MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT – I INTRODUCTION

Prepared by
Dr.R.DHARMAPRAKASH
PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PANIMALAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Jaisakthi Educational Trust, Chennai-600 123
Functional elements of an instrument – Static and dynamic characteristics – Errors in
measurement – Statistical evaluation of measurement data – Standards and calibration.

MEASUREMENTS:
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison
between the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) & a predefined standard. Since two
quantities are compared, the result is expressed in numerical values.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF MEASUREMENT:
i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined & should be
commonly accepted
ii) The apparatus used & the method adopted must be provable.
MEASURING INSTRUMENT:
It may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or
variable.
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT:
Most of the measurement systems contain three main functional elements. They are:
i) Primary sensing element
ii) Variable conversion element &
iii) Data presentation element.

(i). Primary sensing element:

The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing element
of a measurement system. i.e., the measurand- (the unknown quantity which is to be measured) is
first detected by primary sensor which gives the output in a different analogous form This output
is then converted into an e electrical signal by a transducer - (which converts energy from one
form to another). The first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector transducer
stage.
(ii). Variable conversion element:
The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form it may be
voltage, a frequency or some other electrical parameter
For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output to
some other suitable form.
Variable manipulation element:
The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the
original nature of the signal. It is not necessary that a variable manipulation element should
follow the variable conversion element. Some non -linear processes like modulation, detection,

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sampling, filtering, chopping etc, are performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form to be

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accepted by the next stage of measurement system This process of conversion is called signal
conditioning.

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The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in addition to Variable
conversion & Variable manipulation In fact the element that follows the primary sensing element

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in any instrument or measurement system is called conditioning element.

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Note: When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated, it becomes
necessary to transmit data from one to another. The element that performs this function i s called
a data transmission element.
(iii). Data presentation element: e eri
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The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the

This function is done by data presentation element n

personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.

In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed These devices may be et
analog or digital indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc. In case data is to be
recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera & TV equipment, CRT, printers may
be used. For control & analysis purpose microprocessor or computers may be used. The final
stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage.
STATIC & DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
i) Static characteristics
ii) Dynamic characteristics
Static characteristics:
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities
which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time, is called
‘static characteristics’.
The various static characteristics are:

ww i) Accuracy ii) Precision iii) Sensitivity iv) Linearity

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v) Reproducibility vi) Repeatability vii) Resolution viii)Threshold
ix) Drift x) Stability xi) Tolerance xii) Range or span
Accuracy:

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It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the

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quantity to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:

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a) Point accuracy: Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It
does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale.

accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range. e

b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span: When an instrument as uniform scale, its

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c) Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy
is to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity being measured.
Precision: n et
It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a
measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. The precision is composed
of two characteristics:
a) Conformity: Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 , which is being measured
by an ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the non-
availability of proper scale. The error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is
a precision error.
b) Number of significant figures: The precision of the measurement is obtained from the
number of significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures
 convey the actual information about the magnitude & the measurement precision of the
quantity.
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The precision can be mathematically expressed as: | ̅̅̅̅
|

Where, P = precision, Xn = Value of nth measurement, Xn = Average value the set of

measurement values

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the

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instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a
change in the value of the quantity to be measured.

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Mathematically it is expressed as,
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Thus, if the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope of
the calibration curve. If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the sensitivity varies
with the input. Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity.

Linearity:
The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically
& linearly.
The curve shows the actual calibration curve & idealized straight line.
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Reproducibility:

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It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is
specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
Repeatability:
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It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature.
Drift: En
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Drift may be classified into three categories:
a). Zero drift:

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If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
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 b) Span drift or sensitivity drift
If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is
called span drift or sensitivity drift.
c) Zonal drift:
In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.
Resolution:
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found
that output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called
resolution.

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Threshold:

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If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum
value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value defines the threshold
of the instrument.
Stability: asy
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It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is specified
operating life.
Tolerance: gin
which is called tolerance. e
The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value

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Range or span:
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measure is called its range or span. n
The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to

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Dynamic characteristics:
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is
called dynamic characteristics.
The various static characteristics are:
i) Speed of response ii) Measuring lag iii) Fidelity iv) Dynamic error
Speed of response:
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measured quantity.
Measuring lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:
a) Retardation type:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change
in measured quantity has occurred.
b) Time delay lag:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the
application of the input.

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Fidelity:

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It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measurand quantity without dynamic error.
Dynamic error:

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It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time & the value

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indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called measurement
error.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT gin
The types of errors are follows
i) Gross errors e eri
ii) Systematic errors
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Gross Errors:
iii) Random errors
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 The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a et
human begin
 These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments
 These errors cannot be treated mathematically
 These errors are also called personal errors.
Ways to minimize gross errors:
The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible but one can minimize them by
the following ways:
  Taking great care while taking the reading, recording the reading & calculating
the result
 Without depending on only one reading, at least three or more readings must be
taken preferably by different persons.

Systematic errors:
A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a Systematic
error. The Systematic errors are mainly due to the short comings of the instrument & the
characteristics of the material use d in the instrument, such as defective or worn parts, ageing

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effects, environmental effects, etc.
Types of Systematic errors:

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There are three types of Systematic errors as:
i) Instrumental errors ii) Environmental errors iii) Observational errors
(i). Instrumental errors:
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These errors can be mainly due to the following three reasons:
a) Short comings of instruments:
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These are because of the mechanical structure of the instruments. For example friction in

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the bearings of various moving parts; irregular spring tensions, reductions in due to improper

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handling , hysteresis, gear backlash, stretching of spring, variations in air gap, etc .,
Ways to minimize this error:
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These errors can be avoided by the following methods: Selecting a proper instrument and

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planning the proper procedure for the measurement recognizing the effect of such errors and
applying the proper correction factors calibrating the instrument carefully against a standard et
b) Misuse of instruments:
A good instrument if used in abnormal way gives misleading results. Poor initial
adjustment, Improper zero setting, using leads of high resistance etc., are the examples of
misusing a good instrument. Such things do not cause the permanent damage to the instruments
but definitely cause the serious errors.
c) Loading effects
Loading effects due to im proper way of using the instrument cause the serious errors.
The best ex ample of such loading effect error is connecting a w ell calibrated volt meter across
the two points of high resistance circuit. The same volt meter connected in a low resistance
circuit gives accurate reading.

Ways to minimize this error:

Thus the errors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using an instrument
intelligently and correctly.
(ii). Environmental errors:
These errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring instrument. The various
factors resulting these environmental errors are temperature changes, pressure changes, thermal

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emf, and ageing of equipment and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.
Ways to minimize this error:

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The various methods which can be used to reduce these errors are:
(i) Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the

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manufacturer of the instrument
(ii) Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding conditions Constant

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(iii)Reducing the effect of dust ,humidity on the components by hermetically sealing the
components in the instruments
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(iv) The effects of external fields can be minimized by using the magnetic or electro static
shields or screens
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(v) Using the equipment which is immune to such environmental effects.
(iii). Observational errors:

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These are the errors introduced by the observer. These are many sources of observational
errors such as parallax error while reading a meter, wrong scale selection, etc.
Ways to minimize this error
To eliminate such errors one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife edged
pointers, etc., and the systematic errors can be subdivided as static and dynamic errors. The static
errors are caused by the limitations of the measuring device while the dynamic errors are caused
by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in the variable to be
measured.
Random errors: Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are
reduced or at least accounted for. The causes of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are
called random errors.
 Ways to minimize this error
The only way to reduce these errors is by increasing the number of observations and
using the statistical methods to obtain the best approximation of the reading.

STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF MEASUREMENT DATA

Out of the various possible errors, the random errors cannot be determined in the ordinary
process of measurements. Such errors are treated mathematically. The mathematical analysis of
the various measurements is called statistical analysis of the data.
For such statistical analysis, the same reading is taken number of times, generally using

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different observers, different instruments & by different ways of measurement. The statistical
analysis helps to determine analytically the uncertainty of the final test results.

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Arithmetic mean & median:
When the n umber of readings of the same measurement are taken, the most likely value

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from the set of measured value is the arithmetic mean of the number of readings taken.
The arithmetic mean value can be mathematically obtained as,

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This mean is very close to true value, if number of readings is very large.

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But when the number of readings is large, calculation of mean value is complicated. In such a

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case, a median value is obtained which is obtained which is a close approximation to the

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arithmetic mean value. For a set of measurements X1, X2 …Xn written down in the ascending
order of magnitudes, the median value is given by,

Average deviation:
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The deviation tells us about the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of
the data set
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Where,

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The average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of deviations divided
by the number of readings. This is also called mean deviation.
STANDARDS & CALIBRATION
CALIBRATION
Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or marking a scale so that the readings
of an instrument agree with the accepted & the certified standard. In other words, it is the
procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison with the measured or
standard ones. The calibration offers a guarantee to the device or instrument that it is operating
with required accuracy, under stipulated environmental conditions. The calibration procedure
involves the steps like visual inspection for various defects, installation according to the
specifications, zero adjustment etc., The calibration is the procedure for determining the correct

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values of measurand by comparison with standard ones. The standard of device with which

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comparison is made is called a standard instrument. The instrument which is unknown & is to be
calibrated is called test instrument. Thus in calibration, test instrument is compared with standard
instrument.

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Types of calibration methodologies:

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There are two methodologies for obtaining the comparison between test instrument &
standard instrument. These methodologies are
i) Direct comparisons gin
ii) Indirect comparisons
(i). Direct comparisons: e eri
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In a direct comparison, a source or generator applies a known input to the meter under

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test. The ratio of what meter is indicating & the known generator values gives the meters error.

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In such case the meter is the test instrument while the generator is the standard instrument. The
deviation of meter from the standard value is compared with the allowable performance limit.
With the help of direct comparison a generator or source also can be calibrated.
(ii). Indirect comparisons:
In the indirect comparison, the test instrument is compared with the response standard
instrument of same type i .e., if test instrument is meter, standard instrument is also meter, if test
instrument is generator; the standard instrument is also generator & so on. If the test instrument
is a meter then the same input is applied to the test meter as well a standard meter. In case of
generator calibration, the output of the generator tester as well as standard, or set to same

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nominal levels. Then the transfer meter is used which measures the outputs of both standard and
test generator.

Standard
All the instruments are calibrated at the time of manufacturer against measurement
standards. A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A
standard means known accurate measure of physical quantity.
The different size of standards of measurement is classified as
i) International standards ii) Primary standards

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(i). International standards
International standards are defined as the international agreement. These standards as

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mentioned above are maintained at the international bureau of weights an d measures and are
periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in term s of fundamental units of

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physics. These international standards are not available to the ordinary users for the calibration

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purpose. For the improvements in the accuracy of absolute measurements the international units
are replaced by the absolute units in 1948. Absolute units are more accurate than the
international units.
(ii). Primary standards e eri
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These are highly accurate absolute standards which can be used as ultimate reference

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standards. These primary standards are maintained at national standard laboratories in different
countries. These standards representing fundamental units as well as some electrical and
mechanical derived units are calibrated independently by absolute measurements at each of the et
national laboratories. These are not available for use, outside the national laboratories. The main
function of the primary standards is the calibration and verification of secondary standards.
(iii). Secondary standards
As mentioned above, the primary standards are not available for use outside the national
laboratories. The various industries need some reference standards. So, to protect highly accurate
primary standards the secondary standards are maintained, which are designed and constructed
from the absolute standards. These are used by the measurement and calibration laboratories in

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industries and are maintained by the particular industry to which they belong. Each industry has
its own standards.
(iv). Working standards
These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory and are used to check and calibrate
the instruments used in laboratory for accuracy and the performance.

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EE 6404 MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT – II ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS

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Prepared by
Dr.R.DHARMAPRAKASH n et
PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PANIMALAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Jaisakthi Educational Trust, Chennai-600 123

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Principle and types of analog and digital voltmeters, ammeters, multimeters – Single and three
phase watt meters and energy meters – Magnetic measurements – Determination of B-H curve
and measurements of iron loss – Instrument transformers – Instruments for measurement of
frequency and phase.

Principle and Types of Analog and Digital Voltmeters

 Basically an electrical indicating instrument is divided into two types. They are i) Analog
instruments and ii) Digital Instruments.
 Analog instruments are nothing but its output is the deflection of pointer, which is

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 Digital Instruments are its output is in decimal form.

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 Analog ammeters and voltmeters are classed together as there are no fundamental

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differences in their operating principles.
 The action of all ammeters and voltmeters, with the exception of electrostatic type of

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instruments, depends upon a deflecting torque produced by an electric current.

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 In an ammeter this torque is produced by a current to be measured or by a definite
fraction of it.

be measured.
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 In a voltmeter this torque is produced by a current which is proportional to the voltage to

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 Thus all analog voltmeters and ammeters are essentially current measuring devices.

The essential requirements of a measuring instrument are n

 That its introduction into the circuit, where measurements are to be made, does not alter
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the circuit conditions ;
 The power consumed by them for their operation is small.

Ammeters & Multimeters

Ammeters are connected in series in the circuit whose current is to be measured. The power
loss in an ammeter is I2Ra where I is the current to be measured and R is the resistance of
ammeter. Therefore, ammeters should have a low electrical resistance so that they cause a small
voltage drop and consequently absorb small power.

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Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the circuit whose voltage is to be measured. The
power loss in voltmeters is VR where V is the voltage to be measured and R is the resistance of
voltmeter. The voltmeters should have a high electrical resistance, in order that the current drawn
by them is small and consequently the power consumed is small.
Types of instruments
The main types of instruments used as an ammeters and voltmeters are
(i).Permanent magnet moving coil(PMMC), (ii).Moving iron, (iii).Electro-dynamometer,
(iv).Hot wire, (v).Thermocouple, (vi).Induction, (vii).Electrostatic and (ix).Rectifier.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument (PMMC)

ww The permanent magnet moving coil instrument is the most accurate type for d.c.
measurements. The working principle of these instruments is the same as that of the d‟Arsonval

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type of galvanometers, the difference being that a direct reading instrument is provided with a
pointer and a scale.

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Construction of PMMC Instruments

 The constructional features of this instrument are shown in Fig.
 The moving coil is wound with m any turns of enameled or silk covered copper wire.

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 The coil is mounted on a rectangular aluminium former which is pivoted on jeweled

bearings.
 The coils move freely in the field of a permanent magnet.
 Most voltmeter coils are wound on metal frames to provide the required electro-magnetic
damping.
 Most ammeter coils, however, are wound on non-magnetic formers, because coil turns
are effectively shorted by the ammeter shunt.
 The coil itself, therefore, provides electromagnetic damping.
Magnet Systems

ww  Old style magnet system consisted of relatively long U shaped permanent magnets having
soft iron pole pieces.

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 Owing to development of materials like Alcomax and Alnico, which have a high coercive
force, it is possible to use smaller magnet lengths and high field intensities.

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 The flux densities used in PMMC instruments vary from 0.1 W b/m to 1 Wb/m.
Control

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 When the coil is supported between two jewel bearings the control torque is provided by
two phosphor bronze hair springs.
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 These springs also serve to lead current in and out of the coil. The control torque is
provided by the ribbon suspension as shown.
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 This method is comparatively new and is claimed to be advantageous as it eliminates
bearing friction. ng.
Damping
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 Damping torque is produced by movement of the aluminium former moving in the
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magnetic field of the permanent magnet.
Pointer and Scale
 The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over a graduate d scale.
 The pointer is of light-weight construction and, apart from those used in some
inexpensive instruments has the section over the scale twisted to form a fine blade.
 This helps to reduce parallax errors in the reading of the scale.
 When the coil is supported between two jewel bearings the control torque is provided by
two phosphor bronze hair springs.
 These springs also serve to lead current in and out of the coil.

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Torque Equation.
The torque equation of a moving coil instrument is given by

Where

The spring control provides a restoring (controlling) torque,

Where

For final steady deflection

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As the deflection is directly proportional to the current passing through the meter (K and

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G being constants) we get a uniform (linear) scale for the instrument.
Errors in PMMC Instruments
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The main sources of errors in moving coil instruments are due to

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 Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing at temperature effects.

