UNIT II

a. STATE, POLITY AND GOVERNANCE:

THE AGE OF GUPTAS

A brief chronology of the Gupta rulers:

1. Sri Gupta (c. 240–280 CE):
o Founder of the Gupta dynasty. Very little is known about him, but he laid the
foundation for the future expansion of the Gupta Empire.
2. Ghatotkacha (c. 280–319 CE):
o Son of Sri Gupta, ruled a small kingdom in northern India. His reign was
relatively modest, but it paved the way for the empire's expansion.
3. Chandragupta I (c. 319–335 CE):
o The first important ruler of the dynasty, Chandragupta I expanded the Gupta
Empire through conquests and marriage alliances. His marriage to
Kumaradevi of the Lichchhavi clan helped strengthen his political position.
4. Samudragupta (c. 335–375 CE):
o Chandragupta I’s son, regarded as one of India’s greatest military geniuses.
Samudragupta expanded the empire significantly through campaigns in
northern and southern India. He also fostered art, literature, and culture during
his reign.
5. Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (c. 375–415 CE):
o Known for consolidating the Gupta Empire and continuing its golden age of
prosperity. Chandragupta II expanded the empire to its greatest extent,
 defeating the Shakas and extending the territory to the western regions of
India.
6. Kumaragupta I (c. 415–455 CE):
o Son of Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I maintained the empire's prosperity
and stability. He is known for his extensive public works, including founding
the Nalanda University.
7. Skandagupta (c. 455–467 CE):
o Kumaragupta I’s son, Skandagupta is known for defending the empire against
invasions, particularly from the Hunas. His reign marked the beginning of the
empire's decline due to the pressure of external invasions and economic issues.
8. Purugupta (c. 467–473 CE):
o His reign was relatively short and uneventful, with the empire struggling to
maintain its former strength.
9. Kumaragupta II (c. 473–476 CE):
o Succeeded Purugupta and ruled briefly. His reign is not well-documented, but
he likely faced continued challenges from invaders.
10. Budhagupta (c. 476–495 CE):
o His rule saw further weakening of the empire as external threats from the
Hunas increased. He managed to hold the empire together, but its territorial
integrity was shrinking.
11. Narasimhagupta Baladitya (c. 495–530 CE):
o During his reign, the empire faced severe pressure from the Hunas. Despite
military efforts, the Gupta Empire began to fragment, and Baladitya struggled
to maintain central control.
12. Kumaragupta III (c. 530–540 CE):
o His rule marks the final phase of the Gupta dynasty, with the empire reduced
to a small territory and losing its influence.
13. Vishnugupta (c. 540–550 CE):
o The last known Gupta ruler. By his reign, the empire had largely disintegrated,
and Vishnugupta ruled only a small region in northern India. The fall of the
Gupta Empire occurred shortly after.

The polity and administration of the Gupta Empire, which ruled northern India for
approximately two and a half centuries, showcased a well-organized yet flexible governance
structure. For nearly 150 years, the Guptas operated as a dominant imperial power. At its
zenith, the empire's vast expanse stretched from the Kathiawar Peninsula in Gujarat in the
west to Bengal in the east, and from the north-western territories of India down to Madhya
Pradesh in the south. However, this large territory was not governed entirely through
centralized control. Key regions such as Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh were directly
administered by officials appointed by the Gupta rulers, while more distant areas like
Saurashtra were overseen by governors like Skandagupta. In other regions, such as Malwa,
the Guptas maintained their influence through suzerainty, achieved by forming political and
matrimonial alliances with local autonomous powers. This balance of direct governance and
regional autonomy was a hallmark of the Gupta administration.

1. THE KING
In the Gupta Empire, the king occupied a central position within the administrative
framework, embodying a unique blend of authority and divinity. Unlike their Mauryan
predecessors, the Gupta monarchs embraced a more elaborate and ostentatious array of titles,
including maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka, parameshvara, Samrat, and dharma
maharaja. These titles not only underscored the sovereign's elevated status but also
reinforced the perception of the king as a divine ruler, ordained to govern over a myriad of
subordinate kings within the vast expanse of their empire.
While kingship within the Gupta dynasty was hereditary, the principles of succession were
complex, often diverging from strict primogeniture. The throne did not invariably pass to the
eldest son, resulting in an inherent uncertainty that could be exploited by ambitious chiefs
and high officials. This potential for intrigue within the royal lineage created a volatile
political landscape, where power struggles could emerge among the nobility.
The Gupta rulers were known for their munificent patronage of Brahmanas, a relationship
that served both political and religious purposes. In return for their generous gifts, these
scholars and priests extolled the virtues of the king, frequently drawing comparisons between
him and various deities. The king was often likened to Vishnu, the protector and preserver,
reinforcing the divine sanction of his rule. Furthermore, the goddess Lakshmi, associated
with wealth and prosperity, is invariably depicted alongside Vishnu on Gupta coins,
symbolizing the divine favor bestowed upon the monarch and the flourishing economy of the
empire.

