Fruit and
Vegetable
management and
Technology
Postharvest
handling in
Vegetables
Post-
harvest High storage temperature;;;; respiration
rate is extremely high and storage life is
handling short.
factors
Low storage temperature;;;; respiration
rate is low and storage life is high .
Rapid cooling after harvest is generally
referred to as precooling.
removes the field heat
Importance removes the loading
of heat
pre-cooling Rapidly sort and grade
the products
Extend quality and
shelf life
The temperature of the produce at
harvest
The physiology of the produce
selection
of the The desired post harvest life
precooling
method
Cold air (room cooling, forced air cooling),
Methods of Pre-
cold water (hydro cooling),
cooling Direct contact with ice and evaporation of water
from the produce (evaporative cooling, vacuum
cooling).
Vacuum Cooling--- leafy vegetables to monitor
leaf respiration. The vacume completely hinder
the respiration and
Cold air
(room
cooling,
forced air
cooling
low temperature and high
humidity, which reduces the rate
of respiration and water loss and
spoilage in most vegetables.
hydro
cooling
system
Ice
cooling
vacuum
cooling
system
low humidity and
Ripening high
control High humidity and low
temperature- temperature-
high ripening Low ripening
humidity and High molds grow Low molds grow
temperature High organic matter degrade Low organic matter degrade
Low shelf life Good shelf life
optimum quality
green colour has completely
disappeared from the peel
Exposure to low temperature
during maturation is
necessary for the
development of an orange
colored peel
De-greeing several months after ripening
has been completed and
during this storage period
the conditions hastens the
loss of chlorophyll and this
process is known as de-
greening.
Batch degreening
relative humidity -- 90 to 95 Trickle degreening
percent
Ethylene: 10 micro
rapid than batch
Temp;;; 25 to 300 C
degreening
CO2 build up of CO2 For Carotenoides rich
ethylene level: 200 micro itres crops
per litre
pumpkin, grapefruit, carrots, bell
peppers, leafy green, eggs,
broccoli, tomato, and tomato
products.
Post-harvest handling
In-ground storage
used for storing hard vegetables e.g. potato,
Methods of turnip and late season cabbage
Storage Piped ventilation to the outside is provided to
avoid the respiratory self-heating.
hard vegetables in cold winter climates and is
also suitable for storage of cassava for up to two
months in the tropics.
above ground building or
underground rooms
controlled ventilation
openings entrance of cold
air and exit of warm air by
convectional circulation
A good cellar will provide
satisfactory storage for
Cellars hard vegetables and long
keeping fruits e.g. apple.
•potatoes.
•cauliflower.
•brussels sprouts.
•winter squash such as butternut or
spaghetti.
•carrots.
•root vegetables.
•onions.
•cabbage.
When the temperature of the produce is
above the desired level, and if the
temperature of the outside air is lower, air
is circulated through the stack in the store
Air-cooled by convectional or mechanical means
stores through bottom inlet vents and top outlets
with dampers.
Air-cooled stores are widely used for the
storage of potato and sweet potato
lower temperature obtained by ice refrigeration
enabled longer storage of meat & other
Ice-
Refrigeration perishable commodities
Mechanical Refrigeration
Very perishable (0-4weeks)
vegetables Temperature optimum
storage days
Very perishable -1 to 40C (0-4weeks)
(0-4weeks)
Perishable 4 to 6 0C (4-8 WEEK)
Semi-perishable 8 to 12 0C (>12weeks)
Non-perishable 8 to 30 0C (>12weeks)
(>12weeks)
Modified
atmospher
e storage
MAS, and Active S
Modified atmosphere storage (MAS) can be defined as
‘‘the enclosure of food products in a barrier film in
which the gaseous environment has been changed or
modified to slow respiration rates, reduce
microbiological growth and retard enzymatic spoilage
with the intent of extending the shelf life’’
In passive modification, the
atmosphere is modified as a result
of a commodity’s respiration, i.e., O2
consumption and CO2 generation.
Storage
life
active modification, the package
headspace is flushed with a known
concentration of O2, CO2, and N2.
Products differ in their tolerance to
O2 and CO2.
For example, the optimal atmosphere for peas
is 10% O2 and 7% CO2; for avocados it is 1% O2
and 10% CO2. Therefore, the optimal film for
peas may not be suitable for avocados.