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 Weakening of springs due to ageing and temperature effects.
 Change of resistance of the moving coil with temperature.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
The main advantages of PMMC instruments are ng.
 The scale is uniformly divided.
 The power consumption is very low
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 The torque-weight ratio is high which gives a high accuracy. The accuracy is of the order
of generally 2 percent of full scale deflection.
 A single instrument may be used for many different current and voltage ranges by using
different values for shunts and multipliers.
 Since the operating forces are large on account of large flux densities which may be as
high as 0.5 Wb/m the errors due to stray magnetic fields are small.
 Self-shielding magnets make the core magnet mechanism particularly useful in aircraft
and aerospace applications.

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The chief disadvantages are

 These instruments are useful only for d.c. The torque reverses if the current reverses. If
the instrument is connected to a.c., the pointer cannot follow the rapid reversals and the
deflection corresponds to mean torque, which is zero. Hence these instruments cannot be
used for a.c.
 The cost of these instruments is higher than that of moving iron instruments.

Moving Iron Instruments

Classification of Moving Iron Instruments

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Moving iron instruments are of two types (i) Attraction type. (ii) Repulsion type.
Attraction Type

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 The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like opening.
 The moving iron is a flat disc or a sector eccentrically mounted.
 When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced and the moving
iron moves from the weaker field outside the coil to the Stronger field inside it or in other
words the moving iron is attracted in.
 The controlling torque is provided by springs hut gravity control can be used for panel
type of instruments which are vertically mounted.

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 Damping is provided by air friction with the help of a light aluminium piston (attached to
the moving system) which move in a fixed chamber closed at one end as shown in Fig. or
with the help of a vane (attached to the moving system) which moves in a fixed sector
shaped chamber a shown.
Repulsion Type
In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil one fixed and other movable.
These are similarly magnetized when the current flows through the coil and there is a force of
repulsion between the two vane s resulting in the movement of the moving vane. Two different
designs are in common use

ww (i). Radial vane type. (ii) Co-axial vane type

(i) Radial Vane Type

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In this type, the vanes are radial strips of iron. The strips are placed within the coil as
shown in Fig. The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable one to the spindle of the
instrument.
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(ii) Co-axial Vane Type
 In this type of instrument, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of co axial cylinders
as shown in Fig.
 The controlling torque is provided by springs. Gravity control can also he used in
vertically mounted instruments.
 The damping torque is produced by air friction as in attraction type instruments.

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 The operating magnetic field in moving iron instruments is very weak and therefore eddy
current damping is not used in them as introduction of a permanent magnet required for
eddy current damping would destroy the operating magnetic field.
 It is clear that whatever may be the direction of the current in the coil of the instrument,
the iron vanes are so magnetized that there is always a force of attraction in the attraction
type and repulsion in the repulsion type of instruments.
 Thus moving iron instruments are unpolarised instruments i.e., they are independent of
the direction in which the current passes.
 Therefore, these instruments can be used on both ac. and d.c.

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Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instrument:
An expression for the torque moving iron instrument may be derived by considering the

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energy relations when there is a small increment in current supplied to the instrument. When this
happens there will be a small deflection ds a mechanical work will be done. Let Td be the
deflecting torque.
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Alongside there will be a change in the energy stored in the magnetic field owing to change

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in inductance. Suppose the initial current is I, the instrument inductance L and the deflection s. If
the current is increased by di then the deflection changes by ds and the inductance by dL. In

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order to affect an increment the current there must be an increase in the applied voltage given by

( )
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The electrical energy supplied,

The stored energy changes from ( ) ( ) n et

Hence the change in stored energy ( )( )

Neglecting second and higher order terms in small quantities this becomes

From the principle of the conservation of energy,

Electrical energy supplied = increase in stored energy + mechanical work done

Thus

or Deflecting torque

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T is in newton-metre, I in ampere, L in henry, and in radian.

The moving system is provided with control springs and it turns the deflecting torque Td is
balanced by the controlling torque Tc.
Controlling torque
Where K=control spring constant, = deflection

At equilibrium (or final steady) position, or

Deflection

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Hence the deflection is proportional to square of the rms value of the operating current. The
deflecting torque is, therefore, unidirectional (acts in the same direction) whatever may be the

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polarity of the current.
Comparison between Attraction and Repulsion Types of Instruments

asy
In general it may be said that attraction-type instruments possess the same advantages,
and are subject to the limitations, described for the repulsion type.

En
An attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance than the

gin
corresponding repulsion type instrument, and voltmeters will therefore be accurate over a wider
range of frequency and there is a greater possibility of using shunts with ammeters.

e eri
On the other hand, repulsion instruments are more suitable for economical production in
manufacture, and a nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained; they are, therefore, much more
common than the attraction type.
ng.
Errors in Moving Iron Instruments
n
There are two types of errors which occur in moving iron instruments - errors which
occur with both a.c. and d.c. and the other which occur only with ac. only.
et
Errors with both D.C. and A.C
i) Hysteresis Error ii) Temperature error iii) Stray magnetic field
Errors with only A.C
Frequency errors
Advantages & Disadvantages
(1) Universal use (2) Less Friction Errors (3) Cheapness (4) Robustness
(5) Accuracy (6) Scale (7) Errors (8) Waveform errors.

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Electrodynamometer (Electro dynamic) Type Instruments

The necessity for the a.c. calibration of moving iron instruments as well as other types of
instruments which cannot be correctly calibrated requires the use of a transfer type of instrument.
A transfer instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c. source and then used without
modification to measure a.c. This requires the transfer type instrument to have same accuracy for
both d.c. and a.c., which the electrodynamometer instruments have.
These standards are precision resistors and the Weston standard cell (which is a d.c.
cell).It is obvious, therefore, that it would be impossible to calibrate an a.c. instrument directly
against the fundamental standards. The calibration of an a.c. instrument may be performed as

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follows. The transfer instrument is first calibrated on d.c. This calibration is then transferred to
the a.c. instrument on alternating current, using operating conditions under which the latter

w.E
operates properly. Electro dynamic instruments are capable of service as transfer instruments.
Indeed, their principal use as ammeters and voltmeters in laboratory and measurement work is

asy
for the transfer calibration of working instruments and as standards for calibration of other
instruments as their accuracy is very high. Electrodynamometer types of instruments are used as

En
a.c. voltmeters and ammeters both in the range of power frequencies and lower part of the audio

gin
power frequency range. They are used as watt-meters, and with some modification as power
factor meters and frequency meters.

e eri
ng.
n et
Operating Principle of Electrodynamometer Type Instrument
It would have a torque in one direction during one half of the cycle and an equal effect in
the opposite direction during the other half of the cycle.If the frequency were very low, the
pointer would swing back and forth around the zero point. However, for an ordinary meter, the
inertia is so great that on power frequencies the pointer does not go very far in either direction
but merely stays (vibrates slightly) around zero. If, however, we were to reverse the direction of

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the flux each time the current through the movable coil reverses, a unidirectional torque would
be produced for both positive and negative halves of the cycle.
In electrodynamometer instruments the field can be made to reverse simultaneously with
the current in the movable coil if the field (fixed) coil is connected in series with the movable
coil.
Construction of Electrodynamometer type instrument
Fixed Coils
The field is produced by a fixed coil. This coil is divided into two sections to give a more
uniform field near the centre and to allow passage of the instrument shaft.

ww
Moving Coil
A single element instrument has one moving coil. The moving coil is wound either as a

w.E
self-sustaining coil or else on a non- metallic former. A metallic former cannot be used as eddy
current would be induced in it by the alternating field. Light but rigid construction is used for the

asy
moving coil. It should be noted that both fixed and moving coils are air cored.
Control

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The controlling torque is provided by two control springs. These springs act as leads to
the moving coil.
Moving System gin
e eri
The moving coil is mounted on an aluminum spindle. The moving system also carries the

ng.
counter weights and truss type pointer. Sometimes a suspension may be used in case a high
sensitivity is desired.
Damping
n
Air friction damping is employed for these instruments and is provided by a pair of
et
aluminum vanes, attached to the spindle at the bottom. These vanes move in sector shaped
chambers. Eddy current damping cannot be used in these instruments as the operating field is
very weak (on account of the fact that the coils are air cored) and any introduction of a
permanent magnet required for eddy current damping would distort the operating magnetic field
of the instrument.
Shielding
The field produced by the fixed coils is somewhat weaker than in other types of
instruments. It is nearly 0.005 to 0.006 Wb/m In d.c. measurements even the earth magnetic field
may affect the readings. Thus it is necessary to shield an electrodynamometer type instrument

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from the effect of stray magnetic fields. Air cored electrodynamometer type instruments are
protected against external magnetic fields by enclosing them in a casing of high permeability
alloy. This shunts external magnetic fields around the instrument mechanism and minimizes their
effects on the indication.
Cases and Scales
Laboratory standard instruments are usually contained in highly polished wooden cases.
These cases are so constructed as to remain dimensionally stable over long periods of time. The
glass is coated with some conducting material to completely remove the electrostatic effects. The
case is supported by adjustable leveling screws. A spirit level is also provided to ensure proper

ww
leveling. The scales are hand drawn, using machine sub-dividing equipment. Diagonal lines for
fine sub-division are usually drawn for main markings on the scale. Most of the high-precision

w.E
instruments have a 300 mr scale with 100, 120 or 150 divisions.

Torque Equation
Let asy
= instantaneous value of current in the fixed coils: A.

En
= instantaneous value of current in the moving coil: A.
= self-inductance of fixed coils: H.
= self-inductance of moving coils H, gin
e
= mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils.
eri
Flux linkages of coil 1,
Flux linkages of coil 2, ng.
Electrical input energy
n et
as
( ) ( )

Energy stored in magnetic field

Change in energy stored ( )

From principle of conversion of energy,

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Total electrical input energy = change in energy stored + mechanical energy

Mechanical energy

Let the self-inductance are constants and therefore are zero.

Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments

 Frequency error
 Eddy current error
 External magnetic field

ww
Advantages
Temperature changes

w.E
 These instruments can be used on both a.c & d.c
 Accurate rms value
Disadvantages
asy
 They have a low torque/weight ratio and hence have a low sensitivity. (ii) Low

En
torque/weight ratio gives increased frictional losses.

gin
 They are more expensive than either the PMMC or the moving iron type instruments.
 These instruments are sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts. Therefore, they
must be handled with great care.
e eri
 The operating current of these instruments is large owing to the fact that they have weak

ng.
magnetic field. The flux density is about 0.006 Wb/m as against 0.1 to 0.5 Wb/m in
PMCC instruments
 They have a non-uniform scale. n et
Rectifier Type Instruments
Rectifier type inst ruments are used for measurement of ac. voltages and currents by
employing a rectifier element which converts a.c. to a unidirectional d.c. and then using a meter
responsive to d.c. to indicate the value of rectified a.c. The indicating instrument is PMMC
instrument which uses a d ‟Arsonval movement. This method is very attractive since PM MC
instruments have a higher sensitivity than the electrodynamometer or the moving iron
instruments. The arrangement employs a full wave.

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ww
w.E
asy
En
(Fig) voltmeter using full wave rectifier
Digital Voltmeter
gin
e
A digital voltmeter (DVM) displays the value of a.c. or d.c. voltage being measured

eri
directly as discrete numerals in the decimal number system. Numerical readout of DVMs is

ng.
advantageous since it eliminates observational errors committed by operators. The errors on
account of parallax and approximations are entirely eliminated. The use of digital voltmeters

n
increases tile speed with which readings can be taken. A digital voltmeter is a versatile and
accurate voltmeter which has many laboratory applications. On account of developments in the et
integrated circuit (IC) technology, it has been possible to reduce the size, power requirements
and cost of digital voltmeters. In fact, for the same accuracy, a digital voltmeter now is less
costly than its analog counterpart. The decrease in size of DVMs on account of use of ICs, the
portability of the instruments has increased.
Types of DVMs
The increasing popularity of DVMs has brought forth a wide number of types employing
different circuits. The various types of DVMs in general use are
(i) Ramp type DVM
(ii) Integrating type DVM

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(iii) Potentiometric type DVM

(iv) Successive approximation type DVM
(v) Continuous balance type DVM
Ramp type Digital Voltmeter
The operating principle of a ramp type digital voltmeter is to measure the time that a
linear ramp voltage takes to change from level of input voltage to zero voltage (or vice
versa).This time interval is measured with an electronic time interval counter and the count is
displayed as a number of digits on electronic indicating tubes of the output readout of the
voltmeter. The conversion of a voltage value of a time interval is shown in the timing diagram .A

ww
negative going ramp is shown in Fig. but a positive going ramp may also be used. The ramp
voltage value is continuously compared with the voltage being measured (unknown voltage).At

w.E
the instant the value of ramp voltage is equal to that of unknown voltage. The ramp voltage
continues to decrease till it reaches ground level (zero voltage).At this instant another comparator

asy
called ground comparator generates. a pulse and closes the gate. The time elapsed between
opening and closing of the gate is t as indicated in Fig. During this time interval pulses from a

En
clock pulse generator pass through the gate and are counted and displayed. The decimal number

gin
as indicated by the readout is a measure of the value of input voltage. The sample rate
multivibrator determines the rate at which the measurement cycles are initiated. The sample rate

e eri
circuit provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its next ramp voltage. At the

ng.
same time it sends a pulse to the counters which set all of them to 0. This momentarily removes
the digital display of the readout.
Integrating Type Digital Voltmeter
n
The voltmeter measures the true average value of the input voltage over a fixed
et
measuring period. In contrast the ramp type DVM samples the voltage at the end of the
measuring period. This voltmeter employs an integration technique which uses a voltage to
frequency conversion. The voltage to frequency (VIF) converter functions as a feedback control
system which governs the rate of pulse generation in proportion to the magnitude of input
voltage.
Actually when we employ the voltage to frequency conversion techniques, a train of
pulses, whose frequency depends upon the voltage being measured, is generated. Then the
number of pulses appearing in a definite interval of time is counted. Since the frequency of these

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pulses is a function of unknown voltage, the number of pulses counted in that period of time is
an indication of the input (unknown) voltage.
The heart of this technique is the operational amplifier acting as an Integrator.
Output voltage of integrator
Thus if a constant input voltage E is applied, an output voltage E is produced which rises at a
uniform rate and has a polarity opposite to that input voltage.
In other words, it is clear from the above relationship that for a constant input voltage the
integrator produces a ramp output voltage of opposite polarity.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
e eri
ng.
The basic block diagram of a typical integrating type of DVM is shown in

n et

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The unknown voltage is applied to the input of the integrator, and the output voltage
starts to rise. The slope of output voltage is determined by the value of input voltage This voltage
is fed a level detector, and when voltage reaches a certain reference level, the detector sends a
pulse to the pulse generator gate. The level detector is a device similar to a voltage comparator.
The output voltage from integrator is compared with the fixed voltage of an internal reference
source, and, when voltage reaches that level, the detector produces an output pulse.
It is evident that greater then value of input voltage the sharper will be the slope of output
voltage and quicker the output voltage will reach its reference level. The output pulse of the level
detector opens the pulse level gate, permitting pulses from a fixed frequency clock oscillator to

ww
pass through pulse generator.
The generator is a device such as a Schmitt trigger that produces an output pulse of fixed

w.E
amplitude and width for every pulse it receives. This output pulse, whose polarity is opposite to
that of and has greater amplitude, is feedback of the input of the integrator. Thus no more pulses

asy
from the clock oscillator can pass through to trigger the pulse generator. When the output voltage
pulse from the pulse generator has passed, is restored to its original value and starts its rise again.

En
When it reaches the level of reference voltage again, the pulse generator gate is opened. The

gin
pulse generator is trigger by a pulse from the clock generator and the entire cycle is repeated
again.

e eri
Thus, the waveform of is a saw tooth wave whose rise time is dependent upon the value

ng.
of output voltage and the fail time is determined by the width of the output pulse from the pulse
generator. Thus the frequency of the saw tooth wave is a function of the value of the voltage

n
being measured. Since one pulse from the pulse generator is produced for each cycle of the saw
tooth wave, the number of pulses produced in a given time interval and hence the frequency of
et
saw tooth wave is an indication of the voltage being measured.
Potentiometric Type Digital Voltmeter
A potentiometric type of DVM employs voltage comparison technique. In this DVM the
unknown voltage is compared with reference voltage whose value is fixed by the setting of the
calibrated potentiometer. The potentiometer setting is changed to obtain balance (i.e. null
conditions). When null conditions are obtained the value of the unknown voltage, is indicated by
the dial setting of the potentiometer. In potentiometric type DVMs, the balance is not obtained
manually but is arrived at automatically. Thus, this DVM is in fact a self- balancing
potentiometer.

