Pharmaceutical Calculations

Dr .Yousef HAJYOUSEF
Interpretation of prescriptions and
medication orders

Dr .Yousef HAJYOUSEF
A prescription
• An order for medication issued by a physician, dentist, or other
properly licensed medical practitioner.
• Designates a specific medication and dosage to be prepared by a
pharmacist and administered to a particular patient.
• Written usually on preprinted forms

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• containing the traditional symbol Rx (meaning ‘‘recipe,’’ ‘‘take thou,’’
or ‘‘you take’’), name, address, telephone number, and other
pertinent information regarding the physician or other prescriber.
• In addition, blank spaces are used by the prescriber to provide
information about the patient, the medication desired, and the
directions for use.

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Dr .Yousef HAJYOUSEF
1. Prescriber information and signature
2. Patient information
3. Date prescription was written
4. symbol (the Superscription), meaning ‘‘take thou,’’ ‘‘you take,’’ or
‘‘recipe’’
5. Medication prescribed (the Inscription)
6. Dispensing instructions to the pharmacist (the Subscription)
7. Directions to the patient (the Signa)
8. Special instructions.

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• In hospitals and other institutions,
the forms are somewhat different
and are referred to as medication
orders.
• Typically, these instructions are
written by the physician in ink.

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• A prescription or medication order for
an infant, child, or an elderly person
may also include the age, weight,
and/or body surface area (BSA) of the
patient

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Categories of prescriptions
(1) those written for a single component or prefabricated product and
not requiring compounding or admixture by the pharmacist
(2) those written for more than a single component and requiring
compounding.
• A prescription may include the chemical or nonproprietary (generic)
name of the substance or the manufacturer’s brand or trademark
name
• Prescriptions requiring compounding contain the quantities of each
ingredient required.

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Prescription for Generic drug

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• Compounding prescription

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Dr .Yousef HAJYOUSEF
• O.d. right eye
• o.s. left eye
• O.u. both eyes

Ex. with

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Dr .Yousef HAJYOUSEF
Dr .Yousef HAJYOUSEF
Use of Roman Numerals on Prescriptions

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Examples of prescription directions to the pharmacist:
(a) M. ft. ung.
Mix and make an ointment.
(b) Ft. sup. no xii
Make 12 suppositories.
(c) M. ft. cap. d.t.d. no. xxiv
Mix and make capsules. Give 24 such doses.

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Questions
• Tab i qAM HBP
Dispense one tablet every morning for high blood pressure

• Caps. i. q.i.d. p.c. et h.s.

Dispense one capsule 4 times daily after meals and at bed time

• gtt. ii rt.eye every a.m.

Instill 2 drops in right eyes every morning

• tab. ii stat tab. 1 q. 6 h. 7 d.

Dispense 2 tablets immediat then one tab every 6 hour for 7 days
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Dr .Yousef HAJYOUSEF
• Ex = In
One teaspoon in water every 4 or 5 hours as required for pain

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Dr .Yousef HAJYOUSEF
Pharmaceutical Calculations
International system of units

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International system of units
• The International System of Units (SI), formerly called the metric
system, is the internationally recognized decimal system of weights
and measures
• For length, the primary unit is the meter; for volume, the liter; and for
weight, the gram
• Originally, the meter was defined as 1⁄40,000,000 of the Earth’s polar
circumference

Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF

Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF
Measure of length
• The meter is the primary unit of length in the SI
1 kilometer (km) 1000.000 meters
1 hectometer (hm) 100.000 meters
1 dekameter (dam) 10.000 meters
1 decimeter (dm) 0.100 meter
1 centimeter (cm) 0.010 meter
1 millimeter (mm) 0.001 meter
1 micrometer (mm) 0.000,001 meter
1 nanometer (nm) 0.000,000,001 meter

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Measure of Volume
• The liter is the primary unit of volume. It represents the volume of the cube of one
tenth of a meter, that is, of 1 dm3

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Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF
Measure of Weight

Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF

Prescription Writing Style Using the SI
• Prescriptions written in the SI use Arabic numerals before the
abbreviations for the denominations (e.g., 6 g).
• Quantities of weight are usually written as grams and decimals of a
gram, and volumes as milliliters and decimals of a milliliter.

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Fundamental computations

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• Reduce 62,500 mcg to g

• Reduce 1.23 kilograms to grams

• Reduce 85 micrometers to centimeters

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Addition and subtraction
Examples:
• Add 1 kg, 250 mg, and 7.5 g. Express the total in grams.

• Add 4 L, 375 mL, and 0.75 L. Express the total in milliliters.

• A capsule contains the following amounts of medicinal substances: 0.075 g, 20 mg, 0.0005 g, 4 mg, and 500
mg. What is the total weight of the substances in the capsule?
• A prescription calls for 0.06 g of one ingredient, 2.5 mg of another, and enough of a third to make 0.5 g. How
many milligrams of the third ingredient should be used?

Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF

Multiplication and Division
• Divide 0.465 g by 15 and express the result in milligrams.

• A nurse telephones a pharmacy regarding the proper quantity of an injection to

administer to a pediatric patient from a 1-mL vial containing 0.1 mg of digoxin.
The attending physician has quantity of an injection to administer to a pediatric
patient from a 1-mL vial containing 0.1 mg of digoxin. The attending physician had
prescribed a dose of 25 mcg. How many milliliters should be the pharmacist’s
response? Man milliliters should be the pharmacist’s response?

Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF

Other systems
• The avoirdupois system, widely used in the United States in
measuring body weight and in selling goods by the ounce or pound, is
slowly giving way to the international system
• The apothecaries’ system, once the predominant pharmacist’s system
of volumetric and weight measure, has also largely been replaced by
the SI.

Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF

Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF
Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF
Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF
Conversion of Temperatures
• Because 100 degrees centigrade (C) measures the same difference in temperature that is
measured by 180 degrees Fahrenheit (F), each degree centigrade is the equivalent of 1.8 or 9/5
the size of each degree Fahrenheit

• Convert 268 C to corresponding degrees Fahrenheit

• Convert 98.68 F to corresponding degrees centigrade.

Dr. Yousef HAJYOUSEF

Pharmaceutical Calculations
Fundamentals of Pharmaceutical Calculations

•Basic computation skills

•Ratios and proportions
•Significant figures
Questions
• How many 0.000065-gram doses can be made from 0.130 gram of a
drug?

• Write each of the following in exponential form:

• Ratio is, the relative magnitude of two quantities.
• When two ratios have the same value, they are equivalent.
• It is also true that if two ratios are equal, their reciprocals are equal

• We discover further that the numerator of the one fraction equals the
product of its denominator and the other fraction
Proportion
• A proportion is the expression of the equality of two ratios.
It may be written in any one of three standard forms:
• a and d are called the extremes (meaning ‘‘outer
members’’) and b and c the means (‘‘middle members’’).
• In any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to
the product of the means
• Examples: If 3 tablets contain 975 milligrams of aspirin, how many
milligrams should be contained in 12 tablets?