Duties of the King

The responsibilities of the Gupta king were manifold and underscored his pivotal role in
governance:
1. Adherence to Righteousness: The king was expected to follow a righteous path,
guided by dharma. Despite wielding supreme power, he was to govern justly and
ethically, setting an example for his subjects.
2. Policy Decision-Making: The king was responsible for formulating state policies
during both peace and conflict. For instance, Samudragupta, renowned for his
military acumen, reinstated the monarchs of Dakshnipatha to their original thrones
after subduing them, exemplifying a policy of reconciliation that helped stabilize the
region.
 3. Protection of Subjects: The protection of his countrymen from external invasions
was paramount. The king’s military leadership was crucial during times of war, as he
would lead his armies into battle, safeguarding the realm from threats.
4. Support for the Learned: A vital duty of the king was to support learned individuals
and religious communities. He was expected to venerate Brahmanas, Sramanas, and
other scholars, providing them with the necessary assistance to promote knowledge
and culture.
5. Administration of Justice: As the supreme judge, the king oversaw the
administration of justice according to religious precepts and customs. His role as a fair
adjudicator was essential in maintaining law and order within the empire.
6. Appointment of Ministers: The king held the prerogative to appoint central and
provincial ministers. The Damodar copper plate inscription of Kumargupta I
illustrates this, as it records his direct appointment of the uparika (governor) of
Pundravardhana Bhukti, which was one of the largest divisions of the empire.
7. Succession Planning: The king was also responsible for appointing his successor,
ensuring the continuity of the dynasty. For instance, the Prayag Pillar inscription
notes that Chandragupta II appointed Samudragupta as his successor, underscoring
the importance of stable succession in preserving the empire's integrity.
The Gupta kings exercised considerable authority and responsibility, shaping the political
landscape of their time. They appointed governors and civil officials, who were accountable
to the king, while also conferring honours and titles. As custodians of land and law, the Gupta
rulers played a pivotal role in the administration, ensuring the prosperity and stability of their
vast empire.

2. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS AND OTHER OFFICIALS

The administrative structure of the Gupta Empire, while not as intricate as that of the
Mauryan period, was marked by a clear hierarchy and the appointment of key officials who
played crucial roles in governance. Central to this bureaucracy were the kumaramatyas, who
were appointed by the king to serve in their home provinces. Unlike the Mauryas, who
largely restricted bureaucratic positions to the upper varnas, the Gupta rulers, likely of
Vaishya origin, adopted a more inclusive approach to recruitment. This resulted in a more
diverse administrative body but also led to the combination of various offices in the hands of
a few individuals, potentially undermining royal authority.
The king was supported by a council of ministers and various officials, including viceroys—
often princes—who governed the provinces on behalf of the crown. This decentralized
approach allowed for a degree of local autonomy, although it also meant that the royal
command could sometimes be diluted. Among the highest-ranking officials was the
MahaDandanayaka, who acted as the Chief Justice and assisted the king in matters of
justice. In provincial jurisdictions, the Uparikas were entrusted with similar responsibilities,
while local matters were typically adjudicated by the Gramapati (headman) and village
elders.
Notably, the accounts of the Chinese traveler Fa-Hien provide valuable insights into the
Gupta judicial system, indicating that capital punishment was not commonly practiced, which
reflects the relatively humane aspects of their legal approach.
The Mahapratihara, chief of the palace guards, ensured the security of the royal family,
while the Pratihara managed ceremonial affairs and regulated access to the king,
underscoring the importance of protocol in Gupta governance.
Furthermore, the Maha Sandhivigrahika, a high-ranking minister responsible for diplomacy
and military matters, played a vital role in maintaining relationships with other states,
orchestrating alliances, and managing conflicts. An exemplary figure in this regard was
Harisena, the author of the Allahabad Prashasti, who served in this capacity.
The Gupta administration also relied on Dutakas, who were responsible for implementing
land grants to the Brahmanas and other beneficiaries. It is noteworthy that many ministerial
positions, such as those held by Virasena Saba, the minister for war and peace, were often
hereditary, as evidenced by inscriptions like the Udayagiri inscription of Chandragupta II.
This practice of hereditary succession in administrative roles further complicated the
dynamics of governance, as it fostered entrenched power structures within the bureaucracy.
In summary, the council of ministers and the broader bureaucratic framework of the Gupta
Empire reflect a pragmatic approach to governance, balancing royal authority with local
autonomy, and illustrating the complexities of power dynamics during this influential period
in Indian history. The Gupta administration, with its distinctive blend of tradition and
innovation, laid the groundwork for future political structures in the Indian subcontinent.

3. PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
The provincial administration of the Gupta Empire was meticulously structured to enhance
the efficiency and effectiveness of governance. To facilitate this, the vast kingdom was
divided into several regions or provinces, referred to as deshas, rashtras, or bhuktis. Each of
these provinces was overseen by a governor known as an Uparika, who was directly
appointed by the king, thereby ensuring a strong link between the central authority and
provincial administration.

Several provinces have been documented in Gupta inscriptions, including Tirabhukti, which
corresponded to parts of northern Bihar, Nagarabhukti, Magadha Bhukti, and
Pundravardhanabhukti, linked to regions of northern Bengal. This division allowed for
localized governance and enabled the administration to respond more effectively to regional
needs and challenges.

Beneath the bhuktis, the administrative structure was further subdivided into vishayas, which
served as the basic territorial units. Each vishaya was managed by a head known as a
vishayapati or, in some cases, an Ayuktaka, both of whom were appointed by the provincial
governors. This hierarchical setup ensured that local affairs were handled efficiently while
still maintaining allegiance to the overarching authority of the Gupta rulers.

The vishayapati often collaborated with key community leaders to enhance governance.
Inscriptions from Bengal indicate that the vishayapati worked closely with the Nagarsresthi
(the head of city merchants), Sarthavaha (the caravan leader), Prathama Kulika (the head
of the artisan community), and Prathama Kayastha (the head of the Kayastha community).
This cooperation between officials and community leaders fostered a sense of unity and local
governance, allowing for a more comprehensive administration that addressed the needs of
diverse societal groups.

Additionally, the role of Pustapalas, who were responsible for managing and maintaining
records, cannot be overlooked. Their duties were crucial in ensuring transparency and
accountability within the administration, facilitating the smooth functioning of governance.

Evidence of district-level administration in Bengal can be gleaned from the Damodarpur

copper plates, dating back to the reign of Kumaragupta I. These inscriptions highlight the
administrative practices in place, showcasing the intricacies of governance that characterized
the Gupta Empire.

In summary, the provincial administration of the Gupta Empire exemplified a well-organized

and systematic approach to governance. By creating a hierarchical structure with defined
roles and responsibilities at various levels, the Guptas were able to maintain control over a
vast and diverse territory while ensuring that local communities were adequately represented
and managed.

4. LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

The city and village administration of the Gupta Empire reflect a sophisticated and nuanced
approach to local governance, characterized by the involvement of both local leaders and
organized professional bodies.

Village Administration

At the grassroots level, the village served as the smallest unit of administration, playing a
critical role in the overall governance structure. The Gramika, or village headman, emerged
as a pivotal figure in managing village affairs, supported by a council of village elders. This
council was instrumental in decision-making processes and resolving disputes, emphasizing a
collective approach to governance.

The authority of the village headman was considerable; no land transactions could be
executed without his consent, signifying his crucial role in the local economy and property
management. Additionally, the village assembly played an essential part in deliberating on
matters affecting the community, ensuring that local voices were heard in governance.

In the villages, other officials like Dutas (messengers), the headman, and Kartri
(accountants or overseers) supported the Gramika in their administrative duties. This
administrative framework fostered a sense of community involvement and accountability, as
villagers relied on their local leaders to manage resources and address concerns.

City Administration

In urban centers, the administrative structure was more complex, with organized professional
bodies gaining significant influence. The Parishad, or city council, governed urban affairs,
with the head known as the Nagara Rakshaka. This position held considerable authority,
ensuring the welfare and security of the city. Working under the Purapala Uparika, the
Nagara Rakshaka managed various administrative functions, emphasizing the collaborative
nature of governance in urban settings.

Guilds played a fundamental role in city administration, particularly among artisans,

merchants, and bankers. These professional organizations not only represented the interests
of their members but also oversaw the economic activities within their respective trades. The
guilds held considerable power; for instance, the sealing records from Vaishali reveal that
artisans, merchants, and guild leaders participated in the same corporate body, facilitating the
management of urban affairs.

In the district of Kotivarsha in north Bengal, the administrative board included key figures
such as the chief merchant, chief trader, and chief artisan, indicating that their consent was
vital for land transactions. Such arrangements underscore the importance of collaboration
between different economic sectors in maintaining order and stability in urban environments.

