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Orientation to Computing-I

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L T P :2 0 0
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Unit 3
File system management
File system management :

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File system basics, Types of file systems( FAT, NTFS, GFS, HDFS, DFS,

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UDF, Extended file systems), Pipes and redirection, Searching the file

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system using find and grep with simple regular expressions, Basic process
control using signals, pausing and resuming process from a Linux terminal,

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terminating a process, Adding/removing from search path using PATH

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variable.
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Other Shell commands:
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ls, cat, man, cd, touch, cp, mv, rmdir, mkdir, rm, chmod, pwd, ps, kill, etc,
Kernel and types of kernels.

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Understanding File System

• File system is a structure used to organize data and programs on computer
storage devices.

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• It keeps track of the physical locations of all data elements on disk and

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allows users to quickly and reliably retrieve files when needed.

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• Every operating system, from MS-DOS to Windows 95, Windows XP and

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Linux, has its own file system.
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Representation of File System

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File can be..

• Regular files
• Directory Files
• Device Files or Special Files

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• Regular Files stores data (text, binary, and executable)

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• Directory files contains information used to access other files.

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• Device Files defines a FIFO (first-in, first-out) pipe file or a
physical device
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File can be..

Regular files

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Regular files, also known simply as files, are the most

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common type of files found in a Unix-like file system. These

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files contain data, such as text, images, videos, or program

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code. When we create or edit a document, write a script, or

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si
create any other type of content, we are working with a
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regular file.
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File can be..

Directory files
Directory files are special files that store

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information about files and other directories within

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a specific directory. In simpler terms, directories

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are folders that contain lists of file names and their

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corresponding inode numbers (unique identifiers

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si
for files). When we create a new directory, we are
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creating a directory file. Directories provide the
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structure and organization for the file system,
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allowing users to organize files into a hierarchical

structure.

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File can be..

Device files
Device files, also known as special files, represent devices attached to
the system, such as hard drives, printers, or terminals. There are two
types of device files: block devices and character devices.

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Block Devices: These devices read and write data in fixed-size blocks.

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Examples include hard drives, SSDs, and USB drives. Block devices are

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used for storing and retrieving data in chunks, making them suitable for

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file systems.

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Character Devices: These devices transfer data character by character,
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like keyboards, mice, or serial ports. Character devices are used for
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devices that transfer data one character at a time.

Device files are essential for interacting with hardware components and
are located in the /dev directory on Unix-like systems.

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File System Representation

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Popular File System

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Useful Symbols for Files

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Types of File Systems

• Following are the various file system in a device:
– FAT
– GFS

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–

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HDFS

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– DFS
–

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UDF

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– Extended file system
– NTFS
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 FAT File System
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• FAT
– Full form is file allocation table
– One of the oldest file systems available on the windows machine.
– Introduced on ms-dos 7.1 / windows 95 in 1996

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– Developed for floppy disks but later used on hard drive, USB flash

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drives, and SSD cards.

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– Until windows xp, it was default file system

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– FAT8, FAT12, and FAT16, FAT32 are its variations. Each has an

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increasing number of clusters, and maximum file and volume sizes.

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Structure of FAT32 File

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FAT32 contd..
Advantages:
• Can hold up to 268,173,300 files
• The backup FAT table copy gets automatically relocated to the root folder

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in FAT32 systems, which further can be used for the restoration of files.

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• Drive sizes are between 2 and 16 tb with 64kb clusters.

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• Is the official format for sd and sdhc cards.

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Limitations: er
• Each file can have a maximum size of 4GB (GigaBytes).
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• No control over file permissions and data security.
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• The native disk’s maximum disk size for FAT32 is 32 GB. It is possible to
expand it up to 2TB.
• FAT32 is no longer used on modern, internal Windows hard drives as most
systems have adopted the NTFS standard.
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NTFS (New Technology File

System)
• NTFS:-

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• Current Windows versions beginning

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with Windows XP — use the NTFS

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file system to partition their code.
• It is possible to format external drives

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with either FAT32 or NTFS.

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• File size limit of 16 exabytes
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• Supports file permissions and
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encryption.
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Differences between FAT32, exFAT,

and NTFS File Systems.

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HFS File System

• A file with the HFS file extension is an HFS disk image file.
• Known as Hierarchical File System

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• Used to store the files on floppy disks, CD-ROM discs, and hard drives of

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older Apple Macintosh computers.
• In 2017, Apple File System (APFS) was launched.

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Btrfs
• Btrfs — "better file system" — is a newer, still in development, Linux file
system.