• If 3 tablets contain 975 milligrams of aspirin, how many tablets should

contain 3900 milligrams?
Significant figures
• Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured
quantity

• Digits other than zero are significant.

• A zero between digits is significant.
• Final zeros after a decimal point are significant.
• Zeros used only to show the location of the decimal point are not significant
• How many significant figures in the following?
• 0.5
• 1.25
• 1.02
• 0.0605
• 0.065
Pharmaceutical Calculations
Pharmaceutical measurements
• Pharmaceutical measurement is an important part of pharmacy practice.
It is employed in community and institutional pharmacies, in
pharmaceutical research, in the development and manufacture of
pharmaceuticals, in chemical and product analysis, and in quality control.
•the equipment and methods used in measurements of
pharmaceutical materials (weight or/and volume) have to be of
specific accuracy of therapeutic and
• The role of the pharmacist in providing pharmaceutical care includes
the ability and responsibility to compound that is, to accurately
weigh, measure volume, and combine individual therapeutic and
pharmaceutical components in the formulation and preparation of
prescriptions and medication orders.
 easurement of Volume
• Volume is the quantity of three-dimensional space occupied by a liquid, solid, or gas.
• Common units used to express volume include liters, cubic meter, gallon .....
• Common instruments for the pharmaceutical measurement of volume
micropipettes
pipettes
spoonful
syringe
graduated cylinder
graduated conical
burettes
• As a general rule, it is best to select the graduate with a
capacity equal to or just exceeding the volume to be
measured. Measurement of small volumes in large
graduates tends to increase the size of the error
 easurement of Weight
• Common instruments for the pharmaceutical
measurement of weight:
sensitive electrical balances
Torbal torsion balance

• The term sensitivity requirement (SR) is defined as

the load that will cause a change of one division on
the index plate of the balance. It may be determined
by the following procedure:
1. Level the balance.
2. Determine the rest point of the balance.
3. Determine the smallest weight that causes the rest
point to shih one division on the index plate.
 easurement of Weight
• Minimally, a Class A prescription balance should be used in all prescription
compounding procedures. Balances of this type have a SR of 6 mg or less
with no load and with a load of 10 g in each pan.
• Most commercially available Class A balances have a maximum capacity of
120 g.

Example:
On a balance with an SR of 6 mg, and with an acceptable error of no greater than
5%, a quantity of not less than 120 mg must be weighed

• To avoid errors of greater than 5% when using this balance, the pharmacist
should not weigh less than 120 mg of material
 Percentage of Error
• Because measurements in the community pharmacy are never absolutely accurate

• Percentage of error may be defined as the maximum potential error multiplied by 100 and
divided by the quantity desired. The calculation may be formulated as follows:

Example:
Using a graduated cylinder, a pharmacist measured 30 milliliters of a liquid. On
subsequent examination, using a narrow-gauge burette, it was determined that the
pharmacist had actually measured 32 milliliters. What was the percentage of error in the
original measurement?

When the maximum potential error is +- 4 milligrams in a total of 100 milligrams, what is
the percentage of error?
 Percentage of Error
Example:
A prescription calls for 800 milligrams of a substance. After weighing this amount on a
balance, the pharmacist decides to check by weighing it again on a more sensitive
balance, which registers only 750 milligrams. Because the first weighing was 50
milligrams short of the desired amount, what was the percentage of error?
 iquot ethod of Weighing and easuring
• The aliquot method of weighing is a method by which small quantities of a
substance may be obtained within the desired degree of accuracy by
weighing a larger-than-needed portion of the substance, diluting it with an
inert material, and then weighing a portion (aliquot) of the mixture
calculated to contain the desired amount of the needed substance.
S t 6p 1
Steps for calculations
• Step 1. Select a multiple of the desired quantity that can be weighed
with the required precision.
• Step 2. Dilute the multiple quantity with an inert substance
• Step 3. Weigh the aliquot portion of the dilution that contains the
desired quantity
 Aliquot method of weighing
Examples:
1. A torsion prescription balance has a sensitivity requirement
of 6 milligrams. Explain how you would weigh 4 milligrams of
atropine sulfate with an accuracy of +- 5%, using lactose as the
diluent.
2.A torsion prescription balance has a sensitivity requirement of 6.5
milligrams. Explain how you would weigh 15 milligrams of atropine
sulfate with an accuracy of i:5%, using lactose as the diluent.

NOTE: It is important for the student to recognize that answers to aliquot calculations
may vary, but still be correct, depending on the multiple factors arbitrarily chosen for
use.
Measuring Volume by the Aliquot Method

•Step 1. Select a multiple of the desired quantity that can be

measured with the required precision.
• Step 2. Dilute the multiple quantity with a compatible diluent
(usually a solvent for the liquid to be measured) to an
amount evenly divisible by the multiple selected.
• Step 3. Measure the aliquot of the dilution that contains the
quantity originally desired.
• Examples:
•A formula calls for 0.5 mL of hydrochloric acid. Using a 10-mL graduate
calibrated from 2 to 10 mL in 1-mL divisions

•A prescription calls for 0.2 mL of clove oil. Using a 5-mL graduate

calibrated in units of 0.5 mL, how would you obtain the required
amount of clove oil using the aliquot method and alcohol as the
• diluent?
 Least WeighabIe ntity ethod of Weighing
• This method may be used as an alternative to the aliquot method of weighing to obtain small
quantities of a drug substance.
• After determining the quantity of drug substance that is desired and the smallest quantity that
can be weighed on the balance with the desired degree of accuracy,

Step 1. Weigh an amount of the drug substance that is equal to or greater than the least
weighable quantity.

Step 2. Dilute the drug substance with a calculated quantity of inert diluent such that a
predetermined quantity of the drug-diluent mixture will contain the desired quantity of drug.

Example:
If 20 milligrams of a drug substance are needed to fill a prescription, explain how you
would obtain this amount of drug with an accuracy of 5% using a balance with an SR of 6
milligrams. Use lactose as the diluent.
Example:
A prescription calls for 800 milligrams of a substance. After weighing this amount on a
balance, the pharmacist decides to check by weighing it again on a more sensitive
balance, which registers only 750 milligrams. Because the first weighing was 50
milligrams short of the desired amount, what was the percentage of error?
Pharmaceutical measurements
• Pharmaceutical measurement is an important part of pharmacy practice.
It is employed in community and institutional pharmacies, in
pharmaceutical research, in the development and manufacture of
pharmaceuticals, in chemical and product analysis, and in quality control.
• the equipment and methods used in measurements of
pharmaceutical materials (weight or/and volume) have to be of
specific accuracy of therapeutic and
• The role of the pharmacist in providing pharmaceutical care includes
the ability and responsibility to compound—that is, to accurately
weigh, measure volume, and combine individual therapeutic and
pharmaceutical components in the formulation and preparation of
prescriptions and medication orders.
 Measurement of Volume
• Volume is the quantity of three-dimensional space occupied by a liquid, solid, or gas.
• Common units used to express volume include liters, cubic meter, gallon …..
• Common instruments for the pharmaceutical measurement of volume
micropipettes
pipettes
spoonful
syringe
graduated cylinder
graduated conical
burettes
• The selection of measuring instrument should be based on the level of precision/accuracy
required
• As a general rule, it is best to select the graduate with a capacity equal to or just exceeding
the volume to be measured
 Measurement of Weight
• Common instruments for the pharmaceutical
measurement of weight:
sensitive electrical balances
Torbal torsion balance

