are shown in the following figure:

T-root T-root with side-grip Fork root

Fig 6 High pressure blade roots

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2.2.4 L.P. BLADE PROFILES

The LP blade profiles of moving blades are twisted and tapered. These blades are used
when blade height-to-mean stage diameter ratio (h/Dm) exceeds 0.2.

2.2.5 LP BLADE ROOTS

The roots of LP blades are as follows:
1) –2 blading:
The roots of both the LP stages in –2 type of LP blading are T-roots.
2) –3 blading:
The last stage LP blade of HK, SK and LK blades have a fork-root. SK blades have 4-
fork roots for all sizes. HK blades have 4-fork roots upto 56 size, where modified profiles
are used. Beyond this size, HK blades have 3 fork roots. LK blades have 3-fork roots for
all sizes.
The roots of the LP blades of preceding stages are of T-roots.

2.3 DYNAMICS IN BLADES

The excitation of any blade comes from different sources. They are:
a) Nozzle-passing excitation: As the blades pass the nozzles of the stage, they encounter
flow disturbances due to the pressure variations across the guide blade passage. They
also encounter disturbances due to the wakes and eddies in the flow path. These are
sufficient to cause excitation in the moving blades. The excitation gets repeated at
every pitch of the blade. This is called nozzle-passing frequency excitation. The order
of this frequency = no. of guide blades x speed of the machine. Multiples of this
frequency are considered for checking for resonance.

b) Excitation due to non-uniformities in guide-blades around the periphery.

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 For HP blades, due to the thick and cylindrical cross-sections and short blade heights,
the natural frequencies are very high. Nozzle-passing frequencies are therefore necessarily
considered, since resonance with the lower natural frequencies occurs only with these orders of
excitation.

In LP blades, since the blades are thin and long, the natural frequencies are low. The
excitation frequencies to be considered are therefore the first few multiples of speed, since the
nozzle-passing frequencies only give resonance with very high modes, where the vibration
stresses are low.

The HP moving blades experience relatively low vibration amplitudes due to their
thicker sections and shorter heights. They also have integral shrouds. These shrouds of
adjacent blades butt against each other forming a continuous ring. This ring serves two
purposes – it acts as a steam seal, and it acts as a damper for the vibrations. When vibrations
occur, the vibration energy is dissipated as friction between shrouds of adjacent blades.

For HP guide blades of Wesel design, the shroud is not integral, but a shroud band is
riveted to a number of guide blades together. The function of this shroud band is mainly to seat
the steam. In some designs HP guide blades may have integral shrouds like moving blades.
The primary function remains steam sealing.

In industrial turbines, in LP blades, the resonant vibrations have high amplitudes due to
the thin sections of the blades, and the large lengths. It may also not always be possible to
avoid resonance at all operating conditions. This is because of two reasons. Firstly, the LP
blades are standardized for certain ranges of speeds, and turbines may be selected to operate
anywhere in the speed range. The entire design range of operating speed of the LP blades
cannot be outside the resonance range. It is, of course, possible to design a new LP blade for
each application, but this involves a lot of design efforts and manufacturing cycle time.
However, with the present-day computer packages and manufacturing methods, it has become
feasible to do so.

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 Secondly, the driven machine may be a variable speed machine like a compressor or a
boiler-feed-pump. In this case also, it is not possible to avoid resonance.

In such cases, where it is not possible to avoid resonance, a damping element is to be

used in the LP blades to reduce the dynamic stresses, so that the blades can operate
continuously under resonance also.

There may be blades which are not adequately damped due to manufacturing
inaccuracies. The need for a damping element is therefore eliminated. In case the frequencies
of the blades tend towards resonance due to manufacturing inaccuracies, tuning is to be done
on the blades to correct the frequency. This tuning is done by grinding off material at the tip
(which reduces the inertia more than the stiffness) to increase the frequency, and by grinding
off material at the base of the profile (which reduces the stiffness more than the inertia) to
reduce the natural frequency.

