Assiut University

Faculty of Engineering
.Mining & Metal. Eng. Dept

DRILLING METHODS AND THEIR

APPLICATIONS

.Prepared By Prof. Dr

Mohammad Ahmed Sayed

Professor of Drilling Engineering

In Mining & Metallurgical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Assiut University

1
 DRILLING METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

CONTENTS

Chapter (1)
Introduction
1.1Historical development
1.2Drilling Methods
1.2.1 Percussion drilling
1.2.1.1 Churn or Cable-Tool Drilling Method
1.2.1.2 Down the hole hammer (DTH)
1.2.1.3 Top hammer drill
1.2.2 Rotary drilling
1.2.2.1Reverse circulation drilling
1.2.2.2Auger drilling
1.2.2.3Core drilling (diamond drilling)
1.2.2.4 Non-core drilling
1.2.2.5 Heavy rotary blast hole drilling
1.2.2.6 Rotary percussive drilling
Chapter (2)
2.1Major factors influencing penetration rate
2.1.1 Weight on bit and rotary speed
2.1.2 Bit types and conditions
2.1.3 Rock properties
2.1.4 Fluid properties
2.2Automatic optimization of drilling techniques
2.2.1 Drill productivity evaluation by monitoring
2.2.2 Rock characterization
2.2.3 Measurement while drilling (MWD)
2.2.4 Rotary and percussive drilling rate prediction models
Chapter (3)
Applications of Some Drilling Methods
3.1 Deep Sampling Methods
3.1.1 Pitting and trenching
3.1.2 Auger drilling
3.1.3 Hand-held percussion drills
3.1.4 Wagon drilling
3.2 Water well Drilling
3.2.1 Cable tool drilling
2
3.2.2 Rotary Drilling

Chapter (4)
Applications of Drilled bore Holes in Ore reserve calculations
1. Plan methods
2. Cross-sectional methods
3. Cut-off grades

3
 Chapter (1)
Introduction

The purpose of drilling is to create large or small diameter holes in the

natural rock massif. In any mining project, drilling is the first basic operation that
form part of an integrated system and can influence the results of the subsequent
operations, in productivity as in cost. Drilling is an essential integral process of
mineral exploration to present a clear picture of extent of any ore body, its mineral
content, the stratigraphy or to confirm any geological interpretations of what is
lying below the earth’s surface. The type of strata and structure to be drilled has a
significant influence on drilling performance of the bit. Resistance to penetration,
resistance to the shearing action of the bit in rotation and degree of abrasiveness are
the properties that would be expected to have the greatest influence. However, it is
important to note that the prediction of physical and mechanical properties of rock
information from drilling rates may help the mining engineer to control the
changing characteristic of the formation. The two methods rotary and rotary
percussion are still the basis of all conventional drilling techniques, rotary drilling
covers a wide range of applications, including oil well drilling, prospecting drilling,
water drilling, blast hole drilling, and drilling of drifts and tunnels. The choice
between various types of bits depends on the purpose of the drill hole production or
investigation drilling and on the rock formations to be penetrated. In some cases it
may be necessary to use several different types in a single hole, and to facilitate
this, most drilling equipment used more or less similar means.

4
1.1 Historical development

The use of drilling is very old. There are reliable indications that the
Egyptians drilled cores from hard rock thousands of years ago. However, the
knowledge of diamond drilling was lost later. The use of diamond tools started
again in 1862 when George Lechot, a Swiss engineer developed the first drilling
machine and diamond drill bit. The good results realized with this drill equipment
generated world wide interest and led to further development of drilling machines,
core barrel and diamond drilling tools [4]. Churn drill or Cable-Tool-Drills were
first used for drilling oil wells in the 1860’s, but were later replaced by rotary drills
which more efficient at drilling the deeper holes that required in the petroleum
exploration. Commercial pneumatic rock drills were being produced by Cleveland,
Chicago pneumatic, Gardner-Denver, Hardy pick, Holman Bros, Ingersoll-Rand
and others (1890-1900). Huges (U.S.A) perfected the tri-cone bit (1900-1910). A
diamond core drill was made by the Sullivan Machinery Company (1900-1925).
Tungsten carbide was first used in drill bit (Germany) in (1920-1940). Tungsten
carbide bits perfected, invention and general acceptance of down-the-hole drills
(1940-1966). During the last few decades rock drilling techniques have undergone
rapid development. O-ne of the reasons for this is introduction of new drilling tools
equipped with tungsten carbide cutting edges. The high productivity of the modern
mining industry, and the building of large civil engineering projects in this period
would have been virtually impossible without the aid of tungsten carbide tipped
drilling tools.