• The term sensitivity requirement (SR) is defined as

the load that will cause a change of one division on
the index plate of the balance. It may be determined
by the following procedure:
1. Level the balance.
2. Determine the rest point of the balance.
3. Determine the smallest weight that causes the rest
point to shift one division on the index plate.
 Measurement of Weight
• Minimally, a Class A prescription balance should be used in all prescription
compounding procedures. Balances of this type have a SR of 6 mg or less
with no load and with a load of 10 g in each pan.
• Most commercially available Class A balances have a maximum capacity of
120 g.

Example:
On a balance with an SR of 6 mg, and with an acceptable error of no greater
than 5%, a quantity of not less than 120 mg must be weighed

• To avoid errors of greater than 5% when using this balance, the pharmacist
should not weigh less than 120 mg of material
 Aliquot Method of Weighing and Measuring
• The aliquot method of weighing is a method by which small quantities of a
substance may be obtained within the desired degree of accuracy by
weighing a larger-than-needed portion of the substance, diluting it with an
inert material, and then weighing a portion (aliquot) of the mixture
calculated to contain the desired amount of the needed substance.
 Aliquot Method of Weighing and Measuring
Examples:
1. A torsion prescription balance has a sensitivity requirement of 6
milligrams. Explain how you would weigh 4 milligrams of atropine
sulfate with an accuracy of ±5%, using lactose as the diluent.

2. A torsion prescription balance has a sensitivity requirement of 6.5

milligrams. Explain how you would weigh 15 milligrams of atropine
sulfate with an accuracy of ±5%, using lactose as the diluent.

NOTE: It is important for the student to recognize that answers to aliquot calculations
may vary, but still be correct, depending on the multiple factors arbitrarily chosen for
use.
Measuring Volume by the Aliquot Method

Step 1. Select a multiple of the desired quantity that can be

measured with the required precision.
Step 2. Dilute the multiple quantity with a compatible diluent
(usually a solvent for the liquid to be measured) to an
amount evenly divisible by the multiple selected.
Step 3. Measure the aliquot of the dilution that contains the
quantity originally desired.
Measuring Volume by the Aliquot Method
Examples:
A formula calls for 0.5 mL of hydrochloric acid. Using a 10-mL graduate
calibrated from 2 to 10 mL in 1-mL divisions

A prescription calls for 0.2 mL of clove oil. Using a 5-mL graduate

calibrated in units of 0.5 mL, how would you obtain the required
amount of clove oil using the aliquot method and alcohol as the
diluent?
Least Weighable Quantity Method of Weighing
• This method may be used as an alternative to the aliquot method of weighing to obtain
small quantities of a drug substance.
• After determining the quantity of drug substance that is desired and the smallest
quantity that can be weighed on the balance with the desired degree of accuracy,

Step 1. Weigh an amount of the drug substance that is equal to or greater than the least
weighable quantity.

Step 2. Dilute the drug substance with a calculated quantity of inert diluent such that a
predetermined quantity of the drug-diluent mixture will contain the desired quantity of
drug.

Example:
If 20 milligrams of a drug substance are needed to fill a prescription, explain how you
would obtain this amount of drug with an accuracy of 5% using a balance with an SR of 6
milligrams. Use lactose as the diluent.
 Percentage of Error
• Percentage of error may be defined as the maximum potential error multiplied by 100
and divided by the quantity desired. The calculation may be formulated as follows:

Example:
Using a graduated cylinder, a pharmacist measured 30 milliliters of a liquid. On
subsequent examination, using a narrow-gauge burette, it was determined that the
pharmacist had actually measured 32 milliliters. What was the percentage of error in the
original measurement?

When the maximum potential error is 4 milligrams in a total of 120 milligrams, what is
the percentage of error?.
 Percentage of Error
Example:
A prescription calls for 800 milligrams of a substance. After weighing this amount on a
balance, the pharmacist decides to check by weighing it again on a more sensitive
balance, which registers only 750 milligrams. Because the first weighing was 50
milligrams short of the desired amount, what was the percentage of error?
 Practice problems
1. A prescription calls for 50 milligrams of chlorpheniramine maleate. Using a prescription
balance with a sensitivity requirement of 6 milligrams, explain how you would obtain the
required amount of chlorpheniramine maleate with an error not greater than 5%.
2. A prescription balance has a sensitivity requirement of 0.006 gram. Explain how you would
weigh 0.012 gram of atropine sulfate with an error not greater than 5%, using lactose as the
diluent.
3. A torsion prescription balance has a sensi- tivity requirement of 4 milligrams. Ex- plain how
you would weigh 5 milligrams of hydromorphone hydrochloride with an error not greater than
5%. Use lactose as the diluent.
4. A torsion prescription balance has a sensi- tivity requirement of 0.004 gram. Explain how you
would weigh 0.008 gram of a substance with an error not greater than 5%.
5. A prescription balance has a sensitivity requirement of 6.5 milligrams. Explain how you
would weigh 20 milligrams of a substance with an error not greater than 2%.
 Practice problems
6. I} Sodium Citrate 5g
Tartar Emetic Cherry 0.015 g
Syrup ad 120 mL
Using a balance with a sensitivity of 4 mg, an acceptable weighing error of 5% and cherry syrup as
the solvent for tartar emetic, how could you obtain the correct quantity of tartar emetic to fill
the pre- scription?
7.A formula calls for 0.6 milliliter of a color- ing solution. Using a 10-milliliter gradu- ate calibrated
from 2 to 10 milliliters in 1-milliliter units, how could you obtain the desired quantity of the
coloring solu- tion by the aliquot method? Use water as the diluent.
8. Using a 10-milliliter graduate calibrated in 1-milliliter units, explain how you would measure
1.25 milliliters of a dye solution by the aliquot method. Use water as the diluent.
9. The formula for 100 milliliters of pento- barbital sodium elixir calls for 0.75 millil- iter of orange
oil. Using alcohol as a diluent and a 10-milliliter graduate cali- brated in 1-milliliter units, how
could you obtain the desired quantity of orange oil?
Practice problems
17
Density and Specific Gravity
• Density (d) is mass per unit volume of a substance.
• It is usually expressed as grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc)
• Because the gram is defined as the mass of 1 cc of water at 4oC, the density
of water is 1 g/cc
• 1 cc = 1 mL
• But, one milliliter of mercury weighs 13.6 g; hence, its density is 13.6 g/mL.
• Specific gravity (sp gr) is a ratio, expressed decimally, of the weight of a
substance to the weight of an equal volume of a substance chosen as a
standard, both substances at the same temperature or the temperature of
each being known.
• Water is used as the standard for the specific gravities of liquids and solids;
the most useful standard for gases is hydrogen

18
 Density Versus Specific Gravity
• Example:
If 10 mL of sulfuric acid weighs 18 g, and 10 mL of water, under similar conditions,
weighs 10 g, calculate both density and specific gravity

• The density of a substance is a concrete number (1.8 g/mL in the example),

• whereas specific gravity, being a ratio of like quantities, is an abstract number (1.8 in the
example)
• Whereas density varies with the units of measure used, specific gravity has no dimension
and is therefore a constant value for each substance.