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The potentiometric DVM is provided with a readout which displays the voltage being
measured.

ww
w.E (Fig.) Basic block diagram of a potentiometric DVM.
The block diagram of basic circuit of a potentiometric DVM is shown. The unknown

asy
voltage is filtered and attenuated to suitable level. This input voltage is applied to a comparator
(also known as error detector).This error detector may be chopper. The reference voltage is

En
obtained from a fixed voltage source. This voltage is applied to a potentiometer. The value of the

gin
feedback voltage depends up the position of the sliding contact. The feedback voltage is also
applied to the comparator. The unknown voltage and the feedback voltages are compared in the

e eri
comparator. The output voltage of the comparator is the difference of the above two voltages.
The difference of voltage is called the error signal. The error signal is amplified and is fed to a

ng.
potentiometer adjustment device which moves the sliding contact of the potentiometer. This

n
magnitude by which the sliding contact moves depends upon the magnitude of the error signal.
The direction of movement of slider depends upon whether the feedback voltage is larger
or the input voltage is larger. The sliding contact moves to such a place where the feedback
et
voltage equals the unknown voltage. In that case, there will not be any error voltage and hence
there will be no input to the device adjusting the position of the sliding contact and therefore it
(sliding contact) will come to rest. The position of the potentiometer adjustment device at this
point is indicated in numerical form on the digital readout device associated with it.

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Single and Three Phase Watt meters and Energy Meters

Single Phase Induction Type Meters
The construction and principle of operation of Single Phase Energy Meters is explained below
Construction of Induction Type Energy Meters
There are four main parts of the operating mechanism
(i) Driving system (ii) Moving system (iii) Braking system (iv) Registering system
Driving system
The driving system of the meter consists of two electro-magnets. The core of these
electromagnets is made up of silicon steel laminations. The coil of one of the electromagnets is

ww
excited by the load current. This coil is called the current coil. The coil of second electromagnet
is connected across the supply and, therefore, carries a current proportional to the supply voltage.

w.E
This coil is called the pressure coil. Consequently the two electromagnets are known as series
and shunt magnets respectively. Copper shading bands are provided on the central limb. The

asy
position of these bands is adjustable. The function of these bands is to bring the flux produced by
the shunt magnet exactly in quadrature with the applied voltage.
Moving System
En
gin
This consists of an aluminum disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. This disc is positioned
in the air gap between series and shunt magnets. The upper bearing of the rotor (moving system)

e eri
is a steel pin located in a hole in the bearing cap fixed to the top of the shaft. The rotor runs on a

ng.
hardened steel pivot, screwed to the foot of the shaft. The pivot is supported by a jewel bearing.
A pinion engages the shaft with the counting or registering mechanism.

n et

(Fig) single phase energy meter

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Braking System
A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminium disc forms the braking system.
The aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus provides a braking torque. The
position of the permanent magnet is adjustable, and therefore braking torque can be adjusted by
shifting the permanent magnet to different radial positions as explained earlier.

ww
w.E (fig) Pointer type (fig) cyclometer register
Registering (counting) Mechanism
asy
The function of a registering or counting mechanism is to record continuously a number

En
which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system. By a suitable system, a

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train of reduction gears the pinion on the rotor shaft drives a series of five or six pointers. These
rotate on round dials which are marked with ten equal divisions. The pointer type of register is

e
shown in Fig. Cyclo-meter register as shown in Fig can also be used.
Errors in Single Phase Energy Meters eri
The errors caused by the driving system are
ng.
(i) Incorrect magnitude of fluxes.
(ii) Incorrect phase angles.
(iii) Lack of Symmetry in magnetic circuit.
n et
The errors caused by the braking system are
i) changes in strength of brake magnet
ii) changes in disc resistance
iii) abnormal friction
iv) self-braking effect

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Three Phase General Supply with Controlled Load

ww
w.E
asy
 L1 – 30A Load Control (Hot Water)

En
 L2 – Maximum 2A Load Control (Storage Heating)

gin
 2.5mm² with 7 strands for conductors to control customer contactor
 Load carrying conductors not less than 4mm² or greater than 35mm²

e eri
 All metering neutrals to be black colour 4mm² or 6 mm² with minimum 7 stranded
conductors.
 Not less than 18 strand for 25 & 35mm² conductors ng.
 Refer to SIR‟s for metering obligations
n
 Comply with Electrical Safety (Installations) Regulations 2009 and AS/NZS 3000 et
 Customer needs to provide 2A circuit breaker as a Main Switch and their load control
contactor
 Within customer‟s switchboard
 Meter panel fuse not required for an overhead supply.
 Off Peak controlled load only includes single phase hot water & single or multi-phase
storage heating
 Wiring diagram applicable for Solar
 Metering diagram is applicable for 2 or 3 phase load. For 2 phase loads – Red and Blue
phase is preferred.

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WATTMETER
Electrodynamometer Watt meters
These instruments are similar in design and construction to electrodynamometer type ammeters and
voltmeters.
The two coils are connected in different circuits for measurement of power.
The fixed coils or “ field coils” arc connected in series with the load and so carry the current in the
circuit.
The fixed coils, therefore, form the current coil or simply C.C. of the wattmeter.
The moving coil is connected across the voltage and, therefore, carries a current proportional to the
voltage.
A high non-inductive resistance is connected in series with the moving coil to limit the current to a
small value.
Since the moving coil carries a current proportional to the voltage, it is called the „„ pressure coil‟‟ or
“ voltage coil” or simply called P.C. of the wattmeter.

ww
Construction of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
Fixed Coils
The fixed coils carry the current of the circuit. They are divided into two halves.

w.E
The reason for using fixed coils as current coils is that they can be made more massive and can be
easily constructed to carry considerable current since they present no problem of leading the current
in or out.

asy
The fixed coils are wound with heavy wire. This wire is stranded or laminated especially when
carrying heavy currents in order to avoid eddy current losses in conductors. The fixed coils of earlier

En
wattmeters were designed to carry a current of 100 A but modem designs usually limit the maximum

gin
current ranges of wattmeters to about 20 A. For power measurements involving large load currents, it
is usually better to use a 5 A wattmeter in conjunction with a current transformer of suitable range.

e eri
ng.
n et
(Fig) Dynamometer wattmeter
Damping
Air friction damping is used. The moving system carries a light aluminium vane which
moves in a sector shaped box. Electromagnetic or eddy current damping is not used as
introduction of a permanent magnet (for damping purposes) will greatly distort the weak
operating magnetic field.

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Scales and Pointers

They are equipped with mirror type scales and knife edge pointers to remove reading
errors due to parallax.
Theory of Electrodynamometer Watt-meters

ww (Fig) circuit of electrodynamometer

w.E
It is clear from above that there is a component of power which varies as twice the
frequency of current and voltage.

asy
Average deflecting torque

∫
En
( ) ∫ ( ) ( )

gin
e eri
Controlling torque exerted by springs
ng.
Where, K = spring constant; s = final steady deflection.
Errors in electrodynamometer
i) Errors due to inductance effects ii) Stray magnetic field errors
n et
iii) Eddy current errors iv) Temperature error
Ferro dynamic Wattmeter
The operating torque can be considerably increased by using iron cores for the coils.
Ferro dynamic wattmeter employ cores of low loss iron so that there is a large increase in the
flux density and consequently an increase in operating torque with little loss in accuracy. The
fixed coil is wound on a laminated core having pole pieces designed to give a uniform radial
field throughout the air gap. The moving coil is asymmetrically pivoted and is placed over a
hook shaped pole piece. This type of construction permits the use of a long scale up to about
270° and gives a deflecting torque which is almost proportional to the average power.

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With this construction there is a tendency on the part of the pressure coil to creep (move
further on the hook) when only the pressure coil is energized. This is due to the fact that a coil
tries to take up a position where it links with maximum flux. The creep causes errors and a
compensating coil is put to compensate for this voltage creep.

ww
w.E
asy
The use of ferromagnetic core makes it possible to employ a robust construction for the

En
moving element. Also the Instrument is less sensitive to external magnetic fields. On the other
hand, this construction introduces non-linearity of magnetization curve and introduction of large
eddy current & hysteresis losses in the core.
gin
Three Phase Wattmeter
e eri
A dynamometer type three-phase wattmeter consists of two separate wattmeter

ng.
movements mounted together in one case with the two moving coils mounted on the same
spindle. The arrangement is shown in Fig. There are two current coils and two pressure coils. A

n
current coil together with its pressure coil is known as an element.Therefore, a three phase
wattmeter has two elements. The connections of two elements of a 3 phase wattmeter are the et
same as that for two wattmeter method using two single phase wattmeter. The torque on each
element is proportional to the power being measured by it. The total torque deflecting the
moving system is the sum of the deflecting torque of‟ the two elements. Hence the total
deflecting torque on the moving system is proportional to the total Power. In order that a 3 phase
wattmeter read correctly, there should not be any mutual interference between the two elements.
A laminated iron shield may be placed between the two elements to eliminate the mutual effects.

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ww
Instrument Transformers
(fig) three phase wattmeter

w.E
Power measurements are made in high voltage circuits connecting the wattmeter to the
circuit through current and potential transformers as shown. The primary winding of the C.T. is

asy
connected in series with the load and the secondary winding is connected in series with an

En
ammeter and the current coil of a wattmeter. The primary winding of the potential transformer is
connected across the supply lines and a voltmeter and the potential coil circuit of the wattmeter

gin
are connected in parallel with the secondary winding of the transformer. One secondary terminal
of each transformer and the casings are earthed.
e eri
ng.
n et
The errors in good modem instrument transformers are small and may be ignored for
many purposes. However, they must be considered in precision work. Also in some power
measurements these errors, if not taken into account, may lead to very inaccurate results.
Voltmeters and ammeters are affected by only ratio errors while wattmeters are influenced in
addition by phase angle errors. Corrections can be made for these errors if test information is
available about the instrument transformers and their burdens. Phasor diagrams for the current
and voltages of load, and in the wattmeter coils.

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ww
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
The operating characteristics of electrical machines, apparatus and instruments are

w.E
greatly influenced by the properties of Ferro-magnetic materials used for their construction.

asy
Therefore, magnetic measurements and a thorough knowledge of characteristics of magnetic
materials are of utmost importance in designing and manufacturing electrical equipment.

En
The principal requirements in magnetic measurements are

gin
(i) The measurement of magnetic field strength in air.
(ii) The determination of B-H curve and hysteresis loop for soft Ferro-magnetic
materials.
e eri
(iii) The determination of eddy current and hysteresis losses of soft Ferro- magnetic
materials subjected to alternating magnetic fields.
ng.
(iv) The testing of permanent magnets.

n
Magnetic measurements have some inherent inaccuracies due to which the measured values
depart considerably from the true values. The inaccuracies are due to the following reasons et
(i) The conditions in the magnetic specimen under test are different from those assumed
in calculations;
(ii) The magnetic materials are not homogeneous
(iv)There is no uniformity between different batches of test specimens even if such
batches are of the same composition.
Types of Tests
Many methods of testing magnetic materials have been devised wherein attempts have
been made to eliminate the inaccuracies. However, attention will be confined to a few basic
methods of Testing Ferro-magnetic materials. They are:

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(i) Ballistic Tests: These tests are generally employed for the determination of B- H curves and
hysteresis loops of Ferro-magnetic materials.
(ii) A. C. Testing. These tests may be carried at power, audio or radio frequencies. They give
information about eddy current and hysteresis losses in magnetic materials.
(iii) Steady State Tests. These are performed to obtain the steady value of flux density existing
in the air gap of a magnetic circuit.
Ballistic Tests: These tests are used for determination of flux density in a specimen,
determination of B-H curves and plotting of hysteresis loop.
Measurement of Flux Density

ww The measurement of flux density inside a specimen can be done by winding a search coil
over the specimen. This search coil is known as a “ B coil” . This search coil is then connected to

w.E
a ballistic galvanometer or to a flux meter. Let us consider that we have to measure the flux
density in a ring specimen shown in Fig. The ring specimen is wound with a magnetizing

asy
winding which carries a current I. A search coil of convenient number of turns is wound on the
specimen and connected through a resistance and calibrating coil, to a ballistic galvanometer as

En
shown. The current through the magnetizing coil is reversed and therefore the flux linkages of

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the search coil change inducing an emf in it. Thus emf sends a current through the ballistic
galvanometer causing it to deflect.

e eri
ng.
n et

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Magnetic Potentiometer
This is a device for measurement of magnetic potential difference between two points.
It can be shown that the line integral of magnetizing force H produced by a coil of N
concentrated turns carrying a current I is:

around any closed path linking the coil.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
(Fig) Magnetic potentiometer
This is the circuital law of the magnetic field and forms the basis of magnetic

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potentiometer. A magnetic potentiometer may be used to determine the mmf around a closed

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path, or the magnetic potential difference between two points in a magnetic circuit. A magnetic
potentiometer consists of a one metre long flat and uniform coil made of two or four layers of

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thin wire wound unidirectional on a strip of flexible non-magnetic material. The coil ends are

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brought out at the middle of the strip as shown in Fig. and connected to a ballistic galvanometer.
The magnetic potential difference between points A and B of the field is measured by placing the
ends of the strip at these points and observing the throw of the ballistic galvanometer when the
flux through the specimen is changed.
Determination of B-H curve
Method of reversals
A ring shaped specimen whose dimensions are known is used for the purpose. After
demagnetizing the test is started by setting the magnetizing current to its lowest test vlane. With
galvanometer key K closed, the iron specimen is brought into a reproducible cyclic magnetic
state‟ by throwing the reversing switch S backward and forward about twenty times. Key K is

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now opened and the value of flux corresponding to this value of H is measured by reversing the
switch S and noting the throw of galvanometer. The value of flux density corresponding to this H
can be calculated by dividing the flux by the area of the specimen. The above procedure is
repeated for various values of H up to the maximum testing point. The B-H curve may be plotted
from the measured values of B corresponding to the various values of H.
Step by step method
The circuit for this test is shown in Fig. The magnetizing winding is supplied through a
potential divider having a large number of tapping. The tappings are arranged so that the
magnetizing force H may be increased, in a number of suitable steps, up to the desired maximum

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value. The specimen before being tested is demagnetized. The tapping switch S is set on tapping
I and the switch S is closed. The throw of the galvanometer corresponding to this increase in flux

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density in the specimen, from zero to some value B, is observed. After reaching the point of
maximum H i.e... when switch S is at tapping 10, the magnetizing current is next reduced, in

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steps to zero by moving switch 2 down through the tapping points 9, 8, 7 3, 2, 1. After reduction
of magnetizing force to zero, negative values of H are obtained by reversing the supply to

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potential divider and then moving the switch S up again in order 1, 2, 3 7, 8. 9, 1O.

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Determination of Hysteresis Loop

Method of reversals
This test is done by means of a number of steps, but the change in flux density measured
at each step is the change from the maximum value + Bm down to some lower value.
But before the next step is commenced the iron specimen is passed through the remainder of the
cycle of magnetization back to the flux density + Bm.
Thus the cyclic state of magnetization is preserved.
The connections for the method of reversals are shown in Fig.

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(fig) Method of reversal
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EE 6404 MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT – III COMPARISON METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS

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Prepared by
Dr.R.DHARMAPRAKASH g.n
PROFESSOR
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
PANIMALAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Jaisakthi Educational Trust, Chennai-600 123

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D.C & A.C potentiometers, D.C & A.C bridges, transformer ratio bridges, self-balancing
bridges. Interference & screening – Multiple earth and earth loops - Electrostatic and
electromagnetic interference – Grounding techniques.

D.C & A.C Potentiometers

An instrument that precisely measures an electromotive force (emf) or a voltage by
opposing to it a known potential drop established by passing a definite current through a resistor
of known characteristics. (A three-terminal resistive voltage divider is sometimes also called a
potentiometer.) There are two ways of accomplishing this balance: (1) the current I may be held

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at a fixed value and the resistance R across which the IR drop is opposed to the unknown may be
varied; (2) current may be varied across a fixed resistance to achieve the needed IR drop.