Selection of a film of the correct permeability to
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapour is
critical to the success of MAP of fruits and
vegetables. If the film is too permeable to
oxygen, the product respires, produces
ethylene, and ripens. If the permeability is too
low, anaerobic conditions are soon reached and
the product ferments.
Examples of permeability of films used for MAP of fruits and
vegetables are listed in Table 5. Generally, films with a CO2:O2 ratio of
3:1 is most suitable. Films with this ratio include LDPE and PVC and
laminates of EVA/LDPE. These films ensure that a desirable
equilibrium modified atmosphere (EMA) is established: i.e., the rates of
permeation of O2 and CO2 through the packaging material equal the
product’s respiration rate. In addition, these films are excellent barriers
to moisture and minimize moisture/weight loss of the product during
prolonged storage under the MAP atmosphere. Packaging materials
used for MAP of fruits and vegetables must also have sufficient
strength to resist .
The normal gaseous composition of air is nitrogen
(N 2) 78.08% (volume per volume will be used
throughout this chapter), oxygen (O 2) 20.96% and
carbon dioxide (CO 2) 0.03%, together with variable
concentrations of water vapour and traces of inert
or noble gases.
These changes can render food unpalatable and potentially unsafe for
human consumption. Storage of foods in a modified gaseous atmosphere
can maintain quality and extend product shelf life, by slowing chemical and
biochemical deteriorative reactions and by slow- ing (or in some instances
preventing) the growth of spoilage organisms. Modified atmosphere
packaging (MAP) is defined as 'the packaging of a perishable product in
an atmosphere which has been modified so that its composition is other
than that of air' (Hintlian & Hotchkiss, 1986). Whereas con- trolled
atmosphere storage (CAS) involves maintaining a fixed concentration of
gases surrounding the product by careful monitoring and addition of gases,
the gaseous composition of fresh MAP foods is constantly changing due
to chemical reactions and microbial activity.
Gas exchange between the pack head-
space and the external environment may also occur as a result of permeation
across the package material. Packing foods in a modified atmosphere can
offer extended shelf life and improved product presentation in a convenient
container, making the product more attractive to the retail customer.
However, MAP cannot improve the quality of a poor quality food product. It
is therefore essential that the food is of the highest quality prior to packing
in order to optimise the benefits of modifying the pack atmosphere.
Good hygiene practices and temperature control throughout the chill-
chain for perishable products are required to maintain the quality benefits
and extended shelf life of MAP foods.
Gases used in MAP
The three main gases used in MAP
are O 2, CO 2 and N 2. The choice
of gas is totally dependent upon
the food product being packed.
Used singly or in combination,
these gases are commonly used to
balance safe shelf life extension with
optimal organoleptic properties of the
MAS and food. Noble or inert gases such as
argon are in commercial use for
MAP products such as coffee and snack
products, however, the literature on
their application and benefits is
limited. Experi- mental use of carbon
monoxide (CO) and sulphur dioxide
(SO 2) has also been reported.
Carbon dioxide
Why Carbon dioxide (CO 2) is a colourless
gas with a slight pungent odour at
very high concentrations. It is an
asphyxiant and slightly corrosive in
the presence of moisture. CO 2
dissolves readily in water (1.57gkg
1a t 100kPa, 20°C) to produce
carbonic acid (H 2CO 3) that
increases the acidity of the solution
and
Nitrogen
Why Nitrogen (N 2) is a relatively un-reactive gas
with no odour, taste or colour. It has a lower
density than air, non-flammable and has a
low solubility in water (0.018g kg 1a t
100kPa, 20°C) and other food constituents.
Nitrogen does not support the growth of aerobic
microbes and therefore inhibits the growth of
aerobic spoilage but does not prevent the
growth of anaerobic bacteria. The low solubility
of N 2 in foods can be used to prevent pack
collapse by including sufficient N 2 in the gas
mix to balance the volume decrease due to CO
2 going into solution.
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, tasteless and
Why odourless gas that is highly reactive and very flammable.