The damping in any blade can be of any of the following types:

a) Material damping: This type of damping is because of the inherent damping
properties of the material which makes up the component.
b) Aerodynamic damping: This is due to the damping of the fluid which surrounds the
component in operation.
c) Friction damping: This is due to the rubbing friction between the components under
consideration with any other object.
Out of these damping mechanisms, the material and aerodynamic types of damping are
very small in magnitude. Friction damping is enormous as compared to the other two types of
damping. Because of this reason, the damping elements in blades generally incorporate a
feature by which the vibrational energy is dissipated as frictional heat.
The frictional damping has a particular characteristic. When the frictional force
between the rubbing surfaces is very small as compared to the excitation force, the surfaces
slip, resulting in friction damping. However, when the excitation force is small

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surfaces. This condition gives zero friction damping, and only the material and aerodynamic
damping exists. In a periodically varying excitation force, it may frequently happen that the
force is less than the friction force. During this phase, the damping is very less. At the same
time, due to the locking of the rubbing surfaces, the overall stiffness increases and the natural
frequency shifts drastically away from the individual value. The response therefore also
changes in the locked condition. The resonant response of a system therefore depends upon the
amount of damping in the system (which is determined by the relative duration of slip and
stick in the system, i.e., the relative magnitude of excitation and friction forces) and the natural
frequency of the system (which alters between the individual values and the locked condition
value, depending upon the slip or stick condition).

2.4 BLADING MATERIALS

Among the different materials typically used for blading are 403 stainless steel, 422
stainless steel, A-286, and Haynes Stellite Alloy Number 31 and titanium alloy. The 403
stainless steel is essentially the industry’s standard blade material and, on impulse steam
turbines, it is probably found on over 90 percent of all the stages. It is used because of its high
yield strength, endurance limit, ductility, toughness, erosion and corrosion resistance, and
damping. It is used within a Brinell hardness range of 207 to 248 to maximize its damping and
corrosion resistance. The 422 stainless steel material is applied only on high temperature
stages (between 700 and 900°F or 371 and 482°C), where its higher yield, endurance, creep
and rupture strengths are needed.

The A-286 material is a nickel-based super alloy that is generally used in hot gas
expanders with stage temperatures between 900 and 1150°F (482 and 621°C). The Haynes
Stellite Alloy Number 31 is a cobalt-based super alloy and is used on jet expanders when
precision cast blades are needed. The Haynes Stellite Number 31 is used at stage temperatures
between 900 and 1200°F (482 and 649°C). Another blade material is titanium. Its high
strength, low density, and good erosion resistance make it a good candidate for highspeed or
long-last stage blading.

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 CHAPTER-3

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing process is that part of the production process which is directly

concerned with the change of form or dimensions of the part being produced. It does not
include the transportation, handling or storage of parts, as they are not directly concerned with
the changes into the form or dimensions of the part produced.

Manufacturing is the backbone of any industrialized nation. Manufacturing and

technical staff in industry must know the various manufacturing processes, materials being
processed, tools and equipment for manufacturing different components or products with
optimal process plan using proper precautions and specified safety rules to avoid accidents.
Beside above, all kinds of the future engineers must know the basic requirements of workshop
activities in term of man, machine, material, methods, money and other infrastructure facilities
needed to be positioned properly for optimal shop layouts or plant layout and other support
services
effectively adjusted or located in the industry or plant within a well-planned manufacturing
organization.

Today’s competitive manufacturing era of high industrial development and research, is

being called the age of mechanization, automation and computer integrated manufacturing.
Due to new researches in the manufacturing field, the advancement has come to this extent that
every different aspect of this technology has become a full- fledged fundamental and advanced
study in itself. This has led to introduction of optimized design and manufacturing of new
products. New developments in manufacturing areas are deciding to transfer more skill to the
machines for considerably reduction of manual labor.

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3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

For producing of products materials are needed. It is therefore important to know the
characteristics of the available engineering materials. Raw materials used manufacturing of
products, tools, machines and equipment in factories or industries are extracted from ores. The
ores are suitably converted the metal into a molten form by reducing or refining processes in
foundries. This molten metal is poured into molds for providing commercial castings, called
ingots. Such ingots are then processed in rolling mills to obtain market form of material supply
in form of bloom, billets, slabs and rods.
These forms of material supply are further subjected to various manufacturing
processes for getting usable metal products of different shapes and sizes in various
manufacturing shops. All these processes used in
Manufacturing concern for changing the ingots into usable products may be classified into six
major groups as
 Primary shaping processes
 Secondary machining processes
 Metal forming processes
 joining processes
 Surface finishing processes and
 processes effecting change in properties.