Since, the introduction of polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits in the

mid-1970, s their application in the mining and oil industries has represented a
significant advancement in drilling technology. Until 1986 core drilling was carried
5
out using natural diamond surface set core bits operating at a much higher speed of
300 rpm. Early in 1987, Foraky approached Diamond Boart SA, SYNDAX-3
instead of natural diamond, in the core bit. SYNDAX-3 increased penetration rates
and tool lives by 100%.

The drilling industry, in common with other industries is becoming

increasingly competitive. Machine manufactures and operators are continually
exploring ways of reducing costs and enhancing productivity through the
application of automatic control. Formalized procedures for performance
optimization appeared in the early 1950’s and since then many technical advances
have contributed to development of improved techniques. One of the earliest large-
scale systems for the automatic optimization of rotary drilling parameters was
developed by the Humble oil and refining company. Many companies now offer
computer-controlled drilling systems for a wide of rig sizes and drilling techniques.

1.2 Drilling methods

The two methods rotary and percussion are still the basis of all conventional
drilling techniques. There are cable tool percussion, rotary percussive, down the
hole hammer, continuous flight type auger, turbo drill, standard rotary drilling air,
mud or reverse circulation and high speed diamond core drilling, etc. The various
methods of drilling are shown in the following chart.

6
 Drilling Methods

Percussive Rotary

Churn DTH Top

Conventional With
hammer
Or Bottom
Standard Engine

Reverse Auger Rotary Diamond

percussive

Drilling Fluid Core Non

Core

Conventional Wire
Hole Outer Or Line
Tube Standard
Single-tube Inner
Tube
Core barrel
Double-tube Triple-tube
Core Core Core barrel Core barrel
Bit
Core catcher
Single- tube
Single and double tube core barrel Core barrel

For shallow holes down to approximately 100 m, not every drilling method
Top hammer

is suitable. Fig. 1 shows the optimal drilling methods in respect to borehole

diameter and rock strength. DTH

7 Rotary crushing

Rotary cutting
 Hard rock

Soft rock

20 60 100 140 180 220 260 300 340

Borehole diameter [mm]

Fig. 1 Applicable drilling methods

Table 1 drilling methods for the various ground conditions

Rock type Drilling method Remarks
Soil, Sand/gravel Auger Sometimes temporary casing required
Rotary Temporary casing or mud additives
required
Soil, silty/clay Auger Mostly best choice
Rotary Temporary casing or mud additives
required
Rock, medium hard Rotary Roller bit, sometimes mud additives
required
1
DTH Large compressor required

Rock, hard to very hard Rotary With rock bit or hard-metal insert button
bit, very slow
DTH1 Large compressor required
Top hammer Special equipment, depth range to70m

Rock, core sampling Diamond Mostly best choice for sampling in site,
quarry and geological investigation,
proving the quality of structural concrete

Rock under overburden ODEX2 or In combination with DTH

similar
1
Down-the-Hole-Hammer
2
Overburden Drilling Equipment; ODEX is a trademark of Atlas Copco

8
The following general guidelines are used to determine which drilling
.method is necessary for the operation
For small diameter shallow blast holes, jackhammer or track mounted drills are -
.usually used
For blast hole up to 6 inches and about 50 feet deep, track mounted, percussion -
.drills are used
For drilling holes from 6 to 12 inches, from 50 to 300 feet deep, rotary blast hole -
drills are usually the best choice, but this affected by the type of rock
If cores from3 inches up to 8 inches are desired, diamond drilling is the best -
.choice. The diamond drill can drill faster and is not limited by the direction

1.2.1 Percussion drilling

There are several methods for drilling rocks, but the most universal, and
when it comes to drilling very hard rock the only efficient one, is the percussive
method. Percussion drills consists basically of a hammer unit is driven by
compressed air. This hammer unit imparts a series of short, rapid blows to the drill
steel or rods and at the same time rotates them. The drills vary in size from small
hand-held rock drills for drilling charge holes to large truck-mounted rigs capable
of drilling large diameter holes.