It has a low solubility in water but is relatively soluble in
some organic solvents. CO has been studied in the MAP of
meat and has been licensed for use in the USA to
prevent browning in packed lettuce. Commercial application
has been limited because of its toxicity reduces the pH. This
gas is also soluble in lipids and some other organic
compounds. The solubility of CO 2 increases with decreasing
temperature. For this reason, the antimicrobial activity of CO 2
is markedly greater at temperatures below 10°C than at 15°C
or higher. This has significant implications for MAP of foods,
as will be discussed later. The high solubility of CO 2 can
result in pack collapse due to the reduction of headspace
volume. In some MAP applications, pack collapse is
favoured, for example in flow wrapped cheese for retail sale.
and the formation of potentially explosive mixtures with air.
Active storage
Active storage refers to the incorporation of certain additives into
packaging film or within packaging containers with the aim of
maintaining and extending product shelf life Packaging may be
termed active when it performs some desired role in food
preservation other than providing an inert barrier to external
conditions. Active pack- aging includes additives or freshness
enhancers that are capable of scavenging oxygen; adsorbing carbon
dioxide, moisture, ethylene and/or flavour/odour taints; releasing
ethanol, sorbates, antioxidants and/or other preservatives; and/or
maintaining temperature control.
incorporation of certain additives
Oxygen can have considerable detrimental effects on
foods. Oxygen scavengers can therefore help maintain
food product quality by decreasing food metabolism,
reducing oxidative rancidity, inhibiting undesirable
oxidation of labile pigments and vitamins, controlling
enzymic discolouration and inhibiting the growth of
aerobic microorganisms.
Oxygen
scavengers
The most well known oxygen scavengers take the form
of small sachets containing various iron based powders
combined with a suitable catalyst. These chemical
systems often react with water supplied by the food to
produce a reactive hydrated metallic reducing agent that
scavenges oxygen within the food package and
irreversibly converts it to a stable oxide. The iron powder
is separated from the food by keeping it in a small,
highly oxygen permeable sachet that is labelled Do not
eat. The main advantage of using such oxygen
scavengers is that they are capable of reducing
oxygen levels to less than 0.01% which is much lower
than the typical 0.3-3.0% residual oxygen levels
achievable by modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).
Oxygen scavengers can be used alone or in
combination with MAP. Their use alone
eliminates the need for MAP machinery and can
increase packaging speeds. However, it is a
common commercial practice to remove most of
the atmospheric oxygen by MAP and then use a
relatively small an inexpensive scavenger to
mop up the residual oxygen remaining within the
food package.
The use of oxygen scavengers for beer, wine and other
beverages is poten- tially a huge market that has only
recently begun to be exploited. Iron based label and
sachet scavengers cannot be used for beverages
or high a w foods because, when wet, their oxygen
scavenging capability is rapidly lost. Instead, various
non-metallic reagents and organo-metallic compounds
which have an affinity for oxygen have been
incorporated into bottle closures, crowns and caps or
blended into polymer materials so that oxygen is
scavenged from the bottle headspace and any
ingressing oxygen is also scavenged
Packaging problems involving the need for oxygen
scavenging may be divided into two classes based on the
origin of the oxygen that needs to be removed. The
headspace and dissolved oxygen is present at the time of
closing most packages of foods and beverages. Removal
of some or all of this oxygen is required at a rate greater
than that of the various food degradation processes that
occur in the food. In this case, a headspace scavenger
package is required.
The oxygen that enters the package by permeation or
leakage after closing needs to be removed, preferably
before contacting the food.
The scavenger required is a chemically enhanced
barrier. Prototype ZERO2™ headspace scavenging
polymer compositions to meet these two requirements
have been synthesised from food-grade commercial
polymers and extruded into film on a pilot scale. Oxygen
scavenging from the gas phase can be made to
occur within minutes at retort temperatures and within
several hours to one or two days at room temperature.
Oxygen scavenging to very low levels under refrigeration
temperatures can require two or more days, as expected
when gas diffusion into the polymer is slowed.
Beverages are particularly susceptible
to quality degradation due to oxidation
or, in some cases, due to microbial
growth. Distribution can require shelf
lives of up to a year under ambient
conditions in some cases, resulting in a
need for plastic packegs
Carbon dioxide
scavengers/emitters
There are many commercial sachet and label devices that can be
used to either scavenge or emit carbon dioxide. The use of
carbon dioxide scavengers is particularly applicable for fresh roasted
or ground coffees that produce signi- ficant volumes of carbon
dioxide. Fresh roasted or ground coffees cannot be left
unpackaged since they will absorb moisture and oxygen and lose
desirable volatile aromas and flavours. However, if coffee is
hermetically sealed in packs directly after roasting, the carbon dioxide
released will build up within the packs and eventually cause them to
burst.