23
3.2.1 PRIMARY SHAPING PROCESSES

Primary shaping processes are manufacturing of a product from an amorphous

material. Some processes produces finish products or articles into its usual form whereas
others do not, and require further working to finish component to the desired shape and size.
The parts produced through these processes may or may not require to under go further
operations. Some of the important primary shaping processes are

(1) Casting
(2) Powder metallurgy
(3) Plastic technology
(4) Gas cutting
(5) Bending and
(6) Forging

24
3.2.2 SECONDARY OR MACHINING PROCESSES

As large number of components require further processing after the primary processes.
These components are subjected to one or more number of machining operations in machine
shops, to obtain the desired shape and dimensional accuracy on flat and cylindrical jobs. Thus,
the jobs undergoing these operations are the roughly finished products received through
primary
shaping processes. The process of removing the undesired or unwanted material from the
work-piece or job or component to produce a required shape using a cutting tool is known as
machining. This can be done by a manual process or by using a machine called machine tool
(traditional machines namely lathe, milling machine, drilling, shaper, planner, slotter). In many
cases these operations are performed on rods, bars and flat surfaces in machine shops.
These secondary processes are mainly required for achieving dimensional accuracy and
a very high degree of surface finish. The secondary processes require the use of one or more
machine tools, various single or multi-point cutting tools (cutters), job holding devices,
marking and measuring instruments, testing devices and gauges etc. for getting desired
dimensional control and required degree of surface finish on the workpieces. The example of
parts produced by machining processes includes hand tools machine tools instruments,
automobile parts, nuts, bolts and gears etc. Lot of material is wasted as scrap in the secondary
or machining process. Some of the common secondary or machining processes are:

a. Turning
b. Threading
c. Knurling

25
 d. Milling
e. Drilling
f. Boring
g. Planning
h. Shaping
i. Slotting
j. Sawing
k. Broaching
l. Hobbing
m. Grinding
n. Gear Cutting
o. Thread cutting and
p. Unconventional machining processes namely machining
with Numerical Control (NC) machines tools or Computer Numerical
Control (CNC) machine tools using ECM, LBM, AJM, USM setups etc.

3.3 MILLING

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION

A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a
rotating multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal at a
very fast rate with the help of multiple cutting edges. One or more number of cutters can be
mounted simultaneously on the arbor of milling machine. This is the reason that a milling
machine finds wide application in production work. Milling machine is used for machining flat
surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution, external and internal threads, and helical
surfaces of various cross-sections. In many applications, due to its higher production rate and
accuracy, milling machine has even replaced shapers and slotters.

26
 Milling can be used to produce a practically infinite variety of workpiece surfaces. A
distinguishing feature of a process is the cutting edge (major or minor) that produces the
workpiece surface in face milling the minor cutting edge is located at the face of the milling
cutter, while in peripheral milling the major cutting edge is located on the circumference of the
milling cutter. A distinction can be made on the basis of the feed direction angle ϕ in down-
milling the feed direction angle ϕ is > 90◦, thus the cutting edge of the milling cutter enters the
workpiece at the maximum undeformed chip thickness, while in up-milling the feed direction
angle ϕ is < 90◦, thus the cutting edge enters at the theoretical undeformed chip thickness h =
0. This initially results in pinching and rubbing.

Fig 7 Milling machine

27
 Fig 8 Job surfaces generated by milling machine

3.3.2 PRINCIPLE OF MILLING

In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple
cutting edges. For cutting operation, the work piece is fed against the rotary cutter. As the
work piece moves against the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in form chips
of trochoid shape. Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work. The work to
be machined is held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index head, between
centers, in a special fixture or bolted to machine table. The rotator speed of the cutting tool and
the feed rate of the workpiece depend upon the type of material being machined.

3.3.3 MILLING METHODS

The milling process is broadly classified into peripheral milling and face milling. In
peripheral milling, the cutting edges are primarily on the circumference or periphery of the
milling cutter and the milled surface is generally parallel to cutter axis. In face milling,
although the cutting edges are provided on the face as well as the periphery of

28
the cutter, the surface generated is parallel to the face of the cutter and is perpendicular to the
cutter axis.

Fig 9 Different Milling methods

3.3.4 TOOLS USED FOR MILLING

Fig 10 Milling cutters

29
 Fig 11 Different types of Milling cuts at a glance

3.3.5 MILLING CUTTER TERMS

Fig 12 Milling cutter terms

30
3.3.6 Milling Calculations

The following calculation methods and procedures for milling operations are intended
to be guidelines and not absolute because of the many variables encountered in actual practice.