19
 Density Versus Specific Gravity
•

20
 Calculating the Specific Gravity of Liquids
• Known Weight and Volume:
Examples:
1. If 54.96 mL of an oil weighs 52.78 g, what is the specific gravity of the oil? (54.96 mL of
water weighs 54.96 g)

2. If a pint of a certain liquid weighs 601 g, what is the specific gravity of the liquid?

21
 Calculating the Specific Gravity of Liquids
• Pycnometer or Specific Gravity Bottle:
• A pycnometer is a special glass bottle used to determine
specific gravity
• They are generally available for laboratory use in volumes
ranging from 1 mL to 50 mL.
• Pycnometers have fitted glass stoppers with a capillary
opening to allow trapped air and excess fluid to escape

Example:
A 50 mL pycnometer is found to weigh 120 g when empty,
171 g when filled with water, and 160 g when filled with an
unknown liquid. Calculate the specific gravity of the
unknown liquid.
22
 Use of Specific Gravity in Calculations of
Weight and Volume
Examples:
1. What is the weight, in grams, of 3620 mL of alcohol with a specific gravity of
0.820?

2. What is the weight, in grams, of 2 fl. oz. of a liquid having a specific gravity of
1.118?

3. What is the volume, in milliliters, of 492 g of nitric acid with a specific gravity of
1.40?

23
 Use of Specific Gravity in Calculations of
Weight and Volume
4. What is the volume, in milliliters, of 1 lb of methyl salicylate with a specific gravity
of 1.185?

5. What is the volume, in pints, of 50 lb of glycerin having a specific gravity of 1.25?

6. What is the cost of 1000 mL of glycerin, specific gravity 1.25, bought at $54.25 per
pound?

7. What is the cost of 1 pint of chloroform, specific gravity 1.475, bought at $25.25
per pound?
24
 Calculating Specific Volume
• Specific volume, in pharmaceutical practice, is usually defined as an abstract
number representing the ratio, expressed decimally, of the volume of a substance to
the volume of an equal weight of another substance taken as a standard, both
having the same temperature.
• Specific gravity is a comparison of weights of equal volumes, specific volume is a
comparison of volumes of equal weights
• specific gravity and specific volume are reciprocals
Example
• If 25 g of glycerin measures 20 mL and 25 g of water measures 25 mL under the
same conditions, the specific volume of the glycerin is:

• Calculate the specific volume of a syrup, 91.0 mL of which weighs 107.16 g.

25
 Calculating Specific Volume
• What is the specific volume of phosphoric acid having a specific gravity of 1.71?:

• If a liquid has a specific volume of 1.396, what is its specific gravity?

26
PRACTICE PROBLEMS

27
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31
• Types of Percentages:
1. Percent weight-in-volume (w/v) expresses the number of grams
of a constituent in 100 mL of solution or liquid preparation and
is used regardless of whether water or another liquid is he
solvent or vehicle. Expressed as: % w/v.

2. Percent volume-in-volume (v/v) expresses the number of

milliliters of a constituent in 100 mL of solution or liquid
preparation. Expressed as: % v/v.

3. Percent weight-in-weight (w/w) expresses the number of grams

of a constituent in 100 g of solution or preparation. Expressed
as: % w/w.

32
 Percentage, Ratio Strength, and
Other Expressions of Concentration

33
 Percentage Weight-in-Volume

34
Examples/ % w/v
1. How many grams of aminobenzoic acid should
be used in preparing 8 fluidounces of a 5%
solution in 70% alcohol?
8 fl. oz. = 8 * 29.57 mL = 236.56 mL

2. How many milliliters of a 3% solution can be

made from 27 g of ephedrine sulfate?

3. What is the percentage strength (w/v) of a

solution of urea, if 80 mL contains 12 g?
35
Examples % v/v
How many milliliters of liquefied phenol should be •
used in compounding the following prescription?

• In preparing 250 mL of a certain lotion, a

pharmacist used 4 mL of liquefied phenol. What
was the percentage (v/v) of liquefied phenol in
the lotion?a

36
Examples % v/v
• What is the percentage strength v/v of a solution of
800 g of a liquid with a specific gravity of 0.800 in
enough water to make 4000 mL?

• Peppermint spirit contains 10% v/v of peppermint oil.

What volume of the spirit will contain 75 mL of
peppermint oil?

• If a veterinary liniment contains 30% v/v of dimethyl

sulfoxide, how many milliliters of the liniment can be
prepared from 1 lb of dimethyl sulfoxide (sp gr 1.10)?
1 lb = 454 g

37
Examples % w/w
• How many grams of phenol should be used to
prepare 240 g of a 5% (w/w) solution in water?

• What weight of a 5% (w/w) solution can be prepared

from 2 g of active ingredient?

• How many grams of a drug substance are required to

make 120 mL of a 20% (w/w) solution having a
specific gravity of 1.15?

• How many grams of a drug substance should be

added to 240 mL of water to make a 4% (w/w)
solution?
38
Examples % w/w
• How should you prepare 100 mL of a 2% (w/w)
solution of a drug substance in a solvent having
a specific gravity of 1.25?

• If 1500 g of a solution contains 75 g of a drug

substance, what is the percentage strength (w/w) of
the solution?

• If 5 g of boric acid is added to 100 mL of water, what is the

percentage strength (w/w) of the solution?

• If 1000 mL of syrup with a specific gravity of 1.313

contains 850 g of sucrose, what is its percentage strength
(w/w)?
39
Examples % w/w
• What weight of a 5% (w/w) solution can be prepared
from 2 g of active ingredient??

• How many milligrams of hydrocortisone should be

used in compounding the following prescription??

• How many grams of benzocaine should be used in

compounding the following prescription?

40
41
 If ibuprofen tablets are permitted to contain not less than 90% and
not more than 110% of the labeled amount of ibuprofen, what would
be the permissible range in content of the drug, expressed in
milligrams, for ibuprofen tablets labeled 200 mg each?
42
Ratio Strength
• For example, 5% means 5 parts per 100 or 5:100.
Although 5 parts per 100 designates a ratio strength,
it is customary to translate this designation into a
ratio, the first figure of which is 1; thus, 5:100 = 1:20.