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The essential features of a general-purpose constant-current instrument are shown in the
illustration. The value of the current is first fixed to match an IR drop to the emf of a reference

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standard cell. With the standard-cell dial set to read the emf of the reference cell, and the
galvanometer (balance detector) in position G1, the resistance of the supply branch of the circuit

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is adjusted until the IR drop in 10 steps of the coarse dial plus the set portion of the standard-cell
dial balances the known reference emf, indicated by a null reading of the galvanometer. This

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adjustment permits the potentiometer to be read directly in volts. Then, with the galvanometer in
position G2, the coarse, intermediate, and slide-wire dials are adjusted until the galvanometer

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again reads null. If the potentiometer current has not changed, the emf of the unknown can be

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read directly from the dial settings. There is usually a switching arrangement so that the
galvanometer can be quickly shifted between positions 1 and 2 to check that the current has not
drifted from its set value.
Circuit diagram of a general-purpose constant-current potentiometer, showing essential
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features Potentiometer techniques may also be used for current measurement, the unknown
current being sent through a known resistance and the IR drop opposed by balancing it at the
voltage terminals of the potentiometer. Here, of course, internal heating and consequent
resistance change of the current-carrying resistor (shunt) may be a critical factor in measurement
accuracy; and the shunt design may require attention to dissipation of heat resulting from its I2R
power consumption.

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Potentiometer techniques have been extended to alternating-voltage measurements, but
generally at a reduced accuracy level (usually 0.1% or so). Current is set on an ammeter which

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must have the same response on ac as on dc, where it may be calibrated with a potentiometer and

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shunt combination. Balance in opposing an unknown voltage is achieved in one of two ways: (1)

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a slide-wire and phase-adjustable supply; (2) separate in-phase and quadrature adjustments on
slide wires supplied from sources that have a 90° phase difference. Such potentiometers have
limited use in magnetic testing.
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Potentiometer techniques may also be used for current measurement, the unknown
current being sent through a known resistance and the IR drop opposed by balancing it at the

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voltage terminals of the potentiometer. Here, of course, internal heating and consequent

accuracy.
An electrical measuring device used in determining the electromotive force (emf) or
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resistance change of the current-carrying resistor (shunt) may be a critical factor in measurement

voltage by means of the compensation method. When used with calibrated standard resistors, a
potentiometer can be employed to measure current, power, and other electrical quantities; when
used with the appropriate measuring transducer, it can be used to gauge various non-electrical
quantities, such as temperature, pressure, and the composition of gases.
Distinction is made between DC and AC potentiometers. In DC potentiometers, the
voltage being measured is compared to the emf of a standard cell. Since at the instant of
compensation the current in the circuit of the voltage being measured equals zero, measurements
can be made without reductions in this voltage. For this type of potentiometer, accuracy can

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exceed 0.01 percent. DC potentiometers are categorized as either high-resistance, with a slide-
wire resistance ranging from The higher resistance class can measure up to 2 volts (V) and is
used in testing highly accurate apparatus. The low-resistance class is used in measuring voltage
up to 100 mV. To measure higher voltages, up to 600 V, and to test voltmeters, voltage dividers
are connected to potentiometers. Here the voltage drop across one of the resistances of the
voltage divider is compensated; this constitutes a known fraction of the total voltage being
measured.
In AC potentiometers, the unknown voltage is compared with the voltage drop produced
by a current of the same frequency across a known resistance. The voltage being measured is

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then adjusted both for amplitude and phase. The accuracy of AC potentiometers is of the order of
0.2 percent. In electronic automatic DC and AC potentiometers, the measurements of voltage are

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carried out automatically. In this case, the compensation of the unknown voltage is achieved with
the aid of a servomechanism that moves the slide along the resistor, or rheostat. The

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servomechanism is actuated by the imbalance of the two voltages, that is, by the difference
between the compensating voltage and the voltage that is being compensated. In electronic

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automatic potentiometers, the results of measurements are read on dial indicators, traced on
recorder charts or received as numerical data. The last method makes it possible to input the data

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directly into a computer. In addition to measurement, electronic automatic potentiometers are
also capable of regulating various parameters of industrial processes. In this case, the slide of the

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rheostat is set in a position that predetermines, for instance, the temperature of the object to be

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regulated. The voltage imbalance of the potentiometer drives the servomechanism, which then
increases or decreases the electric heating or regulates the fuel supply.
A voltage divider with a uniform variation of resistance, a device that allows some
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fraction of a given voltage to be applied to an electric circuit. In the simplest case, the device
consists of a conductor of high resistance equipped with a sliding contact. Such dividers are used
in electrical engineering, radio engineering, and measurement technology. They can also be
utilized in analog computers and in automation systems, where, for example, they function as
sensors for linear or angular displacement
D.C & A.C Bridges
Bridge circuits are used very commonly as a variable conversion element in measurement
systems and produce an output in the form of a voltage level that changes as the measured
physical quantity changes. They provide an accurate method of measuring resistance, inductance

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and capacitance values, and enable the detection of very small changes in these quantities about a
nominal value. They are of immense importance in measurement system technology because so
many transducers measuring physical quantities have an output that is expressed as a change in
resistance, inductance or capacitance. The displacement-measuring strain gauge, which has a
varying resistance output, is but one example of this class of transducers. Normally, excitation of
the bridge is by a d.c. voltage for resistance measurement and by an a.c. voltage for inductance
or capacitance measurement. Both null and deflection types of bridge exist, and, in a like manner
to instruments in general, null types are mainly employed for calibration purposes and deflection
types are used within closed-loop automatic control schemes.

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Null-type, DC Bridge (Wheatstone bridge)
A null-type bridge with d.c. excitation, commonly known as a Wheatstone bridge, has the

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form shown in Figure 7.1. The four arms of the bridge consist of the unknown resistance Ru, two
equal value resistors R2 and R3 and a variable resistor Rv (usually a decade resistance box). A

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d.c. voltage Vi is applied across the points AC and the resistance Rv is varied until the voltage
measured across points BD is zero. This null point is usually measured with a high sensitivity
galvanometer.
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To analyses the Whetstone bridge, define the current flowing in each arm to be I1 ... I4 as
shown in Figure 7.1. Normally, if a high impedance voltage-measuring instrument is used, the
current Im drawn by the measuring instrument will be very small and can be approximated to
zero. If this assumption is made, then, for Im D 0:

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Looking at path ADC, we have a voltage applied across a resistance and by Ohm’s
Law:

Similarly for path ABC:

Now we can calculate the voltage drop across AD and AB:

By the principle of superposition,

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Thus,

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At the null point , so:

Inverting both sides

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Thus, if , then
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is an accurately known value because it is derived from
a variable decade resistance box, this means that
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is also accurately known.
Deflection-type d.c. bridge

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A deflection-type bridge with d.c. excitation is shown in Figure 7.2. This differs from the

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Wheatstone bridge mainly in that the variable resistance Rv is replaced by a fixed resistance R1
of the same value as the nominal value of the unknown resistance Ru . As the resistance Ru
changes, so the output voltage V0 varies, and this relationship between V0 and Ru must be
calculated.
This relationship is simplified if we again assume that a high impedance voltage
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measuring instrument is used and the current drawn by it, Im , can be approximated to zero. (The
case when this assumption does not hold is covered later in this section.) The analysis is then
exactly the same as for the preceding example of the Wheatstone bridge, except that Rv is
replaced by R1. Thus, from equation (7.1), we have:
( )

When Ru is at its nominal value, i.e. for Ru D R1, it is clear that V0 D 0 (since R2 D R3). For
other values of Ru, V0 has negative and positive values that vary in a non-linear way with Ru.

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A.C bridges
Bridges with a.c. excitation are used to measure unknown impedances. As for d.c. bridges, both null
and deflection types exist, with null types being generally reserved for calibration duties.
Null-type impedance bridge
A typical null-type impedance bridge is shown in Figure 7.7. The null point can be conveniently
detected by monitoring the output with a pair of headphones connected via an operational amplifier
across the points BD. This is a much cheaper method of null detection than the application of an
expensive galvanometer that is required for a d.c. Wheatstone bridge.

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If is capacitive, i.e.
is readily available. If
, then
is inductive, then nee
must consist of a variable capacitance box, which
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Notice that the expression for
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as an inductive impedance has a resistive term in it because it
is impossible to realize a pure inductor. An inductor coil always has a resistive component,

the ratio inductance/resistance). Therefore, g.n

though this is made as small as possible by designing the coil to have a high Q factor (Q factor is
must consist of a variable-resistance box and a

hence expensive to manufacture a set of fixed value inductors to make up a variable-inductance

box. For this reason, an alternative kind of null-type bridge circuit, known as the Maxwell
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variable-inductance box. However, the latter are not readily available because it is difficult and

Bridge, is commonly used to measure unknown inductances.

Maxwell bridge
Definition
A Maxwell Bridge (in long form, a Maxwell-Wien bridge) is a type of Wheatstone bridge used
to measure an unknown inductance (usually of low Q value) in terms of calibrated resistance and
capacitance. It is a real product bridge.
The Maxwell Bridge is used to measure unknown inductance in terms of calibrated resistance
and capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to manufacture than capacitors of
similar precision, and so the use of a simple "symmetrical" inductance bridge is not always
practical.

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Circuit Diagram

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Explanation
Figure 1.7.1. Maxwell Bridge

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With reference to the picture, in a typical application R1 and R4 are known fixed entities,
and R2 and C2 are known variable entities. R2 and C2 are adjusted until the bridge is

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balanced.R3 and L3 can then be calculated based on the values of the other components: As
shown in Figure, one arm of the Maxwell bridge consists of a capacitor in parallel with a resistor

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(C1 and R2) and another arm consists of an inductor L1 in series with a resistor (L1 and R4). The

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other two arms just consist of a resistor each (R1 and R3). The values of R1 and R3 are known,
and R2 and C1 are both adjustable. The unknown values are those of L1 and R4. Like other

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bridge circuits, the measuring ability of a Maxwell Bridge depends on 'Balancing' the circuit.
Balancing the circuit in Figure 1 means adjusting C1 and R2 until the current through the bridge

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between points A and B becomes zero. This happens when the voltages at points A and B are
equal.
Mathematically,
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To avoid the difficulties associated with determining the precise value of a variable
capacitance, sometimes a fixed-value capacitor will be installed and more than one resistor will
be made variable.
The additional complexity of using a Maxwell bridge over simpler bridge types is
warranted in circumstances where either the mutual inductance between the load and the known
bridge entities, or stray electromagnetic interference, distorts the measurement results.
The capacitive reactance in the bridge will exactly oppose the inductive reactance of the
load when the bridge is balanced, allowing the load's resistance and reactance to be reliably
determined.

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Advantages:
The frequency does not appear
Wide range of inductance

Disadvantages:
Limited measurement
It requires variable standard capacitor

SCHERING BRIDGE
Definition
A Schering Bridge is a bridge circuit used for measuring an unknown electrical capacitance and
its dissipation factor. The dissipation factor of a capacitor is the the ratio of its resistance to its

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capacitive reactance. The Schering Bridge is basically a four-arm alternating-current (AC) bridge
circuit whose measurement depends on balancing the loads on its arms. Figure 1 below shows a

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diagram of the Schering Bridge.
Diagram

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Explanation
Figure 1.7.2. Schering Bridge et
In the Schering Bridge above, the resistance values of resistors R1 and R2 are known,
while the resistance value of resistor R3 is unknown. The capacitance values of C1 and C2 are
also known, while the capacitance of C3 is the value being measured. To measure R3 and C3, the
values of C2 and R2 are fixed, while the values of R1 and C1 are adjusted until the current
through the ammeter between points A and B becomes zero. This happens when the voltages at
points A and B are equal, in which case the bridge is said to be 'balanced'. When the bridge is
balanced, , where Z1 is the impedance of R1 in parallel with C1 and Z3 is the
impedance of R3 in series with C3. In an AC circuit that has a capacitor, the capacitor
contributes a capacitive reactance to the impedance.

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When the bridge is balanced, the negative and positive reactive components are equal and cancel
out, so

Similarly, when the bridge is balanced, the purely resistive components are equal,

Note that the balancing of a Schering Bridge is independent of frequency.

Advantages:

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Used for measuring the insulating properties of electrical cables and equipment’s

HAY BRIDGE
Definition
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A Hay Bridge is an AC bridge circuit used for measuring an unknown inductance by
balancing the loads of its four arms, one of which contains the unknown inductance. One of the

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arms of a Hay Bridge has a capacitor of known characteristics, which is the principal component

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used for determining the unknown inductance value. Figure 1 below shows a diagram of the Hay
Bridge.
Explanation
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As shown in Figure 1, one arm of the Hay bridge consists of a capacitor in series with a

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resistor (C1 and R2) and another arm consists of an inductor L1 in series with a resistor (L1 and
R4). The other two arms simply contain a resistor each (R1 and R3). The values of R1and R3 are

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known, and R2 and C1 are both adjustable. The unknown values are those of L1 and R4. Like
other bridge circuits, the measuring ability of a Hay Bridge depends on 'balancing' the circuit.
Balancing the circuit in Figure 1 means adjusting R2 and C1 until the current through the
ammeter between points A and B becomes zero. This happens when the voltages at points A and
B are equal.
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Diagram

Figure 1.7.3. Hay Bridge

10

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When the Hay Bridge is balanced, it follows that wherein Z1 is the impedance
of the arm containing C1 and R2 while Z2 is the impedance of the arm containing L1 and R4.
Thus,

When the bridge is balanced, the reactive components are equal, so

Substituting R4, one comes up with the following equation:

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After dropping the reactive components of the equation since the bridge is
Thus, the equations for L1 and R4 for the Hay Bridge in Figure 1 when it is balanced are:

Advantages:
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Simple expression
Disadvantages: asy
WIEN BRIDGE:
Definition
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It is not suited for measurement of coil

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A Wien bridge oscillator is a type of electronic oscillator that generates sine waves. It can
generate a large range of frequencies. The circuit is based on an electrical network originally

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developed by Max Wien in 1891. Wien did not have a means of developing electronic gain so a
workable oscillator could not be realized. The modern circuit is derived from William Hewlett's

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1939 Stanford University master's degree thesis. Hewlett, along with David Packard co-founded
Hewlett-Packard. Their first product was the HP 200A, a precision sine wave oscillator based on
the Wien bridge. The 200A was one of the first instruments to produce such low distortion.
Diagram et

Figure 1.7.4 Wein bridge

11

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Amplitude stabilization:
The key to Hewlett's low distortion oscillator is effective amplitude stabilization. The
amplitude of electronic oscillators tends to increase until clipping or other gain limitation is
reached. This leads to high harmonic distortion, which is often undesirable. Hewlett used an
incandescent bulb as a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor in the oscillator
feedback path to limit the gain. The resistance of light bulbs and similar heating elements
increases as their temperature increases. If the oscillation frequency is significantly higher than
the thermal time constant of the heating element, the radiated power is proportional to the
oscillator power. Since heating elements are close to black body radiators, they follow the
Stefan-Boltzmann law. The radiated power is proportional to T4, so resistance increases at a
greater rate than amplitude. If the gain is inversely proportional to the oscillation amplitude, the
oscillator gain stage reaches a steady state and operates as a near ideal class A amplifier,

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achieving very low distortion at the frequency of interest. At lower frequencies the time period of
the oscillator approaches the thermal time constant of the thermistor element and the output

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distortion starts to rise significantly. Light bulbs have their disadvantages when used as gain
control elements in Wien bridge oscillators, most notably a very high sensitivity to vibration due
to the bulb's micro phonic nature amplitude modulating the oscillator output, and a limitation in

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high frequency response due to the inductive nature of the coiled filament. Modern Distortion as
low as 0.0008% (-100 dB) can be achieved with only modest improvements to Hewlett's original

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circuit. Wien bridge oscillators that use thermistors also exhibit "amplitude bounce" when the

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oscillator frequency is changed. This is due to the low damping factor and long time constant of
the crude control loop, and disturbances cause the output amplitude to exhibit a decaying

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sinusoidal response. This can be used as a rough figure of merit, as the greater the amplitude
bounce after a disturbance, the lower the output distortion under steady state conditions.
Analysis:
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Figure 1.7.4 Input analysis
Input admittance analysis
If a voltage source is applied directly to the input of an ideal amplifier with feedback, the input
current will be:
Where vin is the input voltage, vout is the output voltage, and Zf is the feedback impedance. If
the voltage gain of the amplifier is defined as:
And the input admittance is defined as:
Input admittance can be rewritten as:
If Av is greater than 1, the input admittance is a negative resistance in parallel with an
inductance.

