Lolium Ceeesiaprete STUDY MATERIAL NUCLEL neu KSHIMT CuURLPRA types of Nuclei: ij Isotopes: the nuclei having are called Isotopes Bx: i) [HOU ame atomic number but different mass number Ty proton {LL > Leuteriun iii) UU, Zu jH > Tritium ii) Isobars: The nuclei having same mass number but different atomic number are called Isobars Ex: {C&“N iii) Isotones: The nuclei having same number of neutron are called Isotones. Ex: }H& ‘He The nuclei having same mass number and same atomic number but different energy states are called isomers. - (25,7) yny 235) Ex: (3 vu) “EES PU Excited state Ground state 2. Mass of an atont is Véry'small Kilogram (Kg) is not cofvéhient unit to express Such small masses. therefore atomic mass unit (u) is used to express mass of atom or nucleus, Define atomic mass unit(u):It is defined as _/, th of the mass of carbon-12 (2C) atom. } 1 atomic mass unit = 1/,xmass of C Atom | Note 2: i) Mass of carbon ~ 12 atom = 19.92647 x 10-27 kg But lu= /) x mass of Cl? atom . | - 27 lu= Vy x 19.92647 x10 kg lu = 1.605391 x 107 kg ii) Mass of electron = m. = 0,0005Su Mass of proton = m, = 1.00727u Mass of Neutron = mp, = 1,00866u JEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL NUCLEI tm Nuclear size: The shape of the nucleus is spherical. The volume of nucleus j, directly proportional to mass number. ie., Volume of nucleus « mass number —_ (volume of sphere Vea mR? A Re Ae R= R,A% 2. x10-15m = Nuclear constant (10-15m= fermi=femtometer) R = Radius of nucleus, A= Mass number Where, Ro = Nuclear charge: Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. Protons cary positive charge and neutrons carry no charge. Charge an each proton = + € Charge on nucleus = + Ze Where, Z = No. of protons (atomic number), ¢ = 1.602 x 10719 Nuclear mass: Let mp = mass of proton, Zmp = total mass of protons, mn = mass of neutron, (A—Z)mn = total mass of neutrons Nuclear mass = zmp + (A-Z) ma Nuclear density: Nuclear density is the ratio of nuclear mass to the nuclear volume. : Nuclear density is found to be 2.31x1017 kg/m? This shows that protons and neutrons are tightly packed. Nucleat density is independent of mass number, Einstein’s mass - Energy Relation: It is given by E = mc? Where, E= energy, _m = mass equivalent to energy, c= speed of light in vacuum , Note: for energy leV = 1.602 x 10-19 y DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS — Past’ @ scanned with OKEN ScannerATERIAL ia NUCLEI nee sruD calculate the energy equivalent of | amu E = me? Butm = 1u = 1.6605 x 10°7 kg = | amu C = 2.9979 x 108 ms"! = speed of light E = 1.6605 «10-7 x (2.9979 x 108)? E = 1.6605 x 107 x 8.9874 x 10!6 J J 1eV=1.602 «10°19 E = 14.9235 x 10°" J 106 = Mega (M) 9235x100" = [602x107 E= 9.315 x 108 eV E= 931.5 x 108 eV E=931.5 Mey iG 1u = 931.5 MeV energy Mass defect (Am): It is found that mass of the nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its constituents. The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituent is called the mass defect. ‘The expression-for mass defect is given by ‘Am = [zimp + (AZ) my] - M Where, Améitiass defect, M=mass of nucleus, mpmass of proton, my=mass of neutron Z=Atomic number, A=Mass number Note: 1. Mass defect is Converted into energy during the formation of nucleus. This eriérgy is responsible for binding the nucleons inside the nucleus. Some amount of energy is required t0 break the . The nucleus is stable. nucleus. ii i lit the Binding energy (Ex): It is defined as the minimum energy required to spli nucleys into its constituent nucleons. Expression for binding en E.