• When a ratio strength, for example, 1:1000, is used

to designate a concentration, it is to be interpreted as
follows:
1. For solids in liquids = 1 g of solute or constituent in
1000 mL of solution or liquid preparation.
2. For liquids in liquids = 1 mL of constituent in 1000
mL of solution or liquid preparation.
3. For solids in solids = 1 g of constituent in 1000 g of
mixture.
43
Examples Ratio Strength
• Express 0.02% as a ratio strength.

• Express 1:4000 as a percentage strength.

44
Examples Ratio Strength
• A certain injectable contains 2 mg of a drug per
milliliter of solution. What is the ratio strength
(w/v) of the solution?.

• What is the ratio strength (w/v) of a solution

made by dissolving five tablets, each containing
2.25 g of sodium chloride, in enough water to
make 1800 mL?

• How many grams of potassium permanganate

should be used in preparing 500 mL of a 1:2500
solution?
45
Examples Ratio Strength
• How many milligrams of gentian violet should be
used in preparing the following solution?
Rx
Gentian Violet Solution 500 mL
1:10,000

• How many milligrams of hexachlorophene should be

used in compounding the following prescription?
Rx
Hexachlorophene 1:400
Hydrophilic Ointment ad 10 g
46
Simple Conversions of Concentration to
‘‘mg/mL’’
1. To convert product percentage strengths to mg/mL,
multiply the percentage strength, expressed as a whole
number, by 10.
• Convert 4% (w/v) to mg/mL.

2. To convert product ratio strengths to mg/mL, divide the

ratio strength by 1000.
• Convert 1:10,000 (w/v) to mg/mL.

3. To convert product strengths expressed as grams per

liter (g/L) to mg/mL, convert the numerator to milligrams
and divide by the number of milliliters in the
denominator.
• Convert a product concentration of 1 g per 250 mL to
mg/mL.
47
Milligrams Percent
• The term milligrams percent (mg%) expresses
the number of milligrams of substance in 100 mL
of liquid.
• 30 mg% means that each 100 mL of solution
sample contains 30 mg solute
• (mg%) = (mg/dL)

48
Parts per Million (PPM) and Parts per Billion
(PPB)• Express 5 ppm of iron in water in percentage
strength and ratio strength.

• The concentration of a drug additive in an animal

feed is 12.5 ppm. How many milligrams of the
drug should be used in preparing 5.2 kg of feed?

• The drinking water in a community has detected

lead in its drinking water at a level of 2.5 ppb.
The EPA’s MCL is set at 15 ppb. Express the
difference between these two values as a ratio
strength.
49
Practice problems

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Examples of dilution/concentration
1. If 500 mL of a 15% v/v solution are diluted to 1500 mL, what will
be the percentage strength (v/v)?

2. If 50 mL of a 1:20 w/v solution are diluted to 1000 mL, what is the

ratio strength (w/v)?
Note: A student may find it simpler in solving certain problems to
convert a given ratio strength to its equivalent percentage strength.

3. If a syrup containing 65% w/v of sucrose is evaporated to 85% of

its volume, what percentage (w/v) of sucrose will it contain?

61
Examples of dilution/concentration
4. How many grams of 10% w/w ammonia solution can be made
from 1800 g of 28% w/w strong ammonia solution?

5. How many milliliters of a 1:5000 w/v solution of the preservative

lauralkonium chloride can be made from 125 mL of a 0.2%
solution?

6. If 1 gallon of a 30% w/v solution is to be evaporated so that the

solution will have a strength of 50% w/v, what will be its volume in
milliliters?
1 gallon = 3785 mL
62
Examples of dilution/concentration
7. If a cough syrup contains in each teaspoonful, 1 mg of
chlorpheniramine maleate and if a pharmacist desired to double the
strength, how many milligrams of that ingredient would need to be added
to a 60-mL container of the syrup. Assume no increase in volume.?

63
Examples of stock solution
1. How many milliliters of a 1:400 w/v stock solution should be used
to make 4 liters of a 1:2000 w/v solution?

2. How many milliliters of a 1:400 w/v stock solution should be used

in preparing 1 gallon of a 1:2000
w/v solution?
1 gallon = 3785 mL

3. How many milliliters of a 1% stock solution of a certified red dye

should be used in preparing 4000 mL of a mouthwash that is to
contain 1:20,000 w/v of the certified red dye as a coloring agent?

64
 Examples of stock solution
4. How many milliliters of a 1:16 solution of sodium hypochlorite should
be used in preparing 5000 mL of a 0.5% solution of sodium hypochlorite
for irrigation?

5. How many milliliters of a 1:50 stock solution of phenylephrine

hydrochloride should be used in compounding the following
prescription?

6. How much drug should be used in preparing 50 mL of a solution

such that 5 mL diluted to 500 mL will yield a 1:1000 solution??
65
 Examples of stock solution
7. How many grams of sodium chloride should be used in preparing
500 mL of a stock solution such that 50 mL diluted to 1000 mL will
yield a ‘‘1⁄3 normal saline’’ (0.3% w/v) for irrigation?

8. How many milliliters of a 17% w/v concentrate of benzalkonium

chloride should be used in preparing
300 mL of a stock solution such that 15 mL diluted to 1 liter will yield
a 1:5000 solution??

9. How many milliliters of water should be added to 300 mL of a

1:750 w/v solution of benzalkonium chloride to make a 1:2500 w/v
solution?
66
 Examples of stock solution
10. How many milliliters of water should be added to a pint of a 5%
w/v solution to make a 2% w/v solution?
1 pint = 473 mL

11. How many milliliters of water should be added to 375 mL of a

solution containing 0.5 g of benzalkonium chloride to make a 1:5000
solution??

12. If 15 mL of a 0.06% ATROVENT (ipratropium bromide) nasal

spray were diluted with 6 mL of normal saline solution, what would
be the final drug concentration?
67
 Examples of Dilution of alcohol
1. How much water should be mixed with 5000 mL of 85% v/v
alcohol to make 50% v/v alcohol?

2. How many milliliters of 95% v/v alcohol and how much water
should be used in compounding the following prescription?

3. How much water should be added to 4000 g of 90% w/w alcohol

to make 40% w/w alcohol?
68
 Examples of Dilution of acids
1. How many milliliters of 37% w/w hydrochloric acid having a
specific gravity of 1.20 are required to make 1000 mL of diluted
hydrochloric acid 10% w/v?

2. How many milliliters of 85% w/w phosphoric acid having a specific

gravity of 1.71 should be used in preparing 1 gallon of 1⁄4% w/v
phosphoric acid solution to be used for bladder irrigation??

69
 Example Calculations of Solid and Semisolid
Dilutions
1. If 30 g of a 1% hydrocortisone ointment were diluted with 12 g of
Vaseline, what would be the concentration of hydrocortisone in the
mixture??

2. How many grams of 20% benzocaine ointment and how many grams of
ointment base (diluent) should be used in preparing 5 lb. of 2.5%
benzocaine ointment?
5 lb. = 454 g * 5 = 2270 g

3. How many grams of zinc oxide should be added to 3200 g of 5% zinc

oxide ointment to prepare
70 an ointment containing 20% of zinc oxide?
 Examples of Triturations
1. How many grams of a 1:10 trituration are required to obtain 25
mg of drug??