Metal-Removal Rates-
The metal-removal rate R (sometimes indicated as mrr) for all types of milling is
equal to the volume of metal removed by the cutting process in a given time, usually expressed
as cubic inches per minute (in3/min).Thus,

R = WHf

where R = metal-removal rate, in3/min.

W = width of cut, in
H = depth of cut, in
f = feed rate, inches per minute (ipm)

In peripheral or slab milling, W is measured parallel to the cutter axis and H

perpendicular to the axis. In face milling,W is measured perpendicular to the axis and
H parallel to the axis.

Feed Rate-
The speed or rate at which the workpiece moves past the cutter is the
feed rate f, which is measured in inches per minute (ipm).Thus,

f  Ft NC rpm

Where, f = feed rate, ipm

N = number of cutter teeth
Crpm = rotation of the cutter, rpm

31
Feed per Tooth-
Production rates of milled parts are directly related to the feed
rate that can be used. The feed rate should be as high as possible, considering
machine rigidity and power available at the cutter. To prevent overloading the
machine drive motor, the feed per tooth allowable Ft may be calculated from

Khp c
Ft
= NC WH
rpm

where hpc = horsepower available at the cutter (80 to 90 percent of motor rating),
i.e., if motor nameplate states 15 hp, then hp available at the cutter is 0.8 to 0.9 × 15 (80 to 90
percent represents motor efficiency)

K = machinability factor

Cutting Speed-
The cutting speed of a milling cutter is the peripheral linear speed resulting from the
rotation of the cutter.The cutting speed is expressed in feet per minute (fpm or ft/min) or
surface feet per minute (sfpm or sfm) and is determined from

D(rpm )
S 12

where S = cutting speed, fpm or sfpm (sfpm is also termed spm)

D = outside diameter of the cutter, in rpm
= rotational speed of cutter, rpm

32
 The required rotational speed of the cutter may be found from the following simple
equation:

rpm  S S
or
(D /12) 0.26 D

When it is necessary to increase the production rate, it is better to change the cutter material
rather than to increase the cutting speed. Increasing the cutting speed alone may shorten the
life of the cutter, since the cutter is usually being operated at its maximum speed for optimal
productivity.

General Rules for Selection of the Cutting Speed

_ Use lower cutting speeds for longer tool life.

_ Take into account the Brinell hardness of the material.
_ Use the lower range of recommended cutting speeds when starting a job.
_ For a fine finish, use a lower feed rate in preference to a higher cutting speed.

Number of Teeth: Cutter-

The number of cutter teeth N required for a particular application may be found from
the simple expression (not applicable to carbide or other high-speed cutters)

f Ft
N 
Crpm

where f = feed rate, ipm

Ft = feed per tooth (chip thickness), in
Crpm = rotational speed of cutter, rpm N =
number of cutter teeth.
An industry-recommended equation for calculating the number of cutter teeth required for a
particular operation is

33
 N 19 .5 R 5.8

where N = number of cutter teeth

R = radius of cutter, in

This simple equation is suitable for HSS cutters only and is not valid for carbide, cobalt
cast alloy, or other high-speed cutting tool materials.

Milling Horsepower-
Ratios for metal removal per horsepower (cubic inches per minute per horsepower at
the milling cutter) have been given for various materials. The general equation is

3
in / min
K
WHf

hpc hpc

where K = metal removal factor, in3/min/hpc hpc =

horsepower at the cutter
W = width of cut, in H =
depth of cut, in f = feed
rate, ipm.

The total horsepower required at the cutter may then be expressed as

hpc  3
in / min WHf
 K
K

The K factor varies with type and hardness of material, and for the same material varies with
the feed per tooth, increasing as the chip thickness increases.

34
3.4 POLISHING

Polishing is usually a multistage process. The first stage starts with a rough abrasive
and each subsequent stage uses a finer abrasive until the desired finish is achieved. The rough
pass removes surface defects like pits, nicks, lines and scratches. The finer abrasives leave
very thin lines that are not visible to the naked eye. Lubricants like wax and kerosene are used
as lubricating and cooling media during these operations.

Polishing operations for items such as chisels, hammers, screwdrivers, wrenches, etc.,
are given a fine finish but not plated. In order to achieve this finish four operations are
required: roughing, dry fining, greasing, and coloring. For an extra fine polish the greasing
operation may be broken up into two operations: rough greasing and fine greasing.