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• It is a copy-on-write (CoW) filesystem.

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• When data is modified in a CoW system, a new copy of the modified data

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is created, leaving the original data unchanged. This means that if multiple

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processes or users are accessing the same data and one of them wants to

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modify it, the system creates a copy of the data, applies the modification
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to the copy, and the process making the change operates on the copied
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data. This way, the original data remains intact, and only the modified
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version is stored as a new file.
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• The goal is to provide additional features that allow Linux to scale up to

larger storage amounts.

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Ext2/Ext3/Ext4 File System

• In 1992 the Extended File System (ext) was launched for Linux
• On Ubuntu, you will often see the file systems Ext2, Ext3, and Ext4.

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• If the power is gone or a device crashes when writing to an ext2 disk, data

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may be lost.

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• Ext3 provides these features of robustness at the expense of some speed.

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• Ext4 is simpler and more modern, it's now the default file system on most

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Linux distributions, and it's faster.
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• Such file systems are not supported by Windows and Mac.
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Concept of Pipes and Redirection

A pipe is a connection between two processes, such that the standard output
from one process becomes the standard input of the other process.

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In UNIX Operating System, Pipes are useful for communication between

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related processes(inter-process communication).
Although pipe can be accessed like an ordinary file, the system actually

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manages it as FIFO queue.

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Concept of Redirection
Redirection is for files (you redirect streams to/from files).
One common need when we run applications is to direct the output

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into a file instead of the terminal. A redirect sends a channel of

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output to a file.

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This is typically done with the > operator between the application to

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run and the file to write the output into. For example, we can send

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the output of the ls command into a file called files as follows:
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$ ls > files
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Searching the File System

• Use command- find

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– It search for files in a directory hierarchy under Linux and

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all other UNIX like operating systems.

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– Examples:

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• find . - name thisfile.txt. ...

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• find /home -name *.jpg. Look for all . ...
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Searching the File System contd..

Use command- grep
• Grep is an acronym that stands for Global Regular Expression

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Print.

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The grep command searches through the file, looking for matches to
the pattern specified.

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Grep is case-sensitive.

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Example:
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grep myname biodata
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• Here biodata is file and myname is specific pattern for searching in

biodata file

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Use of grep

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Use of grep contd..

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Process Signals
• A signal is basically a one-way notification.
• A signal can be sent by the kernel to a process, by a process to another

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process, or a process to itself.

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• Signals are one of the ways process communicate among themselves and
with the kernel.

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• The list of the most commonly used signals follow:

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• SIGTERM: Surprisingly, the default signal sent by kill command.
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• Asks the process to terminate voluntarily.
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• SIGKILL: unlike SIGTERM, forces the process to terminate.
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• Can't be blocked or handled.

• SIGSTOP: suspend the process execution.

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Process Signals contd..

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Description of Signals

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Linux Signals

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Kill command
– The killall is a Linux only command. It kills processes by names.
– Examples:

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• killall {Process-Name-Here}

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• killall -9 {Process-Name-Here}

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• killall -15 {Process-Name-Here}

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• kill the process using a PID (Process ID)
– # kill 3486
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PID can be searched using pgrep command
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Path Variable
• It displays or set a search path for executable files at the command line.
• Syntax PATH pathname [;pathname] [;pathname] [;pathname]... PATH

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PATH ; Key pathname : drive letter and/or folder ; : the command 'PATH ;'

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will clear the path PATH without parameters will display the current path.
• The %PATH% environment variable contains a list of folders.

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• The PATH variable is an environment variable containing an ordered
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list of paths that Linux will search for executables when running a
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command.
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– For example, if we want to print Hello, world! in Bash, the

command echo can be used rather than /bin/echo, so long as /bin is in
PATH:

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Adding/Deleting a Path
• Using the export command, new path can be added.

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• Activity

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• Add to the path in Windows

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Other Shell Commands:

• ls • rmdir
• • mkdir

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cat
•

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• man rm

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• cd • chmod
• •

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touch pwd
•

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• cp ps

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• mv er • kill
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ls command
• The ls command is used to list files or directories in Linux and other Unix-

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based operating systems.

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• Use of ls command as below:

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cat command
• Outputs the contents of a text file.

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• You can use it to read brief files or to concatenate files together.

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• To append file1 onto the end of file2, enter:
• cat file1 >> file2

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• To view the contents of a file named myfile, enter:

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•

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cat myfile er
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man command
• The man command is a built-in manual for using Linux commands.
• Displays the user manual of any command that we can run on the terminal.