The guilds also enjoyed certain immunities, allowing them to self-regulate and punish
members who violated the guild's laws and customs. This autonomy contributed to a sense of
solidarity and community among members, fostering a cooperative spirit that benefited the
local economy.

Furthermore, specific guilds, such as those of silk weavers in Mandasor and Indore or oil-
pressers in Bulandshahar, demonstrated the diversity of trades and the organized nature of
economic activities in Gupta cities. These guilds not only ensured the welfare of their
members but also enhanced the overall economic landscape of the empire.

5. REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

The revenue administration of the Gupta Empire was a sophisticated and well-structured
system crucial for the maintenance of the state’s economic stability and growth. It was
managed by a range of officials, each with specific duties that contributed to the efficient
collection and management of state revenue. Among the notable officers were the
Gopasramin, Pustapala, Viniyuktaka, Rajuka, Uparika, and Dashparadhika, among
others, who played vital roles in ensuring the effectiveness of the revenue system.

Key Officials and Their Roles

Gopasramin served as the Akshapataladhikrita, overseeing the meticulous management of

accounts and financial records. His responsibilities included maintaining various registers,
recovering royal dues from the sureties of servants, monitoring for embezzlement, and
imposing fines for losses incurred through negligence or fraud. This role was pivotal in
safeguarding the state's financial interests and ensuring accountability within the
administration.

The Pustapala functioned as the record-keeper, tasked with documenting land grants, tax
assessments, and other essential financial transactions. This position was critical for
maintaining transparency and providing accurate data for revenue collection.

Sources of Revenue
The Gupta Empire had multiple sources of revenue, amounting to eighteen distinct forms,
with land revenue being the most significant. This system of taxation was comprehensive,
encompassing various types of income, including:

 Bhaga: An income tax levied on agricultural produce.

 Custom Duties: Taxes imposed on goods traded within and beyond the empire.
 Mint Duties: Levies related to currency minting.
 Inheritance Tax: Fees charged on inherited property.
 Gift Tax: Taxes on wealth transferred as gifts.

In addition to these sources, the king had the right to enforce forced labor (known as Visthi),
and impose Bali, a form of contribution from subjects. Such revenue mechanisms were
instrumental in sustaining the empire’s extensive administrative and military apparatus.

Contemporary Perspectives:

The importance of treasury management is highlighted in the works of contemporary

scholars. Kamandaka, in his treatise Nitisara, emphasized that the king must take special
care of the treasury, as the state’s existence hinged on its financial health. Similarly, both
Kalidasa and the author of Narada-Smriti advocated for the state’s claim to one-sixth of the
agricultural produce as royal revenue, underscoring the significance of taxation in the
economic framework of the Gupta Empire.

Salary and Land Grants

Salaries for officials and various personnel were often paid in the form of land grants rather
than cash, granting beneficiaries hereditary rights to the land. This system not only
incentivized loyalty but also facilitated the administration of remote regions by empowering
local leaders. Notably, lands allocated to Brahmins were exempt from taxation, reflecting the
privileged status of the priestly class in Gupta society.

In conclusion, the revenue administration of the Gupta Empire was a testament to the
sophistication and pragmatism of Gupta governance. By establishing a structured system of
taxation and appointing capable officials to oversee revenue collection, the Guptas ensured a
steady flow of income that supported the empire’s vast administrative needs and cultural
patronage. This effective management of resources played a pivotal role in sustaining the
prosperity and stability that characterized the Gupta period, allowing it to flourish as one of
the most remarkable epochs in Indian history.

6. JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION

The judicial administration of the Gupta Empire marked a significant advancement in the
legal system compared to previous periods. This era witnessed the compilation of several
authoritative texts on law, reflecting a more structured approach to justice and governance.
For the first time, civil and criminal laws were distinctly demarcated, laying the foundation
for a more systematic judicial framework.

Development of Laws
Under the Gupta administration, the legal system evolved to address various aspects of
societal conduct. Crimes such as theft and adultery were categorized under criminal law,
while disputes related to different types of property fell under civil law. The delineation of
these categories allowed for a more organized administration of justice and helped in the
resolution of conflicts in a manner that was equitable and consistent. Notably, comprehensive
laws regarding inheritance were established, ensuring clarity in the transfer of property and
rights among individuals, which was crucial for maintaining social order and stability.