To circumvent this problem, two solutions are currently used. The first
is to use packaging with patented one-way valves that will allow
excess carbon dioxide to escape. The second solution is to use a
carbon dioxide scavenger or a dual-action oxygen and carbon
dioxide scavenger system. A mixture of calcium oxide and activated
charcoal has been used in polyethylene coffee pouches to scavenge
carbon dioxide but dual-action oxygen and carbon dioxide
scavenger sachets and labels are more common and are commercially
used for canned and foil pouched coffees
Ethylene (C 2H 4) is a plant growth regulator which
accelerates the respiration rate and subsequent senescence of
horticultural products such as fruit, vegetables and flowers.
Many of the effects of ethylene are necessary, e.g. induction of
flowering in pineapples, colour development in citrus fruits,
bananas and tomatoes, stimulation of root production in baby
carrots and development of bitter flavour in bulk delivered
cucumbers, but in most horticultural situations it is desirable
Ethylene to remove ethylene or to suppress its negative effects.
Con- sequently, much research has been undertaken to
incorporate ethylene scavengers into fresh produce
scavengers packaging and storage areas. Some of this effort has met with
commercial success, but much of it has not
Activated carbon-based scavengers with various
metal catalysts can also effectively remove ethylene.
They have been used to scavenge ethylene from
produce warehouses or incorporated into sachets
for inclusion into produce packs or embedded into
paper bags or corrugated board boxes for produce
Activated storage. A dual-action ethylene scavenger and
moisture absorber has been marketed in Japan by
carbon- Sekisui Jushi Limited. Neupalon™ sachets contain
activated carbon, a metal catalyst and silica gel and
are capable of scavenging ethylene by the minerals
based dispersed within the bags
scavengers
Ethanol emitters
Ethanol emitters
The use of ethanol as an antimicrobial agent is well
documented. It is particularly effective against mould but
can also inhibit the growth of yeasts and bacteria.
Ethanol can be sprayed directly onto food products just
prior to packaging. Several reports have demonstrated
that the mould-free shelf life of bakery products can
be significantly extended after spraying with 95% ethanol
to give concentrations of 0.5-1.5% (w/w) in the products.
However, a more practical and safer method of
generating ethanol is through the use of ethanol-emitting
films and sachets. bakery products packed with ethanol-
emitting sachets did not get as hard as the controls and
results were better than those using an oxygen
scavenger alone to inhibit mould growth. Hence, ethanol
vapour also appears to exert an anti-staling effect in
addition to its anti-mould properties. Ethanol-emitting
sachets are also widely used in Japan for extending the
shelf life of semi-moist and dry fish products.
Preservative releasers
Recently, there has been great interest in the potential
use of antimicrobial and antioxidant packaging films which
have preservative properties for extending the shelf life of
a wide range of food products. As with other categories of
act- ive packaging, many patents exist and some
antimicrobial and antioxidant films have been marketed
but the majority have so far failed to be commercialised
because of doubts about their effectiveness, economic
Preservative factors and/or regulatory constraints.
releasers
Moisture absorbers
Moisture absorbers
Excess moisture is a major cause of food spoilage. Soaking up
moisture by using various absorbers or desiccants is very effective
in maintaining food quality and extending shelf life by inhibiting
microbial growth and moisture related degradation of texture and
flavour. Several companies manufacture moisture absorbers in the
form of sachets, pads, sheets or blankets. For pack- aged dried food
applications, desiccants such as silica gel, calcium oxide and activated
clays and minerals are typically contained.
Flavour/odour adsorbers
Flavour/odour adsorbers
The interaction of packaging with food flavours and aromas has long
been recognised, especially through the undesirable flavour scalping of
desirable food components. For example, the scalping of a considerable
proportion of desirable limonene has been demonstrated after only two
weeks storage in aseptic packs of orange juice
Temperature control packaging Temperature control active packaging
includes the use of innovative insulating
materials, self-heating and self-cooling cans.
Thank you
Melese Temesgen, PhD
Long year experience Teaching
Research & Management
E: melese2b@[Link]