2. How many milliliters of an injection prepared by dissolving 100

mg of a 1:10 trituration of mechlorethamine hydrochloride in
sufficient water for injection to prepare 10 mL of injection is required
to obtain 5 mg of drug?

3. How many milligrams of a 1:10 dilution of colchicine should be

used by a manufacturing pharmacist in preparing 100 capsules for a
clinical drug study if each capsule is to contain 0.5 mg of colchicine?
71
 Example Calculations Using
Alligation Medial
1. What is the percentage strength (v/v) of alcohol in a mixture of
3000 mL of 40% v/v alcohol, 1000 mL of 60% v/v alcohol, and 1000
mL of 70% v/v alcohol? Assume no contraction of volume after
mixing.

72
 Example Calculations Using
Alligation Alternate
1. In what proportion should alcohols of 95% and 50%
strengths be mixed to make 70% alcohol?

73
 Example Calculations Using
Alligation Alternate
2. In what proportion should 20% benzocaine ointment be
mixed with an ointment base to produce a 2.5% benzocaine
ointment??

74
 Example Calculations Using
Alligation Alternate
3. A hospital pharmacist wants to use three lots of zinc oxide ointment
containing, respectively, 50%, 20%, and 5% of zinc oxide. In what proportion
should they be mixed to prepare a 10% zinc oxide ointment?

75
 Example Calculations Using
Alligation Alternate
4. In what proportions may a manufacturing pharmacist mix 20%,
15%, 5%, and 3% zinc oxide ointments to produce a 10%
ointment?

76
 Example Calculations Using
Alligation Alternate
5. How many milliliters of 50% w/v dextrose solution and how many
milliliters of 5% w/v dextrose solution are required to prepare 4500
mL of a 10% w/v solution??

77
Example Calculations Using
Alligation Alternate

78
 Example Calculations of Specific
Gravity Using Alligation
1. What is the specific gravity of a mixture of 1000 mL of syrup
with a specific gravity of 1.300, 400 mL of glycerin with a specific
gravity of 1.250, and 1000 mL of an elixir with a specific gravity
of 0.950??

79
 Example Calculations of Specific
Gravity Using Alligation
2. In what proportion must glycerin with a specific gravity of 1.25
and water be mixed to prepare a liquid having a specific gravity of
1.10?

80
 Example Calculations of Specific
Gravity Using Alligation
2. How many milliliters of each of two liquids with specific gravities
of 0.950 and 0.875 should be used to prepare 1500 mL of a liquid
having a specific gravity of 0.925?

81
82
Practice Problems

83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
Calculations to reduce or enlarge formulas may be
performed by a two-step process:
• Step 1. Using the following equation, determine the factor that defines the
multiple or the decimal fraction of the amount of formula to be prepared:

• Step 2. Multiply the quantity of each ingredient in the formula by the factor
to determine the amount of each ingredient required in the reduced or
enlarged formula.
Applying the equation and factor:
If a formula for 1000 mL contains 6 g of a drug, how many grams of drug are
needed to prepare 60 mL of the formula?

94
Example Calculations of Reducing and Enlarging
Formulas
1. From the following formula, calculate the quantity of each
ingredient required to make 240 mL of calamine lotion.

95
 Example Calculations of Reducing and Enlarging
Formulas
2. From the following formula for artificial tears, calculate the quantity
of each ingredient required to prepare a dozen 30-mL containers.

96
 Example Calculations of Reducing and
Enlarging Formulas
3. From the following formula for an estradiol vaginal gel, calculate
the quantity of each ingredient required to prepare 1 lb. of gel.

97
 Example Calculations of Reducing and
Enlarging Formulas
4. From the following formula for a dexamethasone ophthalmic
ointment, calculate the quantity of each ingredient needed to
prepare 7.5 g of ointment.

98
 Example Calculation of a Formula
Expressed in Parts
1. From the following formula, calculate the quantity of each
ingredient required to make 1000 g of the ointment.

99
Practice problems

100
101
102
103
104
The dose of a drug is the quantitative amount administered or taken by a patient for the
intended medicinal effect. The dose may be expressed as a single dose, the amount
taken at one time; a daily dose; or a total dose, the amount taken during the course of
therapy. A daily dose may be subdivided and taken in divided doses, two or more times
per day depending on the characteristics of the drug and the illness. The schedule of
dosing (e.g., four times per day for 10 days) is referred to as the dosage regimen.

105
General Dose Calculations

1. If the dose of a drug is 200 mg, how many

doses are contained in 10 g?

2. If the dose of a drug is 50 mcg, how many

doses are contained in 0.020 g?
106
 General Dose Calculations
3. If 1 tablespoon is prescribed as the dose, approximately how many
doses will be contained in 1 pint of the medicine?
1 tablespoon = 15 mL
1 pint = 473 mL
4. How many teaspoonfuls would be prescribed in each dose of an
elixir if 180 mL contained 18 doses?

5. How many drops would be prescribed in each dose of a liquid

medicine if 15 mL contained 60 doses? The dispensing dropper
calibrates 32 drops/mL.

107
 General Dose Calculations
6. How many milliliters of a liquid medicine would provide a patient
with 2 tablespoonfuls twice a day for 8 days?

7. How many milliliters of a mixture would provide a patient with a

teaspoonful dose to be taken three times a day for 16 days?

8. It takes approximately 4 g of ointment to cover an adult patient’s

leg. If a physician prescribes an ointment for a patient with total leg
eczema to be applied twice a day for 1 week, which of the following
product sizes should be dispensed: 15 g, 30 g, or 60 g?

108
 General Dose Calculations
9. If 0.050 g of a substance is used in preparing 125 tablets, how
many micrograms are represented in
each tablet??

10. If a preparation contains 5 g of a drug in 500 mL, how many

grams are contained in each tablespoonful dose??

11. A physician ordered 500-mg capsules of tetracycline to be

taken twice a day for 10 days. How many total grams of
tetracycline would be prescribed?

109
 General Dose Calculations
11. A cough mixture contains 48 mg of hydromorphone hydrochloride in 8 fl.
oz. How many milligrams of hydromorphone hydrochloride are in each 2-
teaspoonful dose?

12. How many grams of a drug substance are required to make 120 mL of a
solution each teaspoonful of which contains 3 mg of the drug substance?

13. How many milligrams each of hydrocodone bitartrate and guaifenesin

will be contained in each dose of the following prescription?