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It provides a detailed view of the command which includes NAME,

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SYNOPSIS, DESCRIPTION, OPTIONS, EXIT STATUS, RETURN

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VALUES, ERRORS, FILES, VERSIONS, EXAMPLES, AUTHORS.

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• Basic Symbol

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• option – the search result output.

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• section number – the section in which to look for the man page.
• command name – the name of the command which man page you want to
see.

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cd command
• It changes your current directory location.

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• By default, your Unix login session begins in your home directory.

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• To switch to a subdirectory (of the current directory) named myfiles, enter:
• cd myfiles

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• To switch to a directory named /home/dvader/empire_docs, enter:

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• cd /home/dvader/empire_docs er
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Touch
The touch command's

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primary function is to

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modify a timestamp.

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cp
• This command copies a file, preserving the original and creating an
identical copy.

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– cp -i oldfile newfile

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mv
mv stands for move.

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mv is used to move one or more files or directories from one place to
another in a file system like UNIX.
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Use it as:
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mv [Option] source destination
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chmod
• This command changes the permission information associated with a
file.
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Mkdir
• The mkdir command is used to create (or make) a directory.
• Example:

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• # mkdir LPUCSE

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rmdir

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• The rmdir directory is used to remove directories, but only those that are

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si
empty (i.e., contain no files or subdirectories). In order to delete a directory
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with actual contents, you must use the rm -R command.
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• Example
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• To remove an empty directory:

• # rmdir /mike

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Rm
Use the rm command to remove files you no longer need.
Example
Removing one file at a time
$ rm CSEA.txt

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Pwd

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Simply type pwd into your terminal, and the command will output the absolute

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path of your print working directory.

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The pwd command writes to standard output the full path name of your current
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directory (from the root directory). All directories are separated by a /
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(slash). The root directory is represented by the first /, and the last directory
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named is your current directory.
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The ps command, short for Process Status, is a command line utility that is
used to display or view information related to the processes running in a
Linux system.

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ps
The ps command, short for Process Status, is a command line utility that is
used to display or view information related to the processes running in a

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Linux system.

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kill

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kill command in Linux (located in /bin/kill), is a built-in command which is

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used to terminate processes manually.
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• Activity

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• Execute various commands on Linux Operating System

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Kernel and types of kernels

• A Kernel is an intermediary between applications and hardware.
• Functions of a Kernel
A Kernel in an operating system performs the following functions:

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• Device Management: Processes require various peripheral devices such as

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a mouse and keyboard connected to the computer to perform various tasks.

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The Kernel manages the allocation of the peripheral devices.

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• Resource Management: Kernel shares the resources between different

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processes while ensuring that every process has uniform access to the
resources.
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• Memory Management: Every process requires some memory to execute.
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The Kernel allows the processes to access the memory safely.
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• Access Computer Resource: A kernel can access different computer

resources such as RAM, CPU, I/O devices, and other resources. The Kernel
decides which memory each process will use, and the action is taken if
memory is unavailable.
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More about Linux Kernel

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More about Linux Kernel

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Basic types of kernels

• 3 basic types of kernels as below:

• Monolithic

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• Microkernel

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• Hybrid

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• A monolithic kernel is a type of kernel in which the complete OS runs in

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the kernel space.
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• A microkernel is a kernel type that implements an operating system by
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providing methods, including low-level address space management, IPC,
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and thread management.

• A hybrid kernel is an operating system kernel architecture that attempts to
combine aspects and benefits of microkernel and monolithic kernel
architectures used in computer operating systems.

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Basic types of kernels

• Monolithic Kernel

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• In a monolithic kernel, most operating system functions are

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tightly integrated into a single, large software module. This

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includes core services like process management, memory

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management, file systems, and device drivers. Example of

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operating system with monolithic kernel is Linux.
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Basic types of kernels

• Micro Kernel

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• A microkernel takes a different approach by keeping the core

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functionality minimal. It only includes essential services like

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process scheduling and inter-process communication.

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Additional functionalities, such as file systems and device

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drivers, are implemented as separate user-space modules.
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This design aims to improve system stability and security by
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minimizing the code that runs in kernel mode. Examples of
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operating systems with microkernels include MINIX and QNX.

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Basic types of kernels

• Hybrid Kernel

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• Hybrid kernels combine aspects of both monolithic and

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microkernels. They include a core set of essential services in

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the kernel, similar to a microkernel, but also allow some non-

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essential services to run in kernel mode for improved

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performance. Windows NT and its derivatives, like Windows
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10, are examples of operating systems with hybrid kernels.
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Basic types of kernels

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