ENGG*2230

Fluid Mechanics
Module 2: Fluid Statics and
Pressure Distribution

Part 2.2
Hydrostatic Forces
◼ Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
◼ Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
◼ Buoyancy and Stability
◼ Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion
Why?
Design of containment structures (e.g.,
dams) requires computation of
hydrostatic forces on solid surfaces
adjacent to the fluid.

2
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

◼ A static fluid exerts a force on a surface

◼ Need to determine forces (both magnitude
and direction) acting on plane and curved
surfaces
◼ Since static pressures vary with depth, must
account for pressure variations
◼ From basic definition of pressure:
dF
P=  dF = PdA  F =  PdA
dA A
3
Horizontal Plane Surfaces

F =  PdA
A
surface (edge)

P = constant over area

top view

F = P  dA F = PA
A

◼ For a horizontal plane surface, the total force is

simply the product of the pressure at that
elevation and the area of the surface

4
Vertical Plane Surfaces

h1

h h2

surface Regular Irregular

B=Constant B=B(h)

F =  PdA Pg = h
A

F =  hdA

5
Vertical Plane Surfaces

◼ In most cases, the solution uses: dA = Bdh

◼ Need the relationship between B and h to
simplify any further

◼ If the shape is a rectangle, with B = constant:

Bh B (h − h1 )
h2 h2 2 2 2
F =  hdA =  hBdh = B  hdh = = 2

h1 h1
2 2

6
Inclined Surfaces
…a bit more complex

Remember
Pressure varies with
height (P = ρgh)

7
 Hydrostatic Force and Centre of Pressure

and PCG = γ·hCG

• CG is the centre of gravity

(White: Fig. 2.11) • CP is the centre of pressure 8
Force on Inclined Surface
◼ Since the force on one side of any plane
submerged surface in a uniform fluid equals
the pressure at the plate centroid times the
plate area (independent of the shape or angle
of inclination), thus:

𝐹 = γ ∙ ℎ𝐶𝐺 ∙ 𝐴
◼ Must also determine where the pressure
force is acting on the surface and its
direction; i.e. where is CP?
9
Location of Force
◼ The location of the force is the point where
a single concentrated force of equal total
magnitude (i.e., F) will cause the same
moment as the distributed force (i.e., න 𝑃 𝑑𝐴 )
𝐴
about any point.
◼ The Centre of Pressure (CP) is located
below the centre of gravity, on the high
pressure side.

10
 Hydrostatic Force and Centre of Pressure

• Use CG to find PCG.

(White: Fig. 2.11) • Then use F to find CP. 11
Inclined Surfaces
◼ Coordinate System:
❑ (x,y) with origin at the centre of gravity
❑ h taken from free surface
❑  (Greek symbol xi) along angle of inclination
◼ h = sin
◼ Centre of Gravity (CG)
❑ Force magnitude equal to the pressure at CG times
the area of the surface
❑ i.e., F = PCG·A = ·hCG·A
◼ Centre of Pressure (CP)
❑ Location of single force acting on surface which would
cause the same moment as the distributed force about
any point 12
Centre of Pressure
◼ The centre of pressure (xCP, yCP) is located by
summing the moments of the elemental pressure
force (P dA) about the centroid and equating to the
moment of the concentrated force F (i.e., F·yCP).
◼ To find yCP:
𝐹 ∙ 𝑦𝐶𝑃 = ‫𝐴𝑑𝑃𝑦 ׬‬ then substitute for P and h:

𝐹 ∙ 𝑦𝐶𝑃 = 𝛾sin(𝜃) ‫𝐴𝑑𝜉𝑦 ׬‬ then take ξ = ξCG – y:

𝐹 ∙ 𝑦𝐶𝑃 = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 [𝜉𝐶𝐺 ‫ 𝐴𝑑𝑦 ׬‬− ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬2 𝑑𝐴]

Finally take: ‫ = 𝐴𝑑𝑦 ׬‬0; ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 , where Ixx is the area
moment of inertia; and that F = γ·hCG·A.
13
Centre of Pressure
◼ Then, solve for yCP:

𝐼𝑥𝑥 ∙ sin(𝜃)
𝑦𝐶𝑃 =−
ℎ𝐶𝐺 ∙ 𝐴

◼ Similarly, find xCP:

𝐼𝑥𝑦 ∙ sin(𝜃)
𝑥𝐶𝑃 =−
ℎ𝐶𝐺 ∙ 𝐴

◼ Note: 𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 0 implies symmetry about y-axis.