12

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If a resistor is placed in parallel with the amplifier input, it will cancel some of the negative
resistance. If the net resistance is negative, amplitude will grow until clipping occurs.
If a resistance is added in parallel with exactly the value of R, the net resistance will be infinite
and the circuit can sustain stable oscillation at any amplitude allowed by the amplifier.
Advantages:
Frequency sensitive
Supply voltage is purely sinusoidal

Transformer Ratio Bridges & Self-Balancing Bridges

Transformer Ratio Bridges
Introduction
The product to which this manual refers should be installed, commissioned, operated and

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maintained under the supervision of a competent Electrical Engineer in accordance with
relevant statutory requirements and good engineering practice, including Codes of Practice

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where applicable, and properly used within the terms of the specification.
The instructions in this manual should familiarize qualified personal with the proper

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procedures to keep all new unit(s) in proper operating condition. These instructions for
installation, operation and maintenance of Package Compact Substation should be read carefully
and used as a guide during installation and initial operation.

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These instructions do not propose to cover all details or variations in equipment, nor to

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provide for every contingency to be met in connection with installation, operation, or
maintenance.
We would in particular stress the importance of care in:
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• Site selection and design, embodying features that provide adequate ventilation,

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protection and security and which have taken account of appropriate fire, moisture
and explosion hazards.
• Jointing.
• Earthing. g.n
overload, overvoltage and short-circuit.
• Carrying out regular inspection and electrical and mechanical maintenance.
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• Selection and setting of electrical protection in primary and secondary, against

The Package Compact Substation(s) covered by these instructions have been repeatedly
inspected and tested to meet all applicable standards of IEC, to ensure you of a first-rate quality
product, which should give many years of satisfactory performance.
The specific ratings of each Package Compact Substation are shown on the drawings.
File these instructions in a readily accessible place together with drawings and descriptive data of
the Package Compact Substation. These instructions will be a guide to proper maintenance of the
equipment and prolong its life and usefulness

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General

The Package Compact Substations are completely self-contained, mounted on an integral

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base, factory assembled in a totally enclosed, aesthetically and acceptable cladding, vandal-
proof, vermin-proof and weather-proof housing ready for installation into position on a concrete
base pad or pier. The base frame is of welded structural steel and been hot-dipped galvanized

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after fabrication to assure affective corrosion resistance in service.Housing of the Package
Compact Substation is made of special material called ALUZINK, a sheet steel with a metallic

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alloy coating. The alloy consists of 55% aluminum and 43.4% zinc. This provides optimum
corrosion protection. The housing has three compartments, separated with ALUZINK sheet. The

compartments.
Receiving / Inspection / Storage
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transformer compartment is completely separated from the medium voltage and low voltage

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The Package Compact Substation is shipped from the factory ready for installation on
site. It has been submitted to all normal routine tests before being shipped, and it is not required

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to do any voltage testing before putting it into service, provided the substation has not sustained
any damage during transportation.
Personnel Safety
g.n
The first and most important requirements are the protection against contact with live

live parts have been metal enclosed, so that when the parts are live and the Package Compact et
parts during normal service as well as maintenance or modifications. This is the reason why all

Substation doors are open, no one can be able to touch them. Also, it is safe in case any short-
circuiting or sparking occurs at the bus bars.
Ventilation
Transformer compartment has been provided with sand trap louvers, to prevent ingress of
sand and that proper air circulation should take place.
Earthing
Proper earthing busbar has been provided.
Handling
Lifting lugs has been provided on top of four corners of the housing for lifting the DPS
by crane and chains as a single unit, otherwise this can be done by a forklift of sufficient
capacity, but the lifting fork must be positioned under the transformer portion.

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Installations
A clean, flat surface capable of supporting the Package Compact Substation unit weight
is the only requirement for a foundation. It is, however, important that adequate accessibility,
ventilation and ease of inspection of the unit must be provided.
In all installation work, the safety regulations for electrical installations have to be
observed. Each Package Compact Substation must be permanently grounded or earthed by
connecting an affective recognised ground or earth as prescribed by the latest applicable edition
of IEC or ANSI requirements. The Package Compact Substation is designed to operate with a
solidly grounded neutral system. The neutral connection should be solidly and permanently
grounded.

Tap connections

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on the nameplate of the transformer. These taps are provided to furnish rated output voltage

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when the input voltage differs from the rated voltage.
To change tap connections, do the following steps:
1. De-energized the unit, short-circuit both the high and low voltage connections and
ground both sides.
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2. Unlock the tap changer handle, and then move the taps changer handle to the desired

buses.
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tap, then locked the tap changer handle.

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3. Remove safety shorts and ground connections from the high voltage and low voltage

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After ensuring that no tools or hardware was left in the enclosure, and the enclosures are
closed properly, you may then re-energize the Package Compact Substation. Make sure that the

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tap connections are proper for the required voltage as listed on the nameplate. The transformer is
normally shipped with the tap changer for the rated voltage.

Cable connections g.n

When making outside cable connections, conductors suitable for at least 85°C should be
used. All connections should be made without placing undue stress on the terminals. Conductors
should be securely fastened in place and adequately supported with allowances for expansion
et
and contraction.

Final Inspection Prior to Energization

After the Package Compact Substation has been found to be in good condition and the
protective equipment is operational, the substation may be connected to the network. However, it
is recommended that the transformer to be left to settle for 1 or 2 days after installation so those
air bubbles in the oil have time to dissolve before connecting the voltage.

Before energizing the unit, a complete electrical inspection should be made. The
following checklist should be used as a minimum requirement.

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Electrical Inspection
All external connections have been made properly (phasing of connections to terminals,
etc.).
All connections are tight and secure.
All accessory circuits are operational. Check the transformer protective equipment and
test the function of their electrical circuits:
Thermometers (alarms, tripping)
Pressure relay (tripping)
Oil level indicator
Ensure that all fuses are inserted and in the correct position
All tap connections are properly positioned.
The neutral and ground connections have been properly made.

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Mechanical Inspection

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All shipping members have been removed.
There is no obstructions in or near the openings for ventilation. No tools or other articles
are left inside the enclosures.

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All protective covers are in place or closed and bolted tight.

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Maintenance and Periodic Inspection

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In order to assure a long lifetime and correct and reliable operation of equipment
delivered for this facility it is of utmost importance to perform maintenance regularly.

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Following general rules should always be considered before starting maintenance activity.
1. Authority from responsible engineer shall always be obtained before starting any
maintenance.
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2. Follow safety procedure established in carrying out the work.

g.n
Realize that no set of safety or maintenance instructions will ever be written that can
adequately cover all accident possibilities.
Therefore "SAFETY" as dictated by actual current conditions, always takes precedence
over any previously prepared safety or maintenance instructions. Assume nothing. Take the
precautions that you personally deem necessary in addition to those included in standard
et
practice.
• Be familiar with the drawings and previous test records before starting activity.
• Scrutinize maintenance instructions given for the equipment to be maintained.
Maintenance information is given in the Operation and Maintenance Manual for each
type of equipment.
The main dangers of such process are:
• Inaccessible lubrication points (greased for life) cannot be lubricated and may seize up.
• Areas not lubricated may be subject to corrosion.
• The high-pressure spray may damage equipment.
• Especially protective coatings may be removed.

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Bolt Tightness
All connections should be tight and secure. Bolts and nuts on busbar and terminal lugs
should be torqued and marked properly.

Inspection and Testing

The need for preventive maintenance will vary on operating conditions. Where heavy
dust conditions exist, an accumulation of dust on the equipment may effect the operation of unit
substation and its protective apparatus.
When normal maintenance inspection and cleaning of bus connections, relays, lug
connections, and other part of the distribution system is being made, it is advisable to operate and
check circuit breakeror switch-disconnector operation.

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Routine Field Testing
Routine field testing of the electrical equipment is intended to enable maintenance

w.E
personal to determine, without laboratory conditions or complicated equipment, that a particular
electrical equipment is able to perform its basic circuit functions.
The following constitutes a guide to tests that might be performed during routine maintenance.

1. Insulation Resistance Testasy

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Extreme atmospheres and conditions may reduce the dielectric withstandability of any

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insulating material. An instrument commonly known as "megger" is used to perform this test.
The voltage recommended for this test should be at least 50 percent greater than the circuit

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rating; however, a minimum of 500 volts is permissible. Tests should be made between phases of
opposite polarity as well as from current carrying parts of the circuit protective device to ground.

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Also, a test should be made between the line-and-load terminals with the circuit protective
device in the "OFF" position. Resistance values below one megaohm are considered unsafe and
should be investigated for possible contamination on the surfaces.
g.n
NOTE: For individual circuit protective device's resistance readings, load and line conductors
should be disconnected. If not disconnected, the test measurements will also include the
characteristics of the attached circuits.
et
A temperature and humidity reading are recommended and recorded during the testing period.
Insulation resistivity is markedly effected by temperature and humidity conditions. Based
condition of one (1) megaohm per kV assumes a 20°C wet bulb reading. The following table
shall be used to adjust readings to the 20°C constant.

2. Connection Test
Connections to the circuit protective device should be inspected to determine that a
proper electrical joint is present. If overheating in these connections is evident by discoloration
or signs of arcing, the connections should be removed and the connecting surfaces clean before

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re-connections. It is essential that electrical connections be made properly to prevent and reduce
overheating.

3. Mechanical Operation
During routine tests, mechanical operation of the circuit protective devices or disconnects
should be checked by turning it "ON" and "OFF" at least three times.

INTERFERENCE AND SCREENING

Interference is one of the most serious as well as most common problems in audio
electronics. We encounter interference when it produces effects like noise, hiss, hum or cross-
talk. If a radio engineer faces such problems, good theoretical knowledge as well as experience is
required to overcome them.

ww However, it should be considered, that interference is always present. All technical

remedies only aim at reducing the effect of interference to such a degree, that it is neither audible

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nor disturbing. This is mainly achieved by different ways of screening. This paper will explain
the technical background of interference and provides some common rules and hints which may
help you to reduce the problems.

Types of Interference asy

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Theoretically, the effects and mechanism of a single interference can well be calculated.

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But in practice, the complex coupling systems between pieces of equipment prevent precise
prediction of interference. The following picture shows the different types of interference

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coupling. The different types of interference between the components of an electric system. If we
consider all possible coupling paths in the diagram above we will find 10 different paths. This

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means a variety of 1024 different combinations. It should be noted, that not only the number of
paths, but also their intensity is important.
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Interference
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Having a closer look at the interference of cable, we find that hf-interference currents
cause measurable levels on signal (audio) lines and on supply lines. A ground-free interference
source would produce signals on a cable which spread along the line. These voltages and
currents can be called symmetrical interference. In practice this rarely occurs.
et
Through interference, asymmetrical signals are produced in respect to the ground. The
asymmetrical interference current flows along the two wires of the symmetrical line to the sink
and via the ground back to the source. These interference signals are cancelled at the
symmetrical input.

Galvanic Coupling of Interference

Galvanic coupling of interference occurs if the source and the sink of interference are
coupled by a conductive path. As can be seen from the equivalent circuit diagram, the source
impedance of the interference consists of the resistance RC and the inductance LC of the
conductor, which are common to the two parts of the circuit. From these elements the
interference source voltage can be calculated.

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Capacitive Coupling of Interference.

The capacitive coupling of interference occurs due to any capacitance between the source and
sink of interference.

Principle of capacitive coupling of interference

The interference voltage in the sink is proportional to its impedance. Systems of high
impedance are therefore more sensitive to interference than those of low impedance. The coupled
interference current depends on the rate of change of the interference and on the coupling
capacitance CC.

Inductive Coupling of Interference

Inductive coupling of interference occurs if the interference sink is in the magnetic field

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of the interference source (e.g. coils, cables, etc.) Principle of the inductive coupling of
interference.

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The interference voltage induced by inductive coupling is
- increasing the distance between conductors
- mounting conductors close to conductive surfaces

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- using short conductors
- avoiding parallel conductors
- screening
- using twisted cable E ngi
Note that by the same means the capacitive as well as the inductive coupling of interference will
be reduced.
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Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Interference
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Interference by Radiation
g.n
Interference by electromagnetic radiation becomes important at cable lengths greater than
1/7 of the wavelength of the signals. At frequencies beyond 30Mhz, most of the interference
occurs by e.m. radiation et
Principle of the coupling by e.m. Interference
Interference by Electrostatic Charge
Charged persons and objects can store electrical charges of up to several micro-
Coulombs, which means voltages of some 10kV in respect to ground. Dry air, artificial fabrics
and friction favour these conditions. When touching grounded equipment, an instantaneous
discharge produces arcing with short, high current pulses and associated strong changes of the
e.m. field.

Reduction of Interference
There are a number of methods to prevent interference. But all of them only reduce the
interference and never fully prevent it. This means there will never be a system which is 100%

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safe from interference. Because the efforts and the cost will rise with the degree of reduction of
interference, a compromise has to be found between the effort and the result.
The requirement for the reduction of interference will depend on:
- The strength of the interference source
- The sensitivity of the interference sink
- The problems caused by interference
- The costs of the equipment
We will discuss ways of preventing interference, their effect, and the main aspects for the
optimum efficiency of each method.

GROUNDING (OR EARTHING)

This is one of the simplest but most efficient methods to reduce interference. Grounding

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can be used for three different purposes:
1. Protection Ground

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Provides protection for the operators from dangerous voltages. Widely used on mains-
operated equipment.
2. Function Ground

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The ground is used as a conductive path for signals.
Example: in asymmetrical cables screen, which is one conductor for the signal, is connected to
the ground.
3. Screening Ground E ngi
Used to provide a neutral electrical path for the interference, to prevent that the

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interfering voltages or currents from entering the circuit. In this chapter we will only consider the
third aspect. Grounding of equipment is often required for the cases 1 or 2 anyhow, so that the

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screening ground is available "free of charge". Sometimes the grounding potential, provided by
the mains connection, is very "polluted". This means that the ground potential itself already

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carries an interfering signal. This is especially likely if there are big power consumers in the
neighbourhood or even in the same building. Using such a ground might do more harm than
good. The quality of the ground line can be tested by measuring it with a storage scope against
some other ground connection, e.g. a metal water pipe or some metal parts of the construction. et
Never use the Neutral (N) of the mains as ground.
It might contain strong interference, Because it carries the load current of all electrical
consumers. The grounding can be done by single-point grounding or by multi-point grounding.
Each method has advantages which depend on the frequency range of the signal frequencies. All
parts to be grounded are connected to one central point. This results in no "ground loops" being
produced. This means the grounding conductors do not form any closed conductive path in
which magnetic interference could induce currents. Furthermore, conductive lines between the
equipment are avoided, which could produce galvanic coupling of interference. Central
grounding requires consistent arrangement of the grounding circuit and requires insulation of the
individual parts of the circuit. This is sometimes very difficult to achieve. A system using the
single-point grounding.

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Multi-Point Grounding:
In multi-point grounding all parts are connected to ground at as many points as possible.
This requires that the ground potential itself is as widely spread as possible. In practice, all
conductive parts of the chassis, the cases, the shielding, the room and the installation are
included in the network.

Screening
When considering the effect of electrical and magnetic fields, we have to distinguish
between low and high frequencies. At high frequencies the skin effect plays an important role for
the screening. The penetration describes the depth from the surface of the conductor, where the
current density has decayed to 37% compared to the surface of the conductor.

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Screening of Cables
When signal lines run close to interference sources or when the signal circuit is very

w.E
sensitive to interference, screening of signal lines will give an improvement. There are different
ways of connecting the cable screen:
Three different ways of connecting the cable screen. Cable screen not connected. This

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screen will not prevent any interference, because the charge on the screen, produced by
interference, will remain and will affect the central signal line. Also, the current induced by

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interference in the line will flow through the sink, affecting the signal. Cable screen grounded on

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one side only. This screen will only prevent interference at low frequency signals. For
electromagnetic interference, where the wavelength is short compared to the length of the cable,

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the screening efficiency is poor. Cable screen grounded on either side it is effective for all kinds
of interference. Any current induced in the screen by magnetic interference will flow to ground.