=amxe] exgy is given by, peed of light in vau4™ in ms Where, Am=Mass defect in Ke, C-S Ey=Binding energy in Joule ‘ARTMENT OF PHYSICS @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL Nuc! Mpy Note: 1. Binding energy can also be expressed as [Sy = Am x 931.5MeY} Where, Am=mass defect in amu (u), Ey Binding cnergy in Mev Binding energy per nucleon [En]: tis defined as the ratio of binding energy to the mass number, binding energy Binding energy per nucleon = bitding energy 7 iz mass number 4a Se] 0s 00) 150 200 oe Mass number (A) oo FIGURE The binding enerey per nucleon a #8 a function of mass number on is constant for a nuclei having mass number between 30 and 170, : 2. Binding energy per Nucleon is minimum for both lighter nuclei (A < 30) heavy nuclei (A > 170), 3. The Binding energy curve explai i plains why the energy is rel i taser enkenere By is released during nuc 4. Binding energy per nucleon shows that the stro! ti 7 red ton meee B M8 attractive force is requir rin ‘lear ‘ons, ert @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL NUCLEL Note: The gene © binding energy per nucleon is maximum for fron 56 (Pes For S*Fe, Enn = 8.75McV. icleus, Nuclear force: The strong, attractive force between the nucleons in the is called nuclear force “Characteristic of nuclear force: 1. Nuclear force is a strongest and attractive force in nature. is stronger than coulomb force or gravitational force... 2. Nuclear force is charge independent force. i.e., Nuclear force between F and ‘clear force between N and N = nuclear force between P and N. Where, proton, N=neutron. 3. Nuclear force is a short range force. ie., if t mi, then the nuclear force become zero. then nuclear force i.e., nuclear force the distance between two nucleons is more than 10 fe 4. If the distance between nucleons is less than 0.8fermi, becomes repulsive. 5. If the distance betwee: force becomes attractive. .n mucleons is greater than 0.8im, then. the nuclear Note: ear force doesnot depend on mass and charge i.e, nuclear force is non 1. Nuc gravitational force and non-el 2. Nuclear force > electromagne' force lectrostatic force. tic force > weak nuclear force > gravitational - Radioactivity: Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon ip which unstable ‘nucleus undergoes decay- Radioactivity was discovered by ‘Henry Becquerel’ ‘Types of radioactive decay: There are 3 types 1) alpha decay (a), 2) Beta decay (p), 3) Gamma decay (y) in which helium nucleus is emitted from the Alpha deeay (a): The decay tinstable nucleus is called decay. Uis decayed into 2th by emitting «- particle ( tlle) 9 Th + He @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL NUCLEL Py Note: 1. During a - decay, mass number is decreased by 4 and atomic number is decreased by 2. 2. General equation for a - decay is given by, PX SEIS SY 4 He Where, ?X = parent element, $Y =daughter element. {He=. particle. 3. For a- particle mass number A=4, Z=! 2. The charge on o- 4. From Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence conservation. It is clear that this Particle is +2¢, relation and initial mass energy and the total mass energy of the decay products, Let, My=Mass of parent element X, iy ass of a- particle (He) . +: Mass defect, Am M, ~(M, +May i The mass defect is converted into en Q = Ame? Q= [M,~(M, +M,, Jo? Q°0, ie, energy is liber: “. a=decay is an ‘Exothermic reac! =Mass of daughter element Y, ergy ated during a- decay tion’. Where, 7 — Anti-neutrino, particle Ex 2): 2P> uSte +7, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS Page? = electron = @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL NUCLEI fice Note: 1. During B a lecay. in additior é tion to electron one more pat 1 article is o 2. General equation for i decay PX YH er7 In B’~ E 8" -decay, mass number remain same, atomic number is increased by one. B'decay: The decay in which positron is emitted from the unstable nucleus is called B'decay. oR Ex: }Na—* 0 Ne+!,e+y Where, y— Neutrino , ’particle= positron(’,e) or(e") Note: 1. General équation for B* decay AX sR, YH e+7 2, During p*-decay, in addition to positron one more particle is emitted called Neutrino (7). 3. In B'-decay, mags umber femain game, atorhié no neutron is converted into proton as follows. decreased by oné: 4. During B-decay, pontiery 5. Durjng B' decay proton is converted into neutron as follows. pont fe+y 6. Neutrino was discovered by ‘Pauli’ Mass of Neutrino = 0, Charge on Neutrino = 0. But Neutrino has spin and energy. 