110
111
 Pediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with disease in
children from birth through adolescence.
neonate (newborn), from birth to 1 month
infant, 1 month to 1 year
early childhood, 1 year through 5 years
late childhood, 6 years through 12 years
adolescence, 13 years through 17 years of age
A neonate is considered premature if born at less than 37
weeks’ gestation.
112
Drug Dosage Based on Age and
Weight

113
Drug Dosage Based on Age and
Weight
1. A child weighs 40 lb and is 5 years old. The adult
dose for Drug "A" is 250 mg. Calculate the correct
dose for the child using Cowling’s, Young's and
Clark's rules

2. A 2 years old child weighs 11.4 kg. The adult dose

for Drug "B" is 125mg. Calculate the correct dose
for the child using both Young's and Clark's rules

3. At what age will Young’s Rule and Cowling’s Rule

give the same result?

4. The doctor orders an adult dose of ibuprofen 600

mg PO PRN calculate the dose for infant who is 12
months old using Fried’s rule
114
 Drug Dosage Based BSA

115
 Drug Dosage Based BSA

116
Drug Dosage Based BSA
• Nomograms:

117
Drug Dosage Based BSA
1. If the adult dose of a drug is 75 mg, what would
be the dose for a child weighing 40 lb. and
measuring 32 in. in height using the BSA
nomogram?

2. The usual pediatric dose of a drug is stated as

25 mg/m2. Using the nomogram, calculate the
dose for a child weighing 18 kg and measuring
82 cm in height.

118
119
120
121
122
123
Milliequivalent
1. What is the concentration, in milligrams per milliliter, of a solution
containing 2 mEq of potassium chloride (KCl) per milliliter?
Molecular weight of KCl = 74.5

2. What is the concentration, in grams per milliliter, of a solution

containing 4 mEq of calcium chloride (CaCl2⋅2H2O) per milliliter?
Formula weight of CaCl2⋅2H2O = 147

129
Milliequivalent
3. What is the percent (w/v) concentration of a solution containing 100
mEq of ammonium chloride per liter??
Molecular weight of NH4Cl= 53.5

4. A solution contains 10 mg/100 mL of K+ ions. Express this

concentration in terms of milliequivalents per liter.
Atomic weight of K+ = 39

130
Milliequivalent
5. A solution contains 10 mg/100 mL of Ca++ ions. Express this
concentration in terms of milliequivalents per liter.
Atomic weight of Ca++ = 40

6. A magnesium (Mg++) level in blood plasma is determined to be 2.5

mEq/L. Express this concentration in terms of milligrams.
Atomic weight of Mg++ = 24

131
Milliequivalent
7. How many milliequivalents of potassium chloride are represented in
a 15-mL dose of a 10% (w/v) potassium chloride elixir?
Molecular weight of KCl = 74.5

8. How many milliequivalents of magnesium sulfate are represented in

1 g of anhydrous magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)?
Molecular weight of MgSO4 = 120

132
Milliequivalent
9. How many milliequivalents of Na+ would be contained in a 30-mL dose
of the following solution?
Disodium hydrogen phosphate 18 g
Sodium biphosphate 48 g
Purified water ad 100 mL

Disodium hydrogen phosphate

Formula = Na2HPO4.7H2O “Molecular weight = 268”
Sodium biphosphate
Formula = NaH2PO4.H2O “Molecular weight = 138”
133
Milliequivalent
10. A person is to receive 2 mEq of sodium chloride per kilogram of
body weight. If the person weighs 132 lb., how many milliliters of a
0.9% sterile solution of sodium chloride should be administered?
Molecular weight of NaCl = 58.5
1 kg = 2.2 lb.

134
Millimoles and Micromoles
1. How many millimoles of monobasic sodium phosphate (m.w. 138)
are present in 100 g of the substance?

135
 CHP 11

Isotonic and Buffer solutions

 Isotonic and Buffer solutions
• Colligative properties, From Greek word" collected together”, depend mainly on the number of
particles in solution.
• They are:
 vapor pressure lowering
 freezing point depression
 boiling point elevation
 osmotic pressure

• Osmosis:
2 solutions of different concentrations are separated by a semi-permeable membrane (only permeable
to the solvent) the solvent will move from the solution of lower conc. to that of higher conc.
• Osmotic pressure
is the pressure that must be applied to the solution to prevent the passage of the solvent through a
perfect semipermeable membrane.

137
 Isotonic and Buffer solutions
• Colligative properties, From Greek word" collected together”, depend mainly on the number of
particles in solution.
• Nonelectrolytes, the solution will contain only molecules, and the osmotic pressure will vary only
with concentration of the solute.
• Electrolytes: solution will contain ions, and the osmotic pressure of the solution will vary not only
with the concentration but also with the degree of dissociation of the solute.
• Isosmotic solutions: solutions that have the same osmotic pressure
• Isotonic solution: a solution having the same osmotic pressure as a specific body fluid
• Hypotonic solution: a solution of lower osmotic pressure than that of body fluids.
• Hypertonic solution: a solution of higher osmotic pressure than that of body fluids.
• Important for the pharmacist for preparation of ophthalmic, nasal, parenteral and some rectal
preparations.

138
Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 139
 Isotonic and Buffer solutions
• Calculations for preparation of isotonic solution:
• Freezing point depression (colligative properties)
• - 0.52 is the freezing point of both blood serum and lacrimal fluids

• For nonelectrolytes (negligible dissociation) as boric acid

• Boric acid: MWt 61.8 thus if 61.8 g in 1000 g of water should produce a freezing point of -1.86 oC

• 1.86 C  61.8 g 

X = 17.3 g

0.52 C  X g 
• So 17.3 g of boric acid in 1000 g of water (1.73 %) should make a solution isotonic with lacrimal fluid.

140
 Isotonic and Buffer solutions
• Calculations for preparation of isotonic solution:
• Freezing point depression (colligative properties)
• - 0.52 is the freezing point of both blood serum and lacrimal fluids

• For electrolytes, it depends on the degree of dissociation

• NaCl (M.Wt. 58.5) in weak solutions is 80 % dissociated, then each 100 molecules yields 180 particles,
1.8 times nonelectrolyte. This dissociation factor is symbolized by the letter i .

• 1.86 C   1.8 58.5 g X = 9.09 g


0.52 C  X g 
• So 9.09 g of NaCl in 1000 g of water (0.9 % w/v) should make a solution isotonic with blood or
lacrimal fluid.