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The inner of the cable is not affected. Only the voltage drop on the screen will affect the signal in
the screen. type of grounding is
- Ensure proper and careful connection of the screens.
- Use suitable plugs in connection with the cable screen. g.n
Multiple Earth and Earth Loops
Simple Two Synodic Period Cycler (Case 1)
et
The simple two Earth-Mars synodic period cycler. In the circular coplanar model it has a
period P=l.348 years, a radius of aphelion R~ = l .15 A U and the V, at Earth is 5.6 M s . For the
"Up" transfer, the Earth-Mars transfer is Type I or I1 and the Mars-Earth leg is Type VI. The
trajectory departs the Earth with the V, inward of the Earth's velocity vector taking it through a
perihelion of about 0.93 AU, crossing the Earth's orbit ahead of the Earth and outward to Mars'
orbit. As seen from Figure 1 the transfer to Mars is about 225 degrees and takes a little over nine
months. The trajectory continues onward making three complete orbits about the Sun without
coming near either the Earth or Mars again until passing through its original starting point on the
Earth's orbit for the third time, somewhat behind the Earth and finally encountering the Earth 2/7
of a revolution about the Sun (102.9 deg.) from the starting point. The cycler has made 3 2/7
complete orbits about the Sun while Earth has made 4 2/7. The Earth flyby must now rotate the

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incoming V, vector, which is outward, to the symmetrically inward orientation to begin the next
cycle. Unfortunately, the rotation angle required is approximately 135 degrees and with a V, of
5.65 km/s the Earth can only rotate the V, vector about 82 degrees. Now in the actual Solar
System, the orbit of Mars is elliptical with a semi-major axis of 1.524 AU, a perihelion of 1.381
AU and an aphelion of 1.666 AU. Thus the simple Case 1 cycler does not quite reach Mars'
average distance from the Sun. It is thus clear that a real world version of the Case 1 cycler
would require AV to make up for the inability of the Earth to rotate the V, vector, as well as for
the fact that over the course of seven cycles, of two synodic periods each, the Case 1 cycler will
not make it to Mars' orbit more than one half of the time. The real value of Case 1 is as a basis
for variations that can address these deficiencies.

Two Synodic Period Cycler With "Backflip" (Case 2)

ww Modifying Case 1 by introducing another Earth flyby, approximately six months and 180
degrees after the first, changes the situation somewhat. This six month, 180 degree transfer, or

w.E
"backflip" trajectory, was first introduced for lunar trajectories by U p h ~ f f . ~ The "Up"
trajectory for this version leaves the Earth with a Type I or I1 short transfer to Mars and a Type
V transfer back to Earth. This transfer to the first Earth encounter makes 2 11/14 revolutions

asy
about the Sun in 3 11/14 years. The Earth flyby then puts the vehicle onto a heliocentric orbit
with a period of one year which re-encounters the Earth approximately six months and 180

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degrees later, completing the 3 217 revolutions in 4 2/7 years. This second Earth flyby then sends

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the vehicle on to the next Mars encounter, continuing the cycle. Figure 2 shows this cycler
trajectory. Note that the first Earth encounter is in the lower portion of the plot. The backflip

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trajectory is not shown since its difference from the Earth's orbit is primarily in the z-direction.
The second Earth flyby and departure point for the second cycle is indicated slightly left of

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straight up on the Earth's orbit. In the circular co-planar model the Earth-Mars-Earth trajectory
has a period P=l.325 years, a radius of aphelion R~ z l . 4A5 U and the V, at Earth is 4.15

g.n
MSF.or Case 2, the transfer does not reach Mars' orbit in the circular co-planar model, but in the
real world does reach Mars when Mars is near its perihelion. The lower V, for Case 2 enables the
Earth to rotate the V, vector as much as about 102 degrees, thus easily enabling the first Earth
flyby to rotate the incoming V, to the required near polar orientation required for the backflip
trajectory outgoing V, as well as the second earth flyby to rotate the near polar incoming V, to
et
the outgoing V, required for the transfer to the next Mars, Thus, although Case 2 has many
desirable characteristics, it cannot be used for an entire seven cycles. If fact it will reach Mars for
at most two of the seven cycles without propulsive AVto augment the gravity assists.

Two Synodic Period Cycler With "Backflip" Plus 1-Year Loop (Case 3)
Modifying Case 2 to introduce a third Earth flyby in addition to the "backflip" adds
additional flexibility. This is accomplished by adding a one year Earth-Earth loop either before
or after the backflip. The order of the one year loop and the "backflip" can be chosen to best
advantage in the real world. The TJp" trajectory for this version leaves the Earth with a Type I
short transfer to Mars and a Type I11 or IV transfer back to Earth. This transfer to the first Earth
encounter makes 1 11/14 revolutions about the Sun in 2 11/14 years. The Earth flyby the puts the

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vehicle onto a heliocentric orbit with a period of one year which re-encounters the Earth
approximately six months and 180 degrees later and then re-encounters the Earth one year later,
or vice versa. The final Earth flyby then sends the vehicle on to the next Mars encounter. Figure
3 shows this cycler trajectory. Again as in Case 2, the backflip trajectory is not seen. The one
year Earth-Earth loop is also not shown. In the circular co-planar model the Earth-Mars-Earth
trajectory has a period P=l.484 years, a radius of aphelion R~=l .65A U and the V, at Earth is 5.4
km/s.
In this case the transfer reaches an aphelion approximately equal to Mars' aphelion and
will thus always cross Mars orbit in the real world. Analysis of Case 3 with the actual
ephemerides of Earth and Mars is considered in more detail below.

1-Year Loop (Case 3)

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Two Synodic Period Cycler With One Or Two 1-Year Loops
Modifying Case 1 to introduce one or two one year Earth-Earth loops or even a two year

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Earth-Earth loop without a backflip is also possible, it leads however, to much higher
V,'s less desirable characteristics that any of Cases 1,2 or 3, or the Aldrin Cycler for that matter.

Detailed Analysis Of Case 3

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A detailed analysis of Case 3 was performed using the actual ephemerides of the Earth and Mars.

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The trajectories were modeled as Sun-centered point-to-point conics connecting the Earth and

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Mars flybys. The flybys were modeled as instantaneous V m rotations. This ― V m -matching‖
model gives excellent insight into both the heliocentric and planetocentric trajectories and

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sufficient accuracy for developing long term trajectory scenarios that can be closely reproduced
with fully numerically integrated trajectory models. The Table shows data for a full cycle of

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seven two-synodic period cyclers (30 years). This should approximately repeat since the Earth
and Mars are very nearly at the same inertial positions every 15 years.The choice of one year

g.n
loop or backflip and whether the backflip is ―north‖ or ―south‖ needs to be made in each case
to make best use of the arrival and departure V,‘s to minimize the required bending by the Earth
and potential required AV. The Mars flybys (given to the nearest 1000 km) are all at reasonably
et
high altitudes. Whereas in the circular co-planar analysis the Mars flybys are arbitrarily high, in
the real world the Mars gravity assist must control the inclination of the heliocentric orbit as well
as adjust the energy slightly to properly phase for the next encounter. The Mars V,‘s vary
between about 3 km/s and 8 km/s which compares to the value of 5.3 km/s in the circular
coplanar case. The Earth V,‘s vary between about 4 km/s and 7.5 km/s which compares to 5.4
km/s.

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EE 6404 MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT – IV – STORAGE AND DISPLAY DEVICES

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En
gin
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Prepared by ng.
Dr.R.DHARMAPRAKASH
PROFESSOR
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
PANIMALAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Jaisakthi Educational Trust, Chennai-600 123

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Magnetic disk and tape – Recorders, digital plotters and printers, CRT display, digital CRO,
LED, LCD & dot matrix display – Data Loggers.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

CRO is a useful portable lab instrument. It is a universal tool in all kinds of electrical and
electronics Inventions. CRO is used for display, measurement, analysis of waveforms and
various quantities in electrical and electronic circuits. Oscilloscopes are now available to
measure frequencies up to 1GHZ.
Block Diagram of CRO

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asy
En
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Cathode Ray Tube
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CRT is the heart of CRO and it generates the electron beam and accelerates the beam to
high velocity, deflects the beam create the image and displays on the phosphor screen and
displays on the phosphor screen.
Trigger Circuit ng.
n et
It is employed to synchronize the horizontal deflection with the vertical input. It links the
vertical input and horizontal time base.
Time Base Generator
It is used to reproduce the waveform accurately .It generates ramp voltage which is
having constant horizontal velocity which the function of deflecting voltage and expressed in
time per division.
Horizontal Amplifier
It amplifies the sweep generator output,during the ordinary mode of CRO operation
vertical input signal is amplified and during the x-y mode of CRO operation horizontal input
signal is amplified.
Vertical Amplifier
This receives the input signal and determines the sensitivity and bandwidth of
oscilloscopes and expressed in terms of oscilloscopes and expressed in bandwidth of
oscilloscopes and expressed in terms of volt per division.

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Delay Line
Delay line is mainly used to delay the transmission of signal voltage.
Power Supply
It provides the voltage required by the CRT to generate and accelerate the electron beam.
It also provides the voltage for various stages. High voltage is given to CRT and low voltages to
all other circuits.
Principle of Operation
CRO is a device used to supply electrical signal, which is primarily the function of time.
The input voltage is amplified by vertical amplifier and passes through a delay line and applied
to vertical deflection plates. The luminous spot strikes the phosphor screen and it provide a
bright visible spot on the screen either orthogonal axes (ie) x & y axes creates a two dimensional

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display. The ‘x’ axes is deflected at constantrate relative to time by using ‘H’ plates and ‘y’ axes
is defined in response to an input voltages by using the ‘V’ plates .

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Defection Sensitivity
It is defined as the deflection of the screen per unit deflection voltage .The deflection
sensitivity is given by

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S= D/Ed

Application of CRO
En
 CRO is used to measure voltage, current, phase, frequency, amplitude, resistance, delay
& impedance.
gin
 CRO is used to determine signal origin, modulation characteristic, SSB Modulation

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 CRO is used in 1.Television, Radar, fault testing of winding in electrical machines.

eri
 CRO is used to study waveforms, hysteresis loop for magnetic material, electronic

ng.
devices phenomenon, Performance of various stages in electronic System.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

n et
The digital storage oscilloscope has the capability of retaining the image on the screen for
longer than those of the previous possible techniques. Digital storage oscilloscopes are available
in 2 different types.
They are
a. Processing type
b. Non-processing type
The processing type digital storage oscilloscope includes built-in computing power in
which all data is already in digital form.
Processing capability ranges from simple functions to complete fast Fourier transform
spectrum analysis capability.
The non-processing type digital storage oscilloscopes are designed as replacements for
analog instruments (or) both storage and non-storage types.

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Block diagram consist of

1. Attenuator & offset
2. Analog to digital converter
3. Memory part
4. Record control
5. Trigger circuit
6. Timing & mode logic
7. Digital to analog converters.

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asy
En
gin
e eri
Block Diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

ng.
The analog voltage, input signal is digitized in a 10 bit ADC with a resolution of 0.1%
and frequency response of 25 khz. The total memory storage capacity is 4096 for a single

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channel 2048 for two channels each and 1024 for four channels each. The analog input voltage is
sampled at adjustable rates and data points are read are read onto the memory. Once the sampled
record of the event is captured in memory, many useful manipulations are possible. If the
et
memory is readout rapidly and respectively, an input event which was a single short transient
becomes an repetitive or continuous waveform. The digital recorder can be set to record
continuously, until the trigger signal is received. Then the recording is stopped. In this way
freezing data is received prior to the trigger signal in the memory.

Advantages of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

 Resolution of 0.025%
 Accuracy of 0.1%
 Better than analog oscilloscopes.
 Easy comparison of two signals, due to split-screen
 Pre trigger capability.

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Sampling CRO
Sampling oscilloscope is used to examine very fast signals. Samples are taken at different
portions of the waveform over successive cycles. Then the total picture is stretched and
amplified by low bandwidth amplifiers. It is then displayed as a continuous wave on the screen.
Sampling oscilloscopes use sampling techniques, if the measurement on repetitive waveform
signals, continuous display for frequencies is above 500MHZ range .The sampling techniques
immediately transform the input signal into the lower frequency domain .Then the low frequency
circuitry is producing a highly effective display. But the sampling techniques cannot be used fir
the display of transient waveform. The figure shows the block diagram of sampling
oscilloscopes.
It consist of various parts

ww a. Sampling rate
b. Vertical amplifier

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c. Voltage comparator
d. Stair case generator
e. Attenuator

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f. Ramp generator
g. Oscillator

En
gin
e eri
ng.
n et
The input waveform which is repetitive is applied to the sampling gate .The input waveform
is sampled whenever a sampling pulse opens the sampling gate. The sampling must be
synchronized with the input signal frequency. Therefore the signal is delayed in the vertical
amplifier allowing the sweep triggering to be done by the input signal. The different waveform
related to the operation of the sampling oscilloscope is shown in figure.

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Waveform related to operation of sampling oscilloscope

The trigger pulse activates an oscillator at the beginning of each sampling cycle. Then

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oscillator generator generates a linear ramp voltage .This voltage is applied to a voltage
comparator. The voltage comparator compares the ramp voltage to the stair case generator output

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voltage. When two voltages are equal in amplitude, the staircase generator advances one step.
Simultaneously a sampling pulse is generated and is applied to the sampling gate. Now the
sampling gate opens and allows the sample of the input voltage. This is the amplified and applied

asy
to the vertical defection plates. The resolution of the final image depends upon the step size of
the staircase generator. If the number of steps are smaller, larger the number of steps are smaller,

En
larger the number of samples and higher the resolution of the image.

Advantages of Sampling Oscilloscopes

 It can measure very high speed events. gin
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 It can respond and store rapid bits of information.

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Disadvantages-
ng.
It can only make measurements on respective waveform signals, continuous display
for frequencies from 50 to 300MHZ range

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

n et
LED's are special diodes that emit light when connected in a circuit. They are frequently
used as "pilot" lights in electronic appliances to indicate whether the circuit is closed or not. A a
clear (or often colored) epoxy case enclosed the heart of an LED, the semi-conductor chip.

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The two wires extending below the LED epoxy enclosure, or the "bulb" indicate how the
LED should be connected into a circuit. The negative side of an LED lead is indicated in two
ways: 1) by the flat side of the bulb, and 2) by the shorter of the two wires extending from the
LED. The negative lead should be connected to the negative terminal of a battery. LED's operate
at relative low voltages between about 1 and 4 volts, and draw currents between about 10 and 40
milliamperes. Voltages and currents substantially above these values can melt a LED chip.

The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the semi-conductor chip
located in the center of the bulb as shown at the right. The chip has two regions separated by a
junction.

ww The p region is dominated by positive electric charges, and the n region is dominated by

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negative electric charges. The junction acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons between the p and
the n regions. Only when sufficient voltage is applied to the semi-conductor chip, can the current
flow, and the electrons cross the junction into the p region.

asy
In the absence of a large enough electric potential difference (voltage) across the LED

En
leads, the junction presents an electric potential barrier to the flow of electrons.

gin
What Causes the LED to Emit Light and What Determines the Color of the Light?
When sufficient voltage is applied to the chip across the leads of the LED, electrons can

e
move easily in only one direction across the junction between the p and n regions. In the p region

eri
there are many more positive than negative charges. In the n region the electrons are more

ng.
numerous than the positive electric charges. When a voltage is applied and the current starts to
flow, electrons in the n region have sufficient energy to move across the junction into the p

n
region. Once in the p region the electrons are immediately attracted to the positive charges due
to the mutual Coulomb forces of attraction between opposite electric charges. When an electron
moves sufficiently close to a positive charge in the p region, the two charges "re-combine". et
Each time an electron recombines with a positive charge, electric potential energy is
converted into electromagnetic energy. For each recombination of a negative and a positive
charge, a quantum of electromagnetic energy is emitted in the form of a photon of light with a
frequency characteristic of the semi-conductor material (usually a combination of the chemical
elements gallium, arsenic and phosphorus). Only photons in a very narrow frequency range
can be emitted by any material. LED's that emit different colors are made of different semi-
conductor materials, and require different energies to light them.

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How Much Energy Does an LED Emit?

The electric energy is proportional to the voltage needed to cause electrons to flow across
the p-n junction. The different colored LED's emit predominantly light of a single color. The
energy (E) of the light emitted by an LED is related to the electric charge (q) of an electron and
the voltage (V) required to light the LED by the expression: E = qV Joules. This expression
simply says that the voltage is proportional to the electric energy, and is a general statement
which applies to any circuit, as well as to LED's. The constant q is the electric charge of a single
electron, -1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb.

