ICS 2101: Computer Organization - Complete Notes
Course Overview:
1. Processor Architectures:
- RISC (Reduced Instruction Set): Small, fast instructions for high-speed execution.
- CISC (Complex Instruction Set): Larger, more complex instructions to reduce code size.
- Superscalar: Multiple pipelines to execute multiple instructions at once.
2. Memory Organization:
- Registers, Cache, RAM.
- ROM & External Storage: Non-volatile memory (e.g., hard drives, SSDs, optical disks).
3. System Buses:
- Address Bus (location information), Data Bus (data transfer), Control Bus (commands and
signals).
4. Input/Output (I/O) Systems:
- Programmed I/O, Interrupt-driven I/O, Direct Memory Access (DMA).
5. Operating Systems (OS):
- Schedules and manages resources, ensures protection and efficient operation.
6. Digital Logic:
- Boolean Algebra, Logic Gates, Combinational and Sequential Circuits.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Computer Organization
1. Definition and Key Differences:
- Architecture: Programmer-visible attributes like instruction sets, data types, and I/O mechanisms.
- Organization: Operational units and interconnections implementing the architecture (e.g.,
hardware).
2. Functions of a Computer:
- Data Processing: Perform arithmetic and logic operations.
- Data Storage: Temporary (cache, RAM) and long-term (hard drives).
- Data Movement: Transfer data within the system and externally.
- Control: Managed by Control Unit (CU) to ensure proper execution of instructions.
3. Computer System Components:
- CPU: Controls all operations, including arithmetic and logic.
- Control Unit (CU): Decodes instructions, sends control signals.
- Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs calculations and logic operations.
- Registers: Temporary storage for quick data access.
- Memory: Stores programs and data for execution.
- Buses: Data Bus, Address Bus, and Control Bus for communication.
4. System Layers:
- Physical Layer: Hardware (transistors, logic gates).
- Digital Logic Layer: Boolean operations and logic gates to implement instructions.
- Microprogramming Layer: Controls the CU via microcode.
- Operating System Layer: Manages resources, schedules tasks, and interfaces with users.
- Application Layer: Programs interacting with the OS (e.g., word processors, games).
Chapter 2: System Buses
1. Bus Types:
- Address Bus: Carries memory addresses (unidirectional).
- Data Bus: Carries data (bidirectional).
- Control Bus: Sends control signals (e.g., Read, Write) to manage operations.
2. Bus Arbitration:
- Centralized: A single controller assigns the bus.
- Distributed: Devices independently request bus access.
3. Bus Timing:
- Synchronous: Data transfers happen at fixed intervals.
- Asynchronous: Data transfer depends on device readiness, using handshaking signals.
4. Interrupts:
- Mechanism allowing devices to request CPU attention.
- Types:
- Program Interrupts: Errors like division by zero.
- Timer Interrupts: OS functions like task scheduling.
- I/O Interrupts: Data transfer completion.
- Hardware Failure Interrupts: Indicates issues like hardware malfunctions.
Chapter 3: Memory Organization
1. Memory Hierarchy:
- Registers: Fastest but smallest.
- Cache: Speeds up access to frequently used data.
- RAM: Primary working memory for programs (volatile).
- Hard Drives & SSDs: Large, non-volatile storage for programs and data.
- Tapes: Sequential access for large backups.
2. Cache Memory:
- Stores frequently used data to speed up memory access.
- Replacement Policies:
- FIFO (First In, First Out): Replaces the oldest cached data.
- LRU (Least Recently Used): Replaces the least recently used data.
- LFU (Least Frequently Used): Replaces the least frequently accessed data.
3. Access Methods:
- Sequential: Data is accessed in a fixed order (e.g., tapes).
- Direct: Data location is calculated (e.g., hard drives).
- Random Access: Data can be accessed directly by its address (e.g., RAM).
Chapter 4: External Memory
1. Magnetic Disks (e.g., Hard Drives):
- Data is stored in tracks and sectors on rotating platters.
2. RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks):
- RAID 0: No redundancy, speeds up data transfer (striping).
- RAID 1: Data mirrored across two drives for fault tolerance.
- RAID 5: Parity distributed across drives for balance between speed and redundancy.
- Optical Media (e.g., CDs, DVDs): Store data permanently using lasers; read-only or rewritable.
- Magnetic Tapes: Sequential access, used for large-scale backups and storage.
Chapter 5: Input/Output (I/O)
1. I/O Methods:
- Programmed I/O: CPU directly manages I/O operations; inefficient for slow devices.
- Interrupt-Driven I/O: CPU performs other tasks while waiting for I/O to complete.
- DMA (Direct Memory Access): Devices transfer data to/from memory without CPU intervention.
2. Peripherals:
- Human-Readable: Devices like monitors, printers, and keyboards.
- Machine-Readable: Devices like hard drives, sensors, and barcode scanners.
Chapter 6: Operating Systems (OS)
1. OS Functions:
- Scheduling: Decides when tasks run on the CPU.
- Memory Management: Allocates and deallocates memory for programs.
- Process Management: Manages active processes.
- Error Handling: Detects and responds to hardware/software errors.
- Resource Allocation: Manages input/output devices, memory, and processing power.
2. OS Modes:
- Batch Processing: Executes tasks sequentially.
- Time-Sharing: Allows multiple users to share CPU time.
- Real-Time: Handles tasks with strict time constraints.
Chapter 7: Instruction Sets & Addressing Modes
1. Instruction Format:
- Opcode: Specifies the operation (e.g., Add, Subtract).
- Operand(s): Data inputs for the operation.
- Address Field: Location of operands in memory or registers.
2. Addressing Modes:
- Immediate: Operand is part of the instruction.
- Direct: Instruction specifies the address of the operand.
- Indirect: Address points to another address containing the operand.
- Register: Operand stored in a CPU register.
Chapter 8: RISC vs. CISC
1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computers):
- Focuses on simple, fast instructions.
- Optimized for pipelining.
- More registers to minimize memory accesses.
2. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computers):
- Supports more complex instructions with fewer lines of code.
- More flexible but slower in execution.
Chapter 9: Superscalar Processors
1. Features:
- Executes multiple instructions simultaneously using pipelines.
- Handles dependencies and resolves conflicts during execution.
2. Challenges:
- Data Dependency: One instruction needs results from a previous one.
- Branch Prediction: Anticipates the outcome of branching instructions to avoid delays.
Chapter 10: Parallel Processing
1. Types:
- SMP (Symmetric Multiprocessing): Processors share memory and tasks.
- Clusters: Independent systems working together as one.
- NUMA (Non-Uniform Memory Access): Memory access time varies depending on the processor.
2. Benefits:
- Increases processing power, fault tolerance, and scalability.
Chapter 11: Digital Logic
1. Boolean Algebra:
- Operations: AND, OR, NOT, XOR.
- Simplifies circuit design and analysis.
2. Logic Gates:
- Basic: AND, OR, NOT.
- Derived: NAND, NOR, XOR (functionally complete).
- Combinational Circuits: Output depends only on current inputs (e.g., Adders).
- Sequential Circuits: Output depends on current and past inputs (e.g., Flip-Flops, Counters).
3. Truth Tables:
- Represent all input/output combinations for logic gates.
4. Simplification Techniques:
- Boolean Algebra: Simplify logic expressions.
- Karnaugh Maps: Graphically simplify Boolean expressions.
Chapter 12: Control Unit (CU) and ALU
1. Control Unit (CU):
- Directs all CPU operations and ensures correct instruction sequencing.
- Hardwired: Fixed logic, fast but inflexible.
- Microprogrammed: Uses stored instructions (microcode), more flexible but slower.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):
- Performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction) and logical (AND, OR) operations.
- Operates on data from registers and stores results back in registers.