35
 CHAPTER-4

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

4.1 MANUFACTURING OF A STEAM TURBINE BLADE

Fig 13 Machining steps in the manufacturing of milled blades

36
The following steps are involved in the machining of a Steam Turbine Blade:

1. Size Milling
2. Size Grinding
3. Facing
4. Root Bottom Width Milling
5. Neck Milling
6. Total Length Milling
7. Convex Profile
8. Concave Profile
9. Pitch Milling
10. Pitch Grinding
11. Finishing

Fig 14 Size Milling of the raw material work piece

37
 The fixturing elements at the head and root of the blade structure are ultimately
removed to leave the final shaped item, but during the machining process itself their accuracy
and form have a crucial impact on the success of the overall operation.

 For Root Rectangle, It is done by standard endmill- only roughing necessary.

 Now for Root Trapezoid or dovetail, special roughing and finishing
necessary.
 The Head Counter sinking is carried out by counter-bore tool.
 The Head rectangle Standard is done by standard end-mill and only roughing is
required.
 Now the Head Cylindrical shape is done by the standard end-mill followed by
roughing and finishing.

Whichever processing methods are employed, the first step is to machine the reference
surfaces by which the workpiece will be clamped during the subsequent machining. Several
Coromant tools are suitable for this operation, and the CoroMill 390 long edge cutter is
particularly recommended. CoroMill 200, 300 and 390 are also good alternatives.

It may also be possible in this operation to also machine the clearances necessary for
subsequent processes, if the machining strategy would benefit from this.

38
 Fig 15 Bending of work piece
It is possible that the blade workpiece may deform or bend during subsequent stages of
the machining process, the result of machining away 80% of the original rolled or annealed
raw material and the residual stresses thus created. This is particularly possible for large
blades, 400–600 mm long, which may bend by as much as 2 mm. Reworking the fixturing
elements during the machining process, so that the position of the workpiece in the machining
centres is modified to account for the deformation, can counteract this phenomenon.
The recommended procedure for such reworking on a 5-axis machine is:
_ opening the fixturing system on the blade head and moving it back, so that the blade is now
secured only by the root. _ creating a new centre line for the workpiece, by counter- boring or
turnmilling. _ fixing the blade by the new element. An alternative is to modify the adaptor
itself, so that the position of the workpiece is suitably adjusted when the modified adaptor is
held in the machine, without any changes to the fixturing elements.

Machining the root of the blade

The machining process to shape the root of the blade will depend on several factors,
notably the dimensions of the finished item. Small blades are often machined

39
blades are often made from rectangular bar stock or forging. Normally these blades are first
machined with cutting tools, and then broached or ground. Turbine blades can be divided into
two classes, stator and rotor blades, and in normal practice these two designs have different
mounting systems and different styles of root, to accommodate the different loadings they
receive in use. Stator blades normally have one small slot in one side of the root, which is
relatively easy to machine with solid carbide or indexable insert endmills. Rotor blades may
have different mounting systems, such as a “Christmas tree” profile, or deep slots machined in
a trapezoidal cross-section. These variations in the profile and geometry of the blade’s root
will require different machining strategies.

Machining a ‘Christmas tree’ profile

For machining the Christmas tree profile on a blade, it can be helpful to change the
fixturing arrangement, and make the tool axis parallel to the blade length. It may also then be
possible to use a special adaptor on the Christmas tree profile to hold the blade during
subsequent roughing operations, and so avoid the need for machining (and later removing)
separate fixturing elements onto the workpiece. A milling strategy using CoroMill 390 long
edge milling cutters, applying down milling for each side of the profile, will allow maximized
metal removal rates and tool life.

1. Roughing with the long edge cutter in different ap-steps, using down milling Calculate a
suitable ae/Dc ratio so as to bring more than one effective tooth into cut during the cutting
cycle.
2. Roughing completed.
3. Machining the christmas tree profile, with special HSS tooling.

40
 Roughing the christmas tree profile may also be performed by CoroMill 331 side and
face milling cutters in different diameters, to achieve the stair-like shape on the component.

However, using a set of different diameter cutters mounted in this manner results in
large differences in effective cutting speed between the largest and the smallest cutter. An
alternative is to employ solid tools, particularly if there are difficulties with accessibility or the
complexity of the shapes being produced.