7. Positron is the Mass on positron = anti- particle of electron charge of positron = *¢ Mass of electron. & @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL NUCLEI Gamma-decay (1- decay): Fee ‘The decay in which high energy photon is £ emitted from unstable nucleus is called y- decay, Usually Gamma decay takes place after the emission of a and § particles: Ex: when $CO emits "particle then it becomes “Ni, The daughter Nuclei (@Ni) emits two gamma rays & then it comes to ground state. Note: 7 GX > 1X (Excited state) (Groundstate) 2. During y- decay mass number and atomic number remains same. 1. General equation for y-decay is, Activity or Rate of decay: Activity of a radioactive sample is defined as the number of nuclei disintegrated per unit time. N nes Activity (or) Rate of decay = Number of nuclei disintegrated Time taken = S.1 unit of Activity is becquerel (Bq) Define one Becquerel: The activity of a radioactive sample is said to be one becquerel if one disintegration takes place in one second. 7 ie., 1 becquerel. (Bq) = Idesintegration/sec. Note: : 1. Curie (ci) is the practical unit of activity. 1 curie = 3.7x1010 Bq 2. Ruther ford (Rd) is the practical unit for activity. 1 Ruther ford = 105 Bq Law of radioactive decay: “It states that, the rate of decay is direct ‘uclei present in the s; i ample at that time. ie. Rate of decay o Number of nuclei in the radioactive sample- dN aN, dt DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL NUCLEI net Derive the equation : N= No ext; Consider a radio activ Let. No=initial number of nuel Nenumber of nuclei preser No - N=dN = © sample T Present in the radioactive sample at time ty Osec nt in the sample number of nuclei decayed in tera time 't' see. (undecayed) time ‘av inte . Rate of decay * ‘ According to decay law, Rate of decay « Number of nuclei present in the sample at time’ ANON dt AN Loan dt Where, ) =Decay constant, Here, negative sign indicates that number of nuclei goes on decreases with time. Rea N 1 Integrating on both sides focsins [is Xan x | J = frat : |. - SNoy loga-tog.b= | an : | Tyo . |G). | log? flog, NJ, =-Aft], log, N-log. No = -A[t~t)] N — |=-A[t-0] we } [to] lo @ scanned with OKEN ScannerPy STUDY MATERIAL NUCLEI Note: A 1. The number of nuclei present in the radioac exponentially with time as shown ve sample decreases Number of undecayed nuclei 2. We can have M = Moe - ~ Where, Mo = Initial mass of a radioactive sample, M-= Final mass after atime ‘t’sec, 4 = Decay constant 3. Rate of decay R= Roe? 5. R=2N at time’ 6. Ry =2Ny is the decay rate at time Half life of a radioactive sample (Tj ,2): The time in which the m : ‘umber i in reduces to half of its initial value ae sa ea ive, if ter, - DEPART! MENT OF PHYSICS , Page! @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL NucLEL MPU Derive an expression for half - life: We have, N= Noe (Ly Where, No = initial number of nuctei N = No. of nuclei pre sent after a time T, += Half life i t=, N N= we Then, 3 :. Equation (1) becomes, Take loge on both sides +14 * at log. (e % ) = log, (2) (log, }e* =x a ‘Ty = log. (2) AT, = 2.303 x log,,(2) 7 4 .303 x 0.3010 ; = 0.693 My 693 Note: N We have, N=—? Where, n = —~ = Number of half lives @ scanned with OKEN Scanner| NUCLE Mey | STUDY MATERIAL NUCLEI Mean life (T): The time in which the number of nuclei present in the samp, reduces to 37% of its initial value S.1. unit is second Decay constant (4): The reciprocal of mean life is called decay constant. Decay constant = - mean lil S.L unit is s? Expression for mean life 0.693 We have, Ty =—S= But, 2= or t= rib ale Ty =0.693x+ ~ Where, T,, =Half life, t= Mean life ~ This is the relation between mean life and half life Nuclear energy: The energy obtained from the conversion of nuclear mass is known as nuclear energy. Nuclear fission: The process of splitting of heavy nucleus into two nuclear fragment of intermediate mass with the release of neutrons and energy. Ex: When a slow neutron is bombared with aU, then it is splitted in MBs and %Kr with the release of three fast neutrons and energy. pn + Uy SoBa + $Kr + ain + Q The energy released per fis: are radioactive nuclei. They emit ‘The released neutrons are was first observed by Otto Hahn sion is about 200 MeV. The fragment products B particles and they become stable. usually fast neutrons. Nuclear fission reacti0? end Straussman. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS on page! @ scanned with OKEN ScannersTUDY MATERIAL ‘i NUCLEI met qo find Q value (energy value): Q =[Initial mass of reactant Final s of product|C? in Joule or =|[Initie C Q =[Initial mass of reactant Final mass of product|931 MeV alled fast neutrons, The Note: The neutrons having kinetic energy 2MeV ar rons ha Ee neutrons having kinetic cnergy less than 1McV are called slow neutrons. Nuclear Fusion: The process of combining two lighter nuclei to form a single larger nucleus is called nuclear fusion. Ex: 1) |H+ |H-> j|H+e’ +y+0.42MeV. 2) ?H+ 7H }H+n+3.27MeV 3) 7H+ 7H jH+ |H+4.03MeV Thermonuclear fusion: The fusion reaction requires ve 10°K, So it is also called thermo nuclear fusion. Bee ieee The energy produced in.the interior of star is due to thermo nuclear ry high temperature is of the order of fasion. The fusion r hydrogen is burned in to helium. This process is Het ‘According to proton ~ proton cyéle, ‘L+H 7H +e" + +0.42MeV ~~ eaction in sun is multistep process. In this process, called proton-proton cycle. a eh te y+ yt1.02MeV 2H 4 JH 3Het y+ 1.02 MeV -- 2 He + 3H —> {He-+ (H+ YH +12.86 MeV (4) e first three reactions must occur lei unite to form ordinary helium +2(5)+2(3) +4, the net effect is For the fourth reaction to ‘occur, the twice, in which case two light helium nud ider the combination. 2(1) y+ 6y+26.7MeV + 2y + 6y+26.7MeV “ nucleus. If we cons 4 ‘H+ 2e" > jHe + 2: or (4 {H+ 4e") (3H + 2e") ydrogen atoms combine to form an ‘He atom with a release Thus; four hy of 26.7MeV of energy. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL NUCLEI Note: : 1) Fertile material: ‘The material which cannot undergo fission reaction . ne directly is called fertile material. Ex: ";,U : fi 2) Fissile material: The material which can undergo fission reaction very 7 ‘ : 5y and Pu casily is called fissile material. Ex: “)U and “sy 3) Slow neutrons can cause fission reaction. ey 4) If the fission reaction takes place continuously, then it is called nuclear chain reaction. 5) There are two types of chain reaction. i) Controlled chain reaction ii) Uncontolled chain reaction. 6) Controlled chain reaction: The chain reaction in which energy and fission causing neutrons are released at constant rate. Nuclear power reactor works on the principle of controlled chain reaction. 7) Uncontrolled chain reaction: The chain reaction in which energy and fission causing neutrons increases rapidly. In uncontrolled chain reaction, enormous amount of energy released with in short interval of time. . Atom bomb (nuclear bomb) works on the principle of uncontrolled chain reaction Nuclear reactor: It is a device in which controlied chain reaction is achieved. It gives the energy at constant rate of nuclear reactors There are three types ; actor used to convert oe ; material is called breeder reactor. fertile material into fissile 3) Nuclear power reactor: 7! Note: Nuclear reactor was first constructed by Enrichof ofermi, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS a age @ scanned with OKEN ScannersTUDY MATERIAL Nuc EL net schematic diagram of nuclear power reactor REFLECT cootasy coNTRO a Ee ne a — feta GENERATOR parts of nuclear reactor: Nuclear fuel: It is the fissile material used in power reactor. Ex: 2U, Pu Moderator: It is a material used to slow down the fast neutrons. Ex: Water, Heavy water, graphite. Control rods: It is a material used to absorb exess fission causing neutrons. -Ex: Cadmium. Coolant: It is a material used to, transfer heat from reactor to steam chamber. shield: It is in the form of a concrete thick wall surrounds the core Protective the hazardous.radiations. to save the persons working around the reactor from Reproduction factor or Multiplication factor (K) ‘It is defined as the ratio of rate of production of neutr of loss of neutron. Rate of production of neutron Rate of loss of neutron if, Ke1, the mass of fissionable materi ‘the chain reaction is sustained. If, K<1, the chain reaction stops reaction accelerated the ecome supercritical and can even ‘on to the rate ie K= al is said to be critical and reactor, power increases ~ Kel,” chain explode. Xponentially and reactor will b DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS @ scanned with OKEN Scanner