141
 Isotonic and Buffer solutions
• Calculations for preparation of isotonic solution:
• Isotonic solutions are calculated by the following formula

0.52  molecular weight

 g of solute per 1000 g of water
1.86  dissociati on i 
• The value i for many medicinal salts has not been experimentally determined
• Some salts as zinc sulfate with 40% dissociation and i value = 1.4 are exceptional.
• Most medicinal salts approximate the dissociation of NaCl.
• If the number of ions is known so:
• Nonelectrolytes and substances of slight dissociation i =1
• Substances that dissociate into 2 ions i = 1.8
• Substances that dissociate into 3 ions i = 2.6
• Substances that dissociate into 4 ions i = 3.4
• Substances that dissociate into 5 ions i = 4.2

142
 Calculations of the (i) Factor
Examples 1:
Zinc sulfate is a 2-ion electrolyte, dissociating 40% in a certain concentration.
Calculate its dissociation (i) factor.
On the basis of 40% dissociation, 100 particles of zinc sulfate will yield:
40 zinc ions
40 sulfate ions
60 un dissociated particles
-----------------------------------
or 140 particles ,,,, So the dissociation (i) factor is 140/100 =1.4

143
• Examples 2:
• Zinc chloride is a 3-ion electrolyte, dissociating 80% in a certain
• concentration. Calculate its dissociation (i) factor.
• On the basis of 80% dissociation, 100 particles of zinc chloride will yield:
• 80 zinc ions
• 80 chloride ions
• 80 chloride ions
• 20 un dissociated particles
• or 260 particles
• the dissociation (i) factor is 260/100= 2.6

144
 Isotonic and Buffer solutions
• Calculations for preparation of isotonic solution:

• The Sodium Chloride Equivalent (E value) of a drug: is the amount of sodium chloride which has the
same osmotic effect as 1 gram of the drug.
Mwt of NaCl i factor of subs tan ce
  Sodium Chloride equivalent
i factor of NaCl Mwt ofsubs tan ce

Q1. Papaverine hydrochloride (m.w. 376) is a 2-ion electrolyte, dissociating 80% in a given
concentration. Calculate its sodium chloride equivalent.??
• Because papaverine hydrochloride is a 2-ion electrolyte, dissociating 80%, its i factor is 1.8.

145
 Q2. Calculate the sodium chloride equivalent for timolol maleate, which dissociates
into two ions and has a molecular weight of 432.2 ??
• Timolol maleate, i factor 1.8

146
Example Calculations of Tonic Agent Required
• How much NaCl should be used in preparing 100 ml of 1% w/v solution of atropine sulfate,
which is to be made isotonic with lacrimal fluids?
• M.Wt of NaCl = 58.5, i = 1.8
• M.Wt of atropine sulfate = 695, i = 2.6

• X = 0.12 g of sodium chloride represented by 1 g of atropine sulfate

• the difference to be added must be 0.90 g - 0.12 g =0.78 g of sodium chloride.

147
• Table 11.1 gives the sodium chloride equivalents (E values) of each of the substances
listed.
• These values were calculated according to the rule stated previously.
• If the number of grams of a substance included in a prescription is multiplied by its
sodium chloride equivalent, the amount of sodium chloride represented by that
substance is determined.

148
 Isotonic and Buffer solutions
• Calculations for preparation of isotonic solution:

• For determining the amount of sodium chloride used to cause a solution isotonic:

1. Calculate the amount (in grams) of sodium chloride represented by the ingredients in the prescription
and multiply the quantity of each drug in the prescription by it’s sodium chloride equivalent E ,
2. Calculate the amount (in grams) of sodium chloride, alone, that would be contained in an isotonic
solution of the volume specified in the prescription
3. and subtract this value from the concentration of sodium chloride which is isotonic with body fluids
(0.9 gm per 100 ml).

Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 149

Step 4. If an agent other than sodium chloride, such as boric acid, dextrose, or potassium nitrate, is to
be used to make a solution isotonic,
divide the amount of sodium chloride (Step 3) by
the sodium chloride equivalent of the other substance.

Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 150

 Calculations for preparation of isotonic solution:
Example: How many grams of sodium chloride should be used in compounding the following prescription
R/ Pilocarpine nitrate 0.3 g
Sodium chloride q.s.
Purified water 30 ml
Make isoton. Sol.
Sig. for the eye
• Sod. Chloride equivalent for Pilocarpine nitrate = 0.23(TABLE 11.1 SODIUM CHLORIDE
EQUIVALENTS (E VALUES)
• 1- 0.23 X 0.3 = 0.069 g of NaCl represented by the pilocarpine nitrate
• 2- 0.9 g NaCl 100 ml water to be isotonic
Xg 30 ml
X = 0.9 X 30 / 100 = 0.27 g NaCl in 30 ml
• 3- 0.27 - 0.069 = 0.201 g of sodium chloride to be used

Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 151

 Example Calculations of Tonic Agent Required
• How many grams of boric acid should be used in compounding the following
prescription?
R
Phenacaine Hydrochloride 1%
Chlorobutanol 1⁄2%
Boric Acid q.s.
Purified Water ad 60
Make isoton. sol.
Sig. One drop in each eye.

152
• The prescription calls for 0.6 g of phenacaine hydrochloride and 0.3 g of chlorobutanol.
• Step 1. 0.20* 0.6 g = 0.120 g of sodium chloride represented by phenacaine hydrochloride
• 0.24* 0.3 g =0.072 g of sodium chloride represented by chlorobutanol
• Total: 0.192 g of sodium chloride represented by both ingredients
• Step 2. 60 * 0.009 = 0.540 g of sodium chloride in 60 mL of an isotonic sodium chloride solution
• Step 3. 0.540 g (from Step 2) - 0.192 g (from Step 1) = 0.348 g of sodium chloride required to make
the solution isotonic
• But because the prescription calls for boric acid:

• Step 4. 0.348 g / 0.52 (sodium chloride equivalent of boric acid) = 0.669 g of boric acid to be used

Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 153

Example Calculations of Tonic Agent Required
• How many grams of potassium nitrate could be used to make the
following prescription isotonic?
R
Sol. Silver Nitrate 60
1: 500 w/v
Make isoton. sol.
Sig. For eye use.

Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 154

• The prescription contains 0.12 g of silver nitrate.
• Step 1. 0.33 * 0.12 g = 0.04 g of sodium chloride represented by silver nitrate
• Step 2. 60 * 0.009= 0.54 g of sodium chloride in 60 mL of an isotonic sodium
chloride solution
• Step 3. 0.54 g (from step 2) - 0.04 g (from step 1)= 0.50 g of sodium chloride
required to make solution isotonic
• Because, in this solution, sodium chloride is incompatible with silver nitrate, the
tonic agent of choice is potassium nitrate. Therefore,
• Step 4. 0.50 g / 0.58 (sodium chloride equivalent of potassium nitrate) = 0.86 g of
potassium nitrate to be used.

Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 155

• How many grams of sodium chloride should be used in compounding
the following prescription?
• R
Ingredient X 0.5
Sodium Chloride q.s.
Purified Water ad 50
Make isoton. sol.
Sig. Eye drops.

Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 156

• Let us assume that ingredient X is a new substance for which no sodium
chloride equivalent is to be found in Table 11.1, and that its molecular weight
is 295 and its i factor is 2.4.
• The sodium chloride equivalent of ingredient X may be calculated as follows
• 58.5 * 2.4 = 0.26 the NaCl equivalency for X
• 1.8 295
• Step 1. 0.26 * 0.5 g = 0.13 g of sodium chloride represented by ingredient X

Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 157

• Step 2. (50 * 0.009) =0.45 g of sodium chloride in 50 mL of
an isotonic sodium chloride
• Step 3. (0.45 g (from Step 2) - 0.13 g (from Step 1) = 0.32 g of
sodium chloride to be used, answer.

Dr. Osama A. A. Ahmed 158