(a) Roughing with the long edge cutter

(b) Roughing completed

41
 Fig 16 Christmas tree profile machined

Machining a deep slot in the blade root by end milling

The type of workpiece material will have a large influence over the machining
parameters when machining slots into the blade roots. In many cases it will be stainless steel,
and thus problems of chip adhesion to the cutting tool will occur. However, carefully selected
tooling and the correct
machining methods will counteract these difficulties. The blade’s size and material, and the
slot’s position and form, will determine the machining strategy. In most cases it will be better
to leave the machining of the slots,
along with their roughing and finishing, until after the other machining operations are
complete. That way the machining of the blade profile itself can be carried out without any
slots in the blade root which might conceivably affect the clamping and stability of the
workpiece. In addition any bending or deformation in the workpiece that occurs during
profiling, due to the release of internal stresses, can be compensated for when the item is
remounted prior to the finishing operations, an approach which should also help to maximise
the quality of the final blade.
In general, machining deep slots in the blade root can be divided into:
 slot milling (L-style with endmill).

42
  plunge milling (with endmill).
 trochoidal milling (with endmill).

Machining the blade body

Machining the blade rhombus is a critical step in blade manufacture, and a wide variety
of potential machining solutions are available depending on the design of the blade and the
types of cutting machinery available. A comprehensive description of all these different
methods is beyond the scope of this book, but the basic principles can be outlined,
emphasising the machining principles which underlie them: optimizing the cutting tool
engagement, reducing vibrations, using the tooling as effectively as
possible, and maximising productivity.

Fig 17 Machining blade body

Roughing the rhombus – parallel to the blade axis, using one tool

This is a very common machining approach, using two separate cutting steps to
reach the full depth of cut. In most cases this method allows the cutting force to be

43
reduced more effectively than by reducing the feed per tooth, as it allows the chip
thickness to be modified towards the recommended target values.

Fig 18 Roughing the rhombus – parallel to the blade axis, using one tool

Material – CMC 5.2

Tool – R200-L, Dc 63 mm, zn 6 Insert
– RCKT 1204M0-MM 2040
vc 220 m/min, fz 0,21 mm, ap 2–4 mm,
ae 30–63 mm.

44
 To achieve the full benefits of this approach, the milling strategy must use
down milling, and a 45° angle of cutting entry into the work piece. The tool path must not
change through 90° angles.

Instead, change the feed direction incrementally through small changes of radii. Ensure
a tool engagement of 60–80%, if necessary by changing the tool diameter or cutting path.

Employ a different depth of cut in each of the two passes, to minimize notch wear on
the cutting insert. Maximize the larger depth of cut as much as possible.

Fig 19 Machining the rhombus profile with the end mill cutter

Vibrations and heavy axial pressure on the inserts will occur if the feed forces cause
any movement or deflection of the work piece. If this occurs the feed direction should be
modified so the forces act in directions where the blade fixturing arrangement supports the
work piece most effectively.

45
 Vibrations can also be reduced by adopting cutting paths which machine the metal in
small triangular steps, in both the longitudinal and lateral directions. This approach requires
modifications to the cutting speed and feed, along with no more than 60% of the usual
maximum depth of cut, and the modified cutting forces will also produce changes in the wear
patterns seen on the cutting inserts.

Fig 20 End milling the profile in two dirctions

46
Roughing the rhombus – parallel to the blade axis,
using two tools of different diameter

The use of two different tools to machine the rhombus is an effective strategy in many
situations. A first cut, producing a slot perpendicular to the blade axis, can be made with an
endmill such as CoroMill 390 (using L-milling or plunge milling) or a slot milling cutter such
as CoroMill 331. This slot then provides clearance for a subsequent cutting tool of different
diameter, which should experience a less severe cutting environment and generate lower
vibrations while it machines along the blade’s longitudinal axis.

47
Roughing the rhombus – machining the roof slopes

This penultimate operation in roughing the blade’s contour uses a roughing tool
whose size will depend on the design of the blade, and on the radius between the roof slope
and the blade’s root.

Fig 22 Roughing the rhombus – machining the roof slopes

48
 Roughing the pressure side – peripheral milling

Roughing the pressure side of the blade – the concave side – is usually the last stage of
the roughing process, and also one of the most complex. Modern designs of turbine blades
maximize their efficiency through complicated surface geometries, and machining these
surfaces requires a careful machining strategy to account for both the profile of the blade,
and changes in the effective stiffness of the work piece as
machining operation proceeds. Peripheral milling is an effective way to carry out this operation,
with a depth of cut between 1–5 mm.