Role of the King and Judicial Officials

The king was considered the ultimate custodian of justice and had a paramount duty to
uphold the law. He was responsible for addressing legal cases with the assistance of
Brahman priests, judges, and ministers. This collaborative approach ensured that the
judicial process was not only authoritative but also infused with religious and ethical
considerations, reflecting the broader moral framework within which the Gupta state-
operated.

Guilds and Their Autonomy

The guilds of artisans, merchants, and other professions enjoyed a certain degree of
autonomy and were governed by their laws. This system allowed various trade and craft
communities to resolve disputes internally, fostering a sense of self-regulation that was
beneficial for economic activities. The autonomy of these guilds illustrated the Gupta
Empire's recognition of the importance of local governance in maintaining social harmony
and facilitating trade.

Village-Level Justice

At the grassroots level, village assemblies or trade guilds played a pivotal role in the
administration of justice. These local councils were responsible for settling disputes among
community members, acting as the first line of legal resolution. The presence of such
assemblies not only empowered local populations but also ensured that justice was accessible
and relevant to the specific cultural and social contexts of the villages.

Conclusion

In summary, the judicial administration of the Gupta Empire represented a significant leap
forward in the evolution of legal systems in India. By clearly delineating civil and criminal
laws, empowering local guilds and assemblies, and establishing a collaborative judicial
framework involving the king and various officials, the Guptas created a more equitable and
efficient system of justice. This development not only contributed to the stability and
prosperity of the empire but also laid the groundwork for subsequent legal systems in the
Indian subcontinent, highlighting the lasting impact of Gupta governance on Indian history.

7. MILITARY ADMINISTRATION
The military administration of the Gupta Empire was a vital component of its governance,
reflecting both the sophistication and the strategic importance of military power during this
period. While the exact numerical strength of the Gupta army remains elusive, it is evident
that the Gupta rulers maintained a formidable standing army, supported by contingents from
their feudatories and allies.
Standing Army and Composition
The Gupta military was characterized by its significant size and organization. A standing
army ensured that the rulers could respond promptly to external threats and maintain internal
stability. Notably, the reliance on cavalry emerged as a dominant aspect of military strategy
during this era, overshadowing the previously prevalent use of horse-drawn chariots. The rise
of horse archery as a tactical element highlighted the evolving nature of warfare, allowing
for greater mobility and flexibility on the battlefield.
Military Structure and Officials
The military administration was structured under the oversight of several high-ranking
officials, each responsible for different facets of the army. Key military officers mentioned in
inscriptions included:
 Senapati: The commander-in-chief, overseeing all military operations.
 Mahasenapati: A senior commander, often responsible for specific regions or
campaigns.
 Baladhikrita: An officer in charge of fortifications and defensive structures.
 Mahabaladhikrita: A senior officer tasked with large-scale military logistics.
 Dandanayaka: A local military commander who maintained order within specific
territories.
 Sandhivigrahika: A diplomat and military strategist responsible for negotiations and
alliances.
 Mahasandhivigrahika: A high-ranking officer coordinating larger diplomatic and
military initiatives.
These officials played crucial roles in maintaining the empire's military readiness and
effectiveness.
Military Wings
The Gupta military was further organized into specialized wings, which allowed for a more
coordinated and efficient approach to warfare. These included:
1. Information Wing: Responsible for intelligence gathering and reconnaissance,
ensuring that the rulers were informed about potential threats.
2. Cavalry Wing: The backbone of the Gupta army, this unit focused on rapid
manoeuvrability and offensive strikes.
3. Elephant Wing: Utilizing war elephants in battle provided a psychological advantage
and acted as mobile platforms for archers and commanders.
4. Navy: Although less emphasized in many accounts, a naval presence was critical for
securing trade routes and coastal territories.
Armament and Tactics
The arsenal of the Gupta army included an array of weapons designed for both close combat
and ranged attacks. Key weapons comprised bows and arrows, swords, axes, and spears,
each serving distinct purposes on the battlefield. The emphasis on horse archery signified a
shift in tactics, allowing troops to engage effectively from a distance while remaining agile.
Economic Considerations
The military’s effectiveness was also supported by the economic policies of the Gupta
Empire. During this period, there was an increase in land taxes, which provided the financial
resources necessary to sustain a large army. Conversely, taxes on trade and commerce saw a
decline, indicating a strategic focus on agrarian wealth to bolster military expenditure.
Conclusion
In summary, the military administration of the Gupta Empire exemplified a sophisticated and
dynamic approach to warfare, characterized by a well-structured standing army, specialized
military wings, and a hierarchy of capable officials. The emphasis on cavalry and horse
archery, coupled with an effective economic framework, underscored the importance of
military power in maintaining the Gupta Empire's dominance in northern India.