14
 Centroidal Moments of Inertia

(White: Fig. 2.13) 15

Example 2.6
◼ A large reservoir containing water has a 4 m
diameter circular gate located in an inclined wall
(60° from horizontal). The gate is mounted on a
shaft along its horizontal diameter. For a water
depth of 10 m above the shaft, determine:
a) The magnitude and location of the resulting force
exerted on the gate by the water, and
b) The moment that would have to be applied to the
shaft to open the gate.

16
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

◼ Curved surfaces are more complex since both the

direction and magnitude of the force changes along the
surface of the object (pressure always acts normal to a
surface)
◼ Easiest to separate force into horizontal and vertical
components
◼ Horizontal component of force equals the force on the
plane area formed by the projection of the curved
surface onto a vertical plane normal to the component
◼ Vertical component of force equals in magnitude and
direction the weight of the entire column of fluid (both
liquid and atmosphere) above the curved surface:
Fv = Wair + W1 + W2
17
 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
Many structures have curved
surfaces (e.g., dams, cross
sections of circular pipes)

(White: Fig. 2.14) 18

Example 2.7
◼ Determine:
a) The total hydrostatic force on the curved
surface AB; and
b) Its line of action.
Neglect atmospheric pressure and let the surface
have unit width.
List of centroids:
[Link]
wiki/List_of_centroids

(White)
19
Buoyancy

(Fig. 2.19 in White)

20
Archimedes’ Laws of Buoyancy
◼ Archimedes: Greek mathematician and
engineer from 3rd century B.C.
◼ Two laws of buoyancy:
1. A floating body displaces its own weight in
the fluid in which it floats.
2. A body immersed in a fluid experiences a
vertical buoyant force equal to the weight of
the fluid it displaces.
◼ Principles of hydrostatic forces are applied
to derive equations for these two laws.
21
Use Hydrostatic Forces to
Derive Archimedes’ Laws

 Take a submerged body

Net force:
(White: Fig. 2.16a)
FB = Fv(2) – Fv(1)
= (weight of fluid above 2) – (weight of fluid above 1)
= weight of fluid equivalent to body volume
= γfluid·Vbody

FB = γfluid·Vbody (Archimedes’ law #1) = weight of fluid displaced

22
FB: Buoyant Force

◼ FB passes through centre of

volume of displaced fluid

❑ Assume density uniform, then FB

acts through centre of mass
❑ Point is called centre of
buoyancy, B (or sometimes CB) (White: Fig. 2.16a)

❑ Variable density materials will

have centre of mass different
than centre of volume

❑ Note: centre of mass usually same as centre of

gravity (CG).
23
 Static Equilibrium of a Floating Body

FB passes through CG at stable equilibrium

B = centre of volume of displaced fluid

= centre of buoyancy

(White: Fig. 2.17)

 Only a portion of the body is submerged

 In this case,
FB = γfluid·(displaced volume) = floating body weight
σ 𝐹 = 0 (static)
Therefore, W = FB
(They’re collinear → there are no net moments for static equilibrium)
 This is equivalent to Archimedes’ second law (i.e., buoyant force
equals the body weight)
24
Submarines – Control Buoyancy

25
Stability
◼ Stability concerns what orientation an object will
assume when it floats on its own (i.e., in equilibrium)
◼ Possible orientations of a floating log:

◼ Stability analysis deals with the determination of the

equilibrium floating orientation
◼ A floating body can be neutral, stable, or unstable
depending on its behaviour after it is disturbed

26
Assessing Stability
◼ Steps to assess stability:

❑ Basic floating position is calculated (i.e., centre of mass, G, and

centre of buoyancy, B)

❑ Tilt body by a small angle,  → a new waterline is established

with a new centre of buoyancy, B’
◼ Draw a vertical line upward from B’ to intersect the line of symmetry
of the body – the point of intersection is called the metacentre, M
(independent for small  angles)

❑ If M is above G (i.e., metacentre height 𝑀𝐺 is positive) a restoring

moment is present and the original position is stable

❑ If M is below G (i.e., 𝑀𝐺 is negative) the body is unstable and

will overturn if disturbed
27
Metacentre of Floating Body
Illustration of points and forces (not physically realistic):

(White: Fig. 2.18)

More physically realistic example:

[Link]
28
 Stability Related to Waterline Area
line of symmetry

G
original water line

(White: Fig. 2.19)

𝐼𝑜 where: 𝑀𝐺and 𝐺𝐵 are the distances between points, and

𝑀𝐺 = − 𝐺𝐵
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝐼𝑜 is the area moment of inertia of the waterline area.
Note: stable when 𝑀𝐺 > 0 29
Example 2.8
◼ A barge is 4.5 m wide and 12 m long and
floats with a draft of 1.2 m. It is piled so high
with gravel that its centre of gravity is 0.6 m
above the waterline. Is it stable?

[draft = vertical distance between the waterline and the

bottom of the hull]

30
Static Fluids in motion…
◼ Static fluids are not always static with respect
to their surroundings…

31
Rigid Body Motion
◼ Whole fluid moves as if it were a rigid (i.e., non-
deforming) body

◼ Individual particles are not deforming (even

though they might be in motion)

◼ Examples:
1) fluid traveling on a tank in a train (linear
acceleration)
2) cylinder of liquid in rotation at a constant
angular speed (rigid-body rotation)

32
Rigid Body Motion
◼ A special case where all particles are in
combined translation and rotation with no
relative motion between particles
◼ Sometimes referred to as relative equilibrium
◼ With no relative motion, there are no shear
strains or strain rates (strain = deformation)
◼ Accelerating fluid will tilt under uniform rigid
body acceleration (either linear acceleration or
rotation), like an accelerating glass of water

33
 Accelerating Fluid
 ax 
 = tan −1

 g + az 

Q: calculate θ here.
(White: Fig. E2.13)
Note: signs are important, and acceleration are vector quantities.
34
Tilting of Fluid in Rigid Body Acceleration

(White: Fig. 2.21)

dP
dS
= G (
G = a + (g + a z )
2
x )
2 1/ 2

G is the resulting acceleration the liquid is subjected to. 35

 Example 2.9:
◼ The tank of liquid in the
figure accelerates to the
right with the fluid in rigid-
body motion.
a. Compute ax in m/s2
b. Why doesn’t the solution
in part (a) depend on the
fluid density?
(White) c. Determine the gage
pressure at point A if the
fluid is glycerin at 20°C.

36
 Rigid Body Rotation
◼ Another special case where fluid is rotating
about the z-axis without translation
◼ Assume fluid rotating long enough to attain
rigid body rotation (no more sloshing)
◼ Height of fluid will increase in container (like
rapidly stirring coffee) and forms a parabolic
surface

(White) 37
 Constant Pressure Surfaces of
Rotating Fluid

1
P = PO −  z +  r 2 2
2

a here is the centripetal acceleration

Ω is the angular velocity (rad/s)
(White: Fig. 2.22) 38
Curved Surface of Rotating Fluid in a
Cylinder

h 2 R2
=
2 4g

(White: Fig. 2.23)

39
 Example 2.10:
◼ For what uniform rotation
rate in r/min about the
axis C will the U-tube in
the figure take the
configuration shown? The
fluid is mercury at 20oC.

(White) 40