1.2.1.1 Churn or Cable-Tool Drilling Method

Cable tool machines utilize the principle of free falling weight to deliver
blows against the bottom of the hole by movement of the spudding beam. This
process of lifting and dropping (as many as 60 times a minute) of percussion drill
develops the mechanical energy that breaks up the underground formation and
bores the holes. Drilling in this system is accompanied by a tight line so that the bit
strikes the bottom of the hole when stretched. Because of the elasticity of the cable,
stretching causes it to unwind and recover when tension is released. The hole
9
cleaning is performed by retracting the drilling tools and running a bailer to the
bottom of the hole. Tools for drilling and bailing are carried on separate lines or
cables spooled on independent hoisting drums. Cable tool plants are limited to
vertical holes only as penetration depends upon gravity only. Today churn drills are
mainly used for water well drilling and they may be useful in mineral exploration.
Churn drills can be useful in exploration work for sampling soft formation up to
depths of 100-150 m. costs are comparable to and may be less than percussion
drilling. The main disadvantage is that it is very slow, but if time is not important
and if only vertical holes are required, churn drilling is worth considering.

1.2.1.2 Down-The-Hole hammer (DTH)

As the name implies the hammer unit of this type of drill is lowered down
the hole at the end of the rods. The cylindrical hammer unit is in effect an extension
to the rod string although its diameter is usually somewhat greater than that of the
rods. The bit in the end of the hammer unit contains a number of tungsten carbide
inserts, either button-shaped (button bit) or chisel-ended (X-face bits). Only the
percussive action is applied to the bit by the hammer unit. A rotation unit in the rig
itself accomplishes rotation of the rods. This rotation unit is track mounted and fed
up or down by a chain feed. The rods generally vary in diameter from 85 to 115
mm and bits from 100 to 200 mm. The rigs vary in weight from 1.5 to 3.0 tones and
entire truck mounted units complete with compressor and ancillary equipment may
weigh 5 tones or more. Depth capabilities of up to 250 m are possible with some
types, though most rigs are only capable of reaching depths in the range 100-125
m. Flushing of the drill cuttings from the hole is carried out using compressed air,
though special foaming agents are available and are sometimes used to assist in
flushing out holes in wet ground. Down-the-hole hammer drills are mainly used for
shot hole and water well drilling and are not commonly used in mineral
exploration.
10
1.2.1.3 Top hammer drill
In this type of drill, both the percussive and rod rotation are provided by a
hammer unit which is track mounted on the rig and is moved up or down by a chain
feed. The holes drilled by top hammer drills are smaller in diameter than those
drilled by down-the-hole drills, with rods varying in diameter from 38 to 45 mm
and bits from 64 to 102 mm. For use in mineral exploration the drills are usually
mounted on trailers, trucks or large tractors. For use in quarries and open pits drills
are sometimes mounted on truck-laying vehicles and are then referred to as crawler
drills. The latest machines are all hydraulically controlled and can easily be
operated by one man and a helper. Most percussion drills only use air for flushing
the hole, but some machines use equipment designed for water circulation and
flushing. For mineral exploration drills with water flushing facilities are far
superior. The samples produced by percussion drills vary from fine dust to small
chips depending upon the nature of rock being drilled. Coarse, friable grit, for
example, may result in samples with high proportion of coarse fragments, whereas
samples from massive limestone may be largely dust. Whatever rock being drilled,
however, it is usually possible to recognize rock types from the sample fragments
as there are always fair proportions ranging in size from 1.0 to 2.0 mm.

11
Sample Recovery:

The samples produced by percussion drills vary from fine dust to small chips
depending upon the nature of rock being drilled. Coarse, friable grit, for example,
may result in samples with high proportion of coarse fragments, whereas samples
from massive limestone may be largely dust. Whatever rock being drilled,
however, it is usually possible to recognize rock types from the sample fragments
as there are always fair proportions ranging in size from 1.0 to 2.0 mm.
When logging the holes, it is useful to be able to gauge the percentage of
sample recovered. This can be done easily by comparing the actual volume of
sample collected with the calculated volume of the hole. For example, let us
suppose that the total volume of the dried one-eighth split of a sample collected
from 21.0 to 22.5 m was 1300 cm3. If the hole being drilled was 102 mm in
diameter, it would have a

Volume = d2/4*l=*(10.2)2/4*150=1225612260 cm3.

Now the powder material has roughly a 10% greater volume than the rock in
situ, so that the drill-hole should produce approximately 13500 cm 3 of sample for
every 1.5-m advance (12260+1226=1348613500 cm3). Therefore, overall
recovery for this example is given by:

Recovery% =

Graphs can be plotted showing percent recovery against sample volume for
different hole sizes so that actual recoveries can be read directly once the volume of
the dried sample is determined.