Magnetic Tape Recorders

ww Recorders discussed so far are low frequency recorders and they provide a permanent
record on their paper chart. It is usually described and sometimes necessary to record data in a

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such a way that it can be retrieved in electrical form again and it can be easily achieved by using
magnetic tape reproduced in electrical form again and it can be easily achieved by using
magnetic tape recorders which even record signal of high frequency of the order of MHz.

asy
En
gin
e eri
ng.
Construction:
The basic Component of a magnetic tape recorder are:
1. Magnetic tape
n et
2. Recording Head
3. Reproducing Head
4. Tape Transport mechanism
5. Conditioning Devices
Magnetic tape
The magnetic tape is made of a thin sheet of tough dimensionally stable plastic one
side of which is coated with a magnetic material. The plastic base is polyvinyl chloride. The
magnetic coating consists of a dispersion of very small particles of iron oxide in the plastic
binder. The iron oxide particles are usually of needles shape about 0.6 micro meters. The size
of typical tape is 12.7mm wide and 25.4 micro meter thick.

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Recording Head
Recording head is a device that impresses a residual magnetic pattern upon it in response
to an amplified input electrical signal. The head essentially consist of a toroid core high
permeability material with a coil and a fine air gap of about 10 micro meters. The air gap is
shunted by passing magnetic and the coil current creates a flux of some shape to bridges the air
gap. thus the flux created in the airgap passes through the magnetic tape and magnetizes the iron
oxide particles as they pass the gap.the state of magnetization of the iron oxide particles is
retained as they leave the gap and so the actual recording takes place at the trailing edge of the
gap. Thus a signal is recorded on the tape in a form of magnetic pattern dispersed in space along
the tape, similar to the original coil current variation in time.
Reproducing Head

ww The reproducing head is similar to that of recording head in appearance. The working of
reproducing head is reveres working of recording head.

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The tape transport mechanism
It moves the tape along the recording head at constant speed without any strain,

asy
distortion or wear. for this the mechanism must be such as to guide the tape passed the
magnetic heads with great precision maintain proper tension and have sufficient tape to
magnetic head contact.
Operating principle: En
gin
As already mentioned the recorder tape is coated with a magnetic material consisting of a
dispersion of very small particles of iron oxide. As the tape is transferred from on reel to another

e
reel, it passes across a magnetic head that impress a residual magnetic pattern dispersed in space

eri
along the tape can be retrieved at any time by passing the tape across another magnetic head,

ng.
called the reproducing head, in which a voltage is induced . A large value of current in the coil of
the recording head would leave a higher residual flux and lower current residual flux, and so we

n
have a very simple recording process. However the linearity between residual flux the coli
current is extremely poor. The method of securing linearity will be described in recording
methods. et
Advantages:
1. Wide frequency range from dc to several Mhz
2. Low distortion
3. Possibility of playing back or reproducing of the recorded signal as many times as
required without loss signal permitting extensive analysis.
Application:
1. Medical research and patient monitoring.
2. Communication surveillance and spying.
3. Data recording and analysis on aircrafts and satellites.

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Liquid Crystal Display

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
The liquid crystal display has the distinct advantages of having a lower power

e eri
requirement than the LED. it is typically of the order of micro watts of the display in comparison
to the same order of mill watts for LEDs. Low power requirement has made it compatible with
MOS integrated logic circuit.
ng.
n
A liquid crystal display consist of a film of liquid crystal, about 15 micro meter of

et
thickness sandwich between it does not generate light. Its brightness depends upon the intensity
of light source shining through reflected from the crystal. The response time of LCD typically
range between 10 and 100 ms. the main drawbacks of LCD are additional requirement of light
source a limited temperature range of operation, low reliability, and short operating life.
Basically LCD operates from a low voltage, low frequency ac signal and draw very light current.
They are often arranged as 7 segment display for numerical display for numerical read out as
shown in fig.

The AC voltage required to turn on a segment is applied between the segment and the
backplane from a capacitor that draws very light current for low frequency ac voltage. The
voltage frequency is usually not kept lower than 25 Hz as this would produce visible flicker.
LCDs widely used in battery powered devices such as calculators and watches.

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Printer
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on paper.

Major types of printer

Printers can be divided into two main groups, impact printer and non-impact printer.
Impact printer produces text and images when tiny wire pins on print head strike the ink ribbon
by physically contacting the paper. Non-impact printer produces text and graphics on paper
without actually striking the paper.Printers can also be categorized based on the print method or
print technology. The most popular ones are inkjet printer, laser printer, dot-matrix printer
and thermal printer. Among these, only dot-matrix printer is impact printer and the others are
non-impact printers.Some printers are named because they are designed for specific functions,

ww
such as photo printers, portable printers and all-in-one / multifunction printers. Photo
printers and portable printers usually use inkjet print method whereas multifunction printers may

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use inkjet or laser print method.
Inkjet printers and laser printers are the most popular printer types for home and business
use. Dot matrix printer was popular in 70’s and 80’s but has been gradually replaced by inkjet

asy
printers for home use. However, they are still being used to print multi-part forms and carbon
copies for some businesses. The use of thermal printers is limited to ATM, cash registers and

En
point-of-sales terminals. Some label printers and portable printers also use thermal printing.Due
to the popularity of digital camera, laptop and SoHo office (small office / home office), the

gin
demand for photo printers, portable printers and multifunction printers has also increased
substantially in recent years.

Inkjet Printers e eri

ng.
n et
Inkjet printers are non-impact printers which print text and images by spraying tiny
droplets of liquid ink onto paper. They are the most popular printers for home use.Currently,
most inkjet printers use either thermal inkjet or piezoelectric inkjet technology. Thermal inkjet
printer uses heating element to heat liquid ink to form vapor bubble, which forces the ink
droplets onto the paper through the nozzle. Most inkjet manufacturers use this technology in
consumer inkjet printers.Piezoelectric inkjet technology is used on all Epson printers and
industrial inkjet printers. Instead of using heating element, these printers use a piezoelectric
crystal in each nozzle. The piezoelectric crystal changes shape and size based on the electric
current received, and forces tiny droplets of ink onto the paper from the nozzle.

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Thermal inkjet printers use aqueous ink which is a mixture of water, glycol and dyes.
These inks are inexpensive but they can only be used on paper or specially coated materials.
Piezoelectric inkjet printers allow the use of a wider range of inks, such as solvent inks, UV-
curable inks, dye sublimation inks, and can print text and graphics on different uncoated
materials.
The inkjet head design is also divided into two main groups: fixed-head and disposable
head. Fixed-head is built into the printer and should last for the whole life of the printer. It
produces more accurate output than cheap disposable head. The ink cartridges for fixed head
printers are also cheaper as the print head does not need to be replaced. However, if the head is
damaged, the entire printer has to be replaced. isposable head is included in replacement ink
cartridge. It is replaced each time an ink cartridge runs out of ink. This increases the cost of ink

ww
cartridges and also limits the use of high quality print head in these cartridges. However, a
damaged print head is not a problem as one can easily replace it with a new ink cartridge.Some

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printer manufacturers use disposable ink and disposable print head separately. The print head can
last much longer than cheap disposable head and is suitable for high volume printing. However,
it can also be replaced easily if the head is clogged or damaged.

asy
Although inkjet printers are generally used in home and small businesses, some
manufacturers, such as Hewlett Packard, have produced high end inkjet printers for industrial

En
use. These professional inkjet printers are usually used to print advertising graphics or technical
drawings.

Advantages of inkjet printers: gin

1. Low cost
e eri
2. High quality of output, capable of printing fine and smooth details
3. Capable of printing in vivid color, good for printing pictures
4. Easy to use
ng.
5. Reasonably fast
6. Quieter than dot matrix printer
7. No warm up time
n et
Disadvantages of inkjet printers:
1. Print head is less durable, prone to clogging and damage
2. Expensive replacement ink cartridges
3. Not good for high volume printing
4. Printing speed is not as fast as laser printers
5. Ink bleeding, ink carried sideways causing blurred effects on some papers
6. Aqueous ink is sensitive to water, even a small drop of water can cause blurring
7. Cannot use highlighter marker on inkjet printouts

12
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Laser Printers

Laser printers are non-impact printers which can print text and images in high speed and
high quality resolution, ranging from 600 to 1200 dpi.
Unlike inkjet printers, laser printer use toner (black or colored powder) instead of liquid
inks. A laser printer consists of these major components: drum cartridge, rotating mirror, toner
cartridge and roller. The drum cartridge rotates as the paper is fed through. The mirror deflects

ww
laser beam across the surface of the drum. Laser beam creates charge that causes the toner to
stick to the drum. As the drum rotates and presses on paper, toner is transferred from the drum to

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paper, creating images. Rollers then use heat and pressure to fuse toner to paper. Colored laser
printers add colored toner in three additional passes.
Advantages of laser printers:
1. High resolution
2. High print speed asy
3. No smearing
En
gin
4. Low cost per page (compared to inkjet printers)
5. Printout is not sensitive to water
6. Good for high volume printing
Disadvantages of laser printers:
1. More expensive than inkjet printers e eri
ng.
2. Except for high end machines, laser printers are less capable of printing vivid colors and
high quality images such as photos.
3. The cost of toner replacement and drum replacement is high
4. Bulkier than inkjet printers
5. Warm up time needed
n et
Dot-matrix printer
Dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that produces text and graphics when tiny wire
pins on the print head strike the ink ribbon. The print head runs back and forth on the paper like a
typewriter. When the ink ribbon presses on the paper, it creates dots that form text and images.
Higher number of pins means that the printer prints more dots per character, thus resulting in
higher print quality.
Dot-matrix printers were very popular and the most common type of printer for personal
computer in 70’s to 80’s. However, their use was gradually replaced by inkjet printers in 90’s.
As of today, dot matrix printers are only used in some point-of-sales terminals, or
businesses where printing of carbon copy multi-part forms or data logging are needed.

13
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Advantages of dot matrix printer:

1. Can print on multi-part forms or carbon copies
2. Low printing cost per page
3. Can be used on continuous form paper, useful for data logging

ww4. Reliable, durable

1. Noisy w.E
Disadvantages of dot matrix printer:

2. Limited print quality

3. Low printing speed
asy
4. Limited color printing

En
gin
e eri
ng.
n et

14
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EE 6404 MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT – 5 – TRANSDUCERS AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

ww
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asy
En
gin
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Prepared by ng.
Dr.R.DHARMAPRAKASH
PROFESSOR
n et
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
PANIMALAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Jaisakthi Educational Trust, Chennai-600 123

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Classification of transducers – Selection of transducers – Resistive, capacitive & inductive

transducers – Piezoelectric, Hall effect, optical and digital transducers – Elements of data
acquisition system – A/D, D/A converters – Smart sensors.

Transducer
 It is a device, which convert one form of energy to another form
 Non electrical quantity is converted into an electrical form by a transducer
 Another name is pick up

Different types of transducer

 Resistive transducers

ww Capacitive transducers

 Inductive transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers

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 Optical transducers
 Digital transducers

Selection of transducer: asy

Range
En
The range of the transducer should be large enough to encompass all the expected
magnitude of the measurand
Sensitivity gin
to yield meaningful data. e
The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of measured input in order

eri
ng.
Electrical output characteristics
The electrical characteristics the output impendence the frequency response and the

n
response time of the transducer output signal should be compatible with the recording devices
and the rest of the measuring system equipment.
Physical environment
The transducer selected should be able to withstand the environment conditions to
which it is likely to be subjected while carrying out measurements and test.
et
Factor influencing choice of the transducer
1. Operating Principle
2. Sensitivity
3. Operating Range
4. Accuracy
5. Cross sensitivity
6. Errors
7. Transient and frequency response
8. Loading effects.

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9. Environmental compatibility
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals
11. Usage and Ruggedness
12. Electrical aspects
13. Stability and Reliability
14. Static characteristics

Operating Principle
The transducers are many times selected on the basis of operating principle used by them.
The operating principle used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo
electric etc.

ww
Sensitivity
The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce detectable output.

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Operating Range
The transducer should maintain the range requirement and have a good resolution over
the entire range.
Accuracy
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High accuracy is assured.
Cross sensitivity
En
It has to be taken into account when measuring mechanical quantities. There are situation

gin
where the actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to
variation in another plan.
Errors
e eri
The transducer should maintain the expected input-output relationship as described by the
transfer function so as to avoid errors.
Transient and frequency response
ng.
rise time, setting time and small dynamic error.
Loading Effects
n
The transducer should meet the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot,

The transducer should have a high input impedance and low output impedance to avoid
et
loading effects
Environmental Compatibility
It should be assured that the transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not break down.
Insensitivity to unwanted signals
The transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to
desired signals
Usage and Ruggedness
The ruggedness both of mechanical and electrical intensities of transducer versus its size
and weight must be considered while selecting a suitable transducer.

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Electrical aspects
The electrical aspects that need consideration while selecting a transducer include the
length and type of cable required.
Stability and Reliability
The transducer should exhibit a high degree of stability to be operative during its
operation and storage life.
Static Characteristics
Apart from low static error, the transducer should have a low non- linearity, low
hysteresis, high resolution and a high degree of repeatability

Active Transducer
Also known as self-generating type, develop their own voltage or current from the

ww
physical phenomenon being measured.
Velocity, temperature, light intensity and force can be transducer with the help of active
transducer.
w.E
Passive Transducer

asy
Also known as externally powered transducers, i.e., derive the power required for energy
conversion from an external power source.

En
Resistive Transducer
gin
In such a transducer resistance between the output terminals of a transducer gets varied
according to the measurand.
e eri
Resistive transducer is preferred over other transducer because dc and ac both are suitable
for measurements.

ng.
Where
ρ - is the resistivity of the material of conductor in ohm-meter.
L- is the length of the conductor in meters
n et
a- cross sectional area of the conductors in m2
Physical phenomenon that is input signal to the transducer causes variation in resistance by
changing any one of the quantity ρ, l, and A. for the measurement of the displacement length of
the conductor is varied in potentiometer thereby resulting in change in resistance. For
measurements of force and pressure resistance of the conductor is varied in strain gauge.
Variation in temperature cause change in the resistivity of the conductor material and so change
in resistance take place which is noted for measurements of temperature .with some devices
resistance varies with the change in light intensity because of photoconductive effect, while
with others resistance varies on exposure to magnetic field due to magneto resistive effect.

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Potentiometers
The instrument used to measure an voltage comparing it with a known voltage is known
as potentiometers.
Advantages
1. High degree of accuracy due to the comparison method.
2. It is independent of source resistance.
3. It is used to measure current with the help of a standard resistance.
4. It is used to calibrate ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc .

Slide-Wire Potentiometers
It consist of a German sliver or magnanin wire of uniform cross section and stretched

ww
between two terminals A&B on a flat board with a scale graduated in mm fixed alongside. The
extremes A&B are connected to a battery through a variable resistance R with a positive terminal
0f battery connected to end A & negative terminal to end B.

w.E
When switch is closed, a voltage is developed between A&J as AB is a resistor R of
length L. Then total resistance/unit length, r =R/L. The resistance is not a constant but depend on

asy
sliding contact as it is varied.
Voltage drop = irl across the resistance.

En
Precision Slide Wire Potentiometer (Compton Potentiometer)
It use calibrated dial resistors and a small circular wire of one or more turns there by

gin
reducing the size of the instrument. A dial switch having 16 contact points and a short slide wire
.Two moving contacts P1&P2.P1 sliding over the slide wire and contact P2 sliding over the studs

e eri
connected to the resistance coil. Balance condition more easily and quickly obtained by means of
coarse (dial) adjustments and fine (slide wire) adjustment. A battery B of 2V is connected across

ng.
the potentiometer through the resistors R1&R2 for controlling the current drawn from the battery
.R1 consists of a number of resistance coils connected in sires and is meant for coarse
adjustment. R2 is like a slide wire and is meant for fine adjustment.
n et

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Vernire Potentiometer

ww
w.E
asy
En
In slide wire potentiometer, the slide wire should be extremely well made so that the
variations in contact resistance are not to limit the precision in adjustment of the potentiometer

gin
current. This difficulty may be overcome by the use of a shunted dial resistance for the regulator.
The working of Vernier potentiometer is based on Kelvin Varley principle.
Merits of potentiometers:
e eri
1. The pots are cheap, easy to operate, simple in construction and very useful for simple
application.

ng.
2. The pots , expect wire wound ones have got very good frequency response and infinite
resolution
3. The potentiometer can measure large amplitude of displacement.
n et
4. The potentiometers give very high electrical efficiency and enough output to control circuit
for operation.