Fig 23 Roughing the pressure side – peripheral milling

49
Roughing the pressure side – waterline milling, parallel to the
blade axis

An alternative strategy to machine the pressure side is “waterline milling”, an approach

originally derived from 3-axis milling in the die and mould industry, now adapted to 5-axis
milling machines. In this technique, the cutting operation consists of a sequence of 2-
dimensional layers, each completed before the tool moves down to the next. Transitions
between the layers are carried out by helical ramping or circular interpolation, with the initial
feed direction always away from the solid fixturing at the root of the blade.

Fig 24 Roughing the pressure side – waterline milling, parallel to the blade axis

50
Semi-finishing the blade

Fig 25 Semi-Finishing the Blade by turn milling

The semi finishing operation requires a 5-axis milling operation, and will directly
influence the surface quality of the final finished blade. Therefore the aim should always be to
achieve a very regular, uniform level of residual material – if necessary, through two separate
semi finishing operations. Normally this operation is done by turn milling.

A variety of tool paths can be employed. One common technique, especially when
machining large cast blades, is to use a feed direction along the blade length, but other
possibilities are shown in the diagram. For example, the blade can be shaped by milling across
the blade, either using several passes in one direction with a rapid return movement between
passes, or in a single continuous helical cut around the blade.

51
Convex and Concave Profiling

Fig 26 Convex and Concave Profiling

52
Finishing the Blade:

Fig 27 Finishing the Blade

Finishing the blade is probably the most difficult 5-axis machining operation, but its
success will greatly depend on the quality of the other machining steps carried out previously.
The most suitable tool depends on the type and size of the blade, and also on the spindle speed
and the feed available in the machining centre. The principal problems when finishing are
vibrations, and the quality of the pre-finished surfaces. Using tools with a smaller radius, or
using a different number of inserts in the cutting head can help

53
combat vibrations. During the cutting process the tool follows a helical path around the blade,
a path controlled by a specialised CAD-CAM system.

To achieve the best surface quality and structure, the tool has to maintain a constant
norm angle at each point on the surface, and always in a down milling manner. In this way,
and combined with an oil mist coolant, the resulting surface can be highly polished. With
suitable optimised equipment it is possible to achieve a surface roughness, although the final
surface quality will strongly depend on the combination of normangle, feed and cutting
engagement.

54
CONCLUSION

 This project is made on the basic manufacturing technique of steam turbine blades.
 The procedure involved in this manufacturing leads to achieve the best surface
quality and structure.
 This method uses two separate cutting steps to reach the full depth of cut, which
allows the cutting force to be reduced more effectively than by reducing the feed
per tooth, as it allows the chip thickness to be modified.

55
REFERENCES

Principles of Metal Manufacturing Processes – J. Beddodes & M.J.Bibby- Carleton

University Canada.

McGraw-Hill machining and metalworking handbook / Ronald A. Walsh. and Denis R.

Cormier—3rd ed.

Handbook Of Machining And Metalworking Calculations- Ronald A. Walsh- McGRAW- HILL.

Cutting Tool Technology Industrial Handbook- Graham T. Smith, MPhil (Brunel), PhD
Birmingham), CEng, FIMechE, FIEE Formerly Professor of Industrial Engineering
Southampton Solent University Southampton U. K.

Machinery’s Handbook 28th Edition - Erik Oberg, Franklin D. Jones, Holbrook L. Horton,
And Henry H. Ryffel Christopher J. Mccauley, Senior Editor Riccardo M. Heald, Associate
Editor Muhammed Iqbal Hussain, Associate Editor 2008 Industrial Press New York.

56
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbine

http://www.bechtel.com/assets/files/TechPapers/steam-turbine.doc.

Steam Turbines: A Book of Instruction for the Adjustment and Operation of the Principal
Types of this Class of Prime Movers by Hubert E. Collins.

Power Plant Engineering - A.K. Raja, Amit Prakash Srivastava.

Protective coatings for turbine blades- Y. Tamarin, ASM International

TURBO MACHINERY ENGINEERING INDUSTRIES LTD., AN ISO 9001:2000 CERTIFIED COMPANY

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