12
Example (1):
A top hammer-drilling machine was used to drill five holes in medium hard
formation for evaluating purposes. The hole diameters were 38, 50, 64, 85 and 102
mm. The total volumes of the dried one-eighth of samples collected from 15 to 16.5
m were 220, 350, 550, 950 and 1300 cm3. Assume the powder material has a
roughly 10% greater volume than the volume of rock in place. Calculate the
percentage recovery for the five samples and what would be the percentage
recovery of 1100 cm3 sample?

Solution

Volume of the hole No. (1) = d2/4*l=*(3.8)2/4*150=1701.2 cm3

10% greater volume = 170.12 cm3
The total volume = 1701.2 + 170.12 = 1871.3 cm3
% Recovery = (8X220)/1871.3 *100=94%

By the same way we can determine the percentage recovery for the remained
samples, and the results are shown in the following table:

B.H, Vol. of 10% Total Vol. 1/8 sample %

No. Hole, cm3 greater, cm3 cm3 Vol. cm3 Recovery
1 1701.2 170.12 1871.3 220 94
2 2945.24 294.5 3239.77 350 86
3 4825.5 482.55 5308 550 83
4 8512 851.2 9363.2 950 81
5 12256.9 1226 13483 1300 77

The attached figure shows the relation between the sample volume and the
percentage recovery for the five holes. From the figure it can be seen that the
percentage recovery for the sample volume 1100 cm 3 is approximately 80% and at
the sample volume 800 cm3 is 82%.
13
Example (2)

A top hammer-drilling machine was used to drill four holes in medium hard
formation for evaluating purposes. The hole diameters, the total volume of the
dried one-eighth of sample and the corresponding lengths are given in the
following table:

B.H No. 1 2 3 4
From-to, m 10-11.5 15-16.5 17-18 12-13
Diameter, 50 64 85 102
mm
1/8 sample
volume, cm3 360 550 650 940

Assume the powder material has a 10% greater than the volume of rock in
situ. Calculate the percentage recovery for the four samples and what would be the
percentage recovery for 600 and 900 cm3?

14
 Solution:

By the same way, as in example (1), we can determine the percentage

recovery for the four samples, and the results are shown in the following table:

B.H, Vol. of 10% Total 1/8 sample %

No. Hole, greater, Vol. Vol. cm3 Recovery
cm3 cm3 cm3
1 2945.24 294.5 3239.77 360 88.9
2 4825.5 482.55 5308 560 84.4
3 5675 567.5 6242.5 650 83.3
4 8171.3 817.1 8988.4 940 83.7

The attached figure shows the relation between the sample volume and the
percentage recovery for the four holes. From the figure it can be seen that the
percentage recovery for the sample volume 600 cm 3 is approximately 83.5 % and
that of 800 cm3 is 82.5 %.

1.2.2 Rotary drilling

In rotary drilling, the disintegration of rock occurs as a result of a concurrent
action on the bit of a load (pressure) and of a torque. Under the effect of the
pressure the bit penetrates the rock, while under that of the torque it shears it. There
exist two methods of rotary drilling; the rotary and the bottom engine drive ones.
Rotary drilling techniques are used for drilling through overburden and soft rocks.
15
The rigs vary in size from truck-mounted machines capable for depths penetration
of 600 m to large machine used in drilling oil wells to depths of 6000 m and more .
The rotary bit used for most general work is known as a tri-cone or roller rock bit.
For many drilling conditions, rotary drilling has advantages overall other forms.
Rotary drilling is faster and more economical than DTH drilling. In soft formation,
in fissured or disturbed strata or where clay bonds are common, it may be only
practicable method of drilling. The main kinds of rotary drilling methods are
discussed in the following paragraphs.

1.2.2.1 Reverse circulation drilling

Reverse circulation rotary drilling is done with a flow of drilling fluid
reversed as compared with the system used in the conventional rotary system. The
fluid returns to the bore hole by gravity flow. It moves down the annular space
around the drill pipe to the bottom of the hole, picks up cuttings and re-enters the
drill pipe through parts in the drill bit.

1.2.2.2 Auger drilling

It is another drilling method employed in loose formation. Auger drills are
widely used for making vertical and inclined (angling) drill holes mainly in
collieries (coal, clay stone, soft limestone), and when working non-strong kind of
rock (marl, soft limestone) used in construction. The auger drilling practices are
characterized by the feed force, rotation speed of the drilling tool and efficiency
with which the cutting are removed from the drill hole. Large holes in soil and soft
rock can be drilled rapidly and inexpensively by mechanized auger drilling. The
major advantages of this method are as follows