Demerits of potentiometer:
1. The main draw back with the post is because of wear and tear of wiper and its effect on the
life of the transducer.
2. The pots required force are large
3. Large displacement is usually required for moving the slider or wiper along the entire
working surface of the pot.
4. The output is insensitive to variation in displacement of movable contact or wiper between
two consecutive turns of the pot.

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Strain gauge
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the
fact that both length and diameter of conductor change. Also there is a change in the value of
resistivity of the conductor when strained and this property is called piezo resistive effect.

Resistive strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges.

ww (1)

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Let a tensile stress be applied to the wire

Divide equation (2) by (1) asy (2)

En
gin (3)

From (3), per unit change in resistance is due to

Per unit change in length e eri
Per unit change in area
Per unit change in resistivity ng.
( )
(4) n et
(5)

Equation (3) can be written as,

(6)

(7)

(8)

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(9)

For Small variation, the above relationship can be written as,

(10)

The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in
length
⁄
(11)
⁄

⁄ ⁄ (12)

ww ⁄ (13)

w.E ⁄
⁄

⁄
⁄
⁄

⁄
(14)

asy ⁄
(15)

Types of strain gauge

1. Unbonded metal strain gauge En
2. Bonded metal wire strain gauge
3. Bonded metal foil strain gauge gin
4. Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges.
5. Sputter deposited thin metal film strain gauge. e eri
6. Bonded semiconductor strain gauges.
7. Diffused metal strain gauge. ng.
Unbounded metal strain gauge n et

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 Used almost exclusively in transducer applications.

 At initial preload, the strains and resistances of the four arms are normally equal,
with the result the output voltage of the bridge, e0=0.
 Application of pressure produces a small displacement, the displacement
increases tension in 2 wires and decreasing the resistance of the remaining 2
wires.
 This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output voltage which is
proportional to the input displacement and hence to the applied pressure.

Bonded metal wire strain gauge

ww
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asy
 En
It consists of a grid of fine resistance wire of diameter of about 0.025mm.


The wire is cemented to a base.
gin
The base – thin sheet of paper or Bakelite.

e eri
Wire is covered with a thin sheet of material so that it is not damaged
mechanically.

ng.
 The spreading of wire permits a uniform distribution of stress over a grid.

Bonded metal foil strain gauge

n et
 Extension of the bonded metal wire strain gauge
 The bonded metal wire strain gauges have been completely superseded by bonded
foil strain gauge.

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Construction

ww
w.E
The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical
signals is the linear variable differential transformer(LVDT).LVDT is a differential transformer

asy
consisting of a single primary winding P and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound over a
hallow bobbin of non-magnetic and insulating material. The secondary windings S1 and S2 have

En
equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of the primary winding. A

gin
movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied to
the arm attached to the soft iron core. In order to overcome the problem of eddy current losses in

e
the core, nickel-iron alloy is used as core material and is slotted longitudinally.

eri
Working
ng.
Primary winding is connected to an AC source of voltage varying from 5 to 25V and of

n
frequency ranging from 50Hz to 20 kHz. Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating
current source, it produces an alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating
voltages. The output voltage of secondary winding S1 is ES1 and that of secondary winding S2
et
is ES2.In order to convert the output voltage from S1 and S2 into a single voltage signal the two
secondaries S1 and S2 are connected in series opposition as shown in fig. Therefore the output
voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages.
Differential output voltage – .
When the core is at its normal position the flux linking with both secondary windings are
equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Thus at null position Es1=Es2.Since the output
voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at
null position.

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ww Now if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with windings S1
and less with windings S2.Hence output voltage Es1, of the secondary winding S1, is more than

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Es2, the output voltage of secondary winding S2.The magnitude of output voltage is thus
– and the output voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.

Advantages of LVDT
asy
 The output of LVDT is practically linear for displacements upto 5mm.The LVDTs

En
have a very high range of measurement of displacement.
 LVDT has high sensitivity. It usually varies from 10 mv/mm to 40 v/mm.

gin
 The LVDT gives a high output and many a time there is no need for amplification.
 LVDT has very low hysteresis; hence repeatability is excellent under all conditions.

e
 LVDT can be used on high frequencies upto 20 kHz.
 Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of power. eri
Disadvantages of LVDT ng.
 Large displacements are required for differential output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
 Sometimes the transducer performance is affected by vibrations.
n et
 Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.

Applications
 Displacement.
 Force.
 Weight.
 Pressure.
 Position.

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Capacitive Transducer
The principle of operation of capacitive transducer is based upon the familiar equation
for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

Where,
A= overlapping area of plates in m².
D= distance between two plates in m.
€o= permittivity of free space and is equal to 8.854*10^-12 F/m
€r = relative permittivity of the dielectric.
The capacitive transducer works on the principle of change of capacitance which may be
caused by

ww  Change in overlapping area A

 Change in the distance d between the plates.
 Change in dielectric constant.

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Capacitive transducers-By variation of overlapping area of plates:

asy
En
gin
e eri
We Know that,
ng.
n
From the above equation it is found that the capacitance is directly proportional to the
area A of the plates. Thus the capacitance changes linearly with change in area of plates.
Fig shows two types of capacitive transducers used for the measurement of displacement.
The area changes linearly with the displacement and also the capacitance.
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For a parallel plate capacitor the capacitance is

Where, x = length of overlapping portion of plates in m. W = width of overlapping portion of

plates in m
Sensitivity F/m
The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is a liner relationship between capacitance
and displacement. This type of transducer can be used to measure linear displacement from 1mm
to several cm with very high accuracy upto 0.01 percent.

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For a cylindrical capacitor the capacitance is

⁄
Where, x = is the length of overlapping portion of cylinder in m.
D2 = inner diameter of outer cylindrical electrode in m.
D1 = outer diameter of inner cylindrical electrode in m.
Sensitivity F/m
⁄
The principle of variation of capacitance with change in area can also be used to
measure angular displacement. Fig shows a two plate capacitor. One plate is fixed and the other
is movable. The angular displacement to be measured is applied to movable plate. The angular

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displacement changes the effective area between the plates and thus the changes the capacitance.
The capacitance is maximum when the two plates completely overlap each other i.e. when
θ=180°.

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Advantages of capacitive transducers
 These transducers have very high impedance and therefore loading effects are
minimum.
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 These transducers have a good frequency response.This response is as high as 50 kHz

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and hence they are very useful for dynamic studies.
 These transducers are extremely sensitive.

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 A resolution of the order of 2.5*10³ mm can be obtained with these transducers.
 These transducers are not affected by stray magnetic fields.
Disadvantages
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 Output impedance of capacitive transducer is very high. So its measuring circuit
becomes very complicated.

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 The cable connecting the transducer to the measuring point is also a source of error.
The cable may be source of loading resulting in loss of sensitivity.

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 Capacitance of capacitive transducer changes with change in temperature or on
account of presence of small external matter. e.g. dust particles and moisture etc.
 The instrumentation circuitry used with these transducers is very complex. et
Application
 Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement of both linear and angular
displacements.
 Capacitive transducers can be used for the measurement of force and pressure.
 Capacitive transducers can also be employed for measuring pressure directly in all
those cases in which permittivity of a medium changes with pressure such as in case
of Benzene permittivity varies by 0.5% in the pressure range of 1 to 1000 times the
atmosphere pressure.
 Capacitive transducers are commonly used in conjunction with mechanical modifiers
for measurement of volume, density, liquid level, weight etc.

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Piezoelectric transducer:
In some crystalline or ceramic material, a potential difference appears across the opposite
faces of the material as a result of dimensional changes when a mechanical force applied to it.
This is called the piezoelectric effect and such materials are called the piezoelectric materials.
This effect is reversible also that is when a potential difference is applied across the
opposite faces of the material, it changes its physical dimensions.

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Material for piezoelectric transducer: En
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Common piezoelectric transducer materials include Rochelle salt, ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate (ADP), quartz and ceramics made with barium titanate, potassium dihydrogen

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phosphate and lithium sulfate and these used in real application.

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The piezoelectric effect can be made to respond to mechanical deformation of the
material in many different modes. The mode can be
 thickness expansion ng.
 transverse expansion
 thickness shear
 face shear
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The mode of motion employed depends on the shape of the electrodes. A piezoelectric
elements used for converting mechanical motion to electrical signal may be thought as charge
generator and the capacitor. Mechanical deformation generates a charge and this charge appears
a voltage across the electrodes.
The output voltage .
The piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive. a tensile force produces a voltage of one
polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity.
A crystal is placed between a solid base and the force summing member. An externally
applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port, applies pressure to the top of the
crystal. This produced an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of applied pressure.

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The magnitude and the polarity of the induced surface charge are proportional to the
magnitude and the direction of the applied force.

Where
d=crystal charge sensitivity in coulomb/Newton and is constant for a given crystal cut.
F=applied Force in Newton.
The force F cause a change in thickness of the crystal by ∆t in meter and so

Where
A= area of crystal in m2
E=young’s Modules of elastic in N/m2

ww T=thickness of crystal in m
The charge at the electrodes gives rise to an output voltage E0 and is given by expression

Where
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Cp is the capacitance between the electrodes of the crystal.

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⁄

P=F/A is the pressure in pascals applied on the crystal.

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Where, is the voltage sensitivity of the crystal ng.
Advantages of piezoelectric transducer:
 Piezoelectric transducer is generally small in size.
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 These transducers are self-generating type as they do not need external power.
 Their outputs are quite large.

Disadvantages of piezoelectric transducer:

 The output voltage is affected by temperature variation of the crystal.
 It can be for dynamic measurement only.

Application of piezoelectric transducer:

 The piezoelectric transducer are mainly used for measurement of force and temperature
 They are mainly employed in high accelerometer.

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Thermocouples:
 The basic principle used in thermocouples is called the principle of thermoelectricity
which was discovered by Seebeck.
 The principle states that “when the conductors of two different metals A and B are joined
together at one end to form a junction is heated to a higher temperature with respect to
the free ends, a voltage is developed at the free ends and if these two conductors of
metals at the free ends are connected, then the emf set up will established a flow of
current.
 The magnitude of net emf will depend upon the magnitude between the temperature of
the two junction and the materials used for the conductors.

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Thermocouple arrangement for measuring temperature:
 The main parts of a thermocouple arrangement used to measure temperature are as

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follows
 The thermocouple hot junction JH which will be introduced into the place where
temperature is to be measured.

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 The thermocouple cold junction JC which is maintained at a constant reference
temperature.

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 A voltage measuring instrument is connected to the free to the ends of the thermocouples.

Operation:
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The thermocouple hot junction JH is introduced into the place where the temperature is to
be measured.
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ng.
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 The reference temperature is to be controlled at the constant temperature of 00 C.
 Since the two junctions are at different temperature, a voltage is set up at the free ends
and since the free ends are connected to a milli voltmeter, the emf set up will establish a
flow of current which can be directly measured using the milli voltmeter.
 Since the reference junction is kept at 00C the emf measured is a function of the
temperature of the temperature of the hot measuring junction. The millivlotmeter is
calibrated suitably so that its reading becomes an indication of the temperature.

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Advantages:
 These instrument are suitable for very high frequency upto 50 MHz. no other instrument
can be measure current and voltages these high frequencies.
 They indicate the rms values directly.
 They are not affected by stray magnetic fields.
 They have good sensitivity.
Disadvantages:
 The over load capacity is very limited.
 Considerable power losses due to the poor efficiency of thermal conversion.
 Low accuracy of measurement.
 The mill voltmeters used with thermocouple must be necessarily more sensitive and

ww delicate than those used with shunts, and therefore require careful handling.

Elements of Digital Data Acquisition System- Interfacing of Transducer

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In order to optimize the characteristics of the system in terms of performance of the
system, data handling capacity and cost, different relevant sub-system are combined together.

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The system used for data processing, data conversion, data transmission, data storage is called
data acquisition system.

En
gin
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ng.
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Digital Data Acquisition System
The digital data acquisition system includes all the block shown in fig may use some
additional functions block. The essential functions of digital data acquisitions are as follows,
 It handles the analog signals
 it performs measurement
 it converts analog signal into digital data and handles it.
 it performs internal programming and control.
The various elements of the digital data acquisition system are as follows,
Transducers
They convert the physical quantity into a proportional electrical signal which is given as a
input to the digital data acquisition system.

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Signal Conditioners
They include supporting circuits for amplifying, modifying or selecting certain positions
of these signals.
Multiplexers
The multiplexer accepts multiple analog inputs and connect them sequentially to one
measuring instruments.
Signal Converters
The signal converters are used to translate analog signal to a form which is suitable for
the next stage that is analog to digital converter. This block is optional one.
Analog to Digital Converter (A/D Converter)
It converts the analog voltage to its equivalent digital form. The output of the analog to

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digital converter may be fed to the digital display device for display or to the digital recorders for
recording. The same signal may be fed to the digital computer for data reduction or further

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processing.
Auxiliary Equipment
The devices which are used for system programming functions are digital data processing

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are included in the auxiliary equipments. The typical functions of the auxillary equipments
include linearization and limit comparison of the signal. These functions are performed by the

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individual instruments or the digital computer.
Digital Recorder

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They record the information in digital form. The digital information is stored on punched
cards, magnetic tape recorders, type written pages, floppies or combination of these systems. The

work. e
digital printer used provides a high quality, hard copy for recorders minimizing the operators

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ng.
The data acquisition system is used, now days in increasing, wide fields. These are
becoming very much popular because of simplicity, accuracy and the most important reliability

biomedical and telemetry industries.

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of the system. These are widely used in industrial areas, scientific areas, including aerospace,

When the lower accuracy is tolerable or when wide frequency bandwidth is needed, the
analog data acquisition systems are used. The digital data acquisition systems are used when the
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physical quantity being measured has very narrow bandwidth. When the high accuracy with low
per channel cost is required, the ultimate solution is to use the digital data acquisition system.

Multiplexing
In general the process of transmitting more than one information on one channel is called
multiplexing
Two types of multiplexing
 Time division multiplexing
 frequency division multiplexing

18
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Time Division Multiplexing

These are cases where analog input channels are multiplexed with the communication
channel and signals are transmitted in analog form. In other cases the analog input channels are
multiplexed with a digital computer for analysis and/or control. Here an A/D converter is used
after the multiplexer. A sample and hold circuit is used before the multiplexer as shown in fig.

A Data Acquisition and Conversion

When simultaneous samples of inputs are required. Before discussing different type of
time division multiplexers, we briefly describe an address decoder

Address Decoder

ww Address decoders receives an input from a computer via address lines that serve to select
a particular analog channel to be sampled. The functions of the address decoder are to associate a

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particular channel a computer address code. A binary code is sent from the computer through
special input/ output device to select an analog channel and to the input the data on that channel.
A data acquisition system may be as shown in fig.

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En
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A Typical Acquisition System
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four outputs form a decoder. n
A two bits, four outputs decoder is shown below, four AND gates with two inputs and

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Two bits four outputs decoder

In the fig, for each two bits binary code, there is one AND gate for which output is one.
For e.g. for A =1, and B=0, the output of second gate is 1, since this code represents the decimal
number 1, the gate labeled 1 is on and other are off.

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Analog Multiplexer-
This is essentially a solid- state switch works according to the decoded address signal and
selects the data on the selected channel by closing the switch off the channel. A four channel
multiplexer is shown in fig below.

ww Four Channel Analog Multiplexer

The multiplexer receives an input from the address decoder and uses this to close the
appropriate switch. For e.g. an address code channel 10 would detect channel 2. Similarly 00

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would select channel 0, 01, channel 1, and 11 channel 3, thus decoder must convert the computer
address line to one of these four possibilities. The actual switch elements usually FET. FETs

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have an ‘on’ resistance of a few hundred ohm and an ‘off’ resistance of hundred to thousands of
mega ohm.

Frequency Division Multiplexing En

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The block diagram of a 4 channel FDM system is shown in fig. four input signals are first
applied to channel modulators which have different carrier frequencies. The carrier oscillator

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frequencies are so chosen that they avoid the overlapping of frequency spectrum between each

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other. A band pass filter of each channel is used so that only working frequencies around the

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carrier frequency are allowed to pass. The harmonics and other spurious frequencies are blocked.
At receiving end, the signals are separated by selective filters and demodulators as shown in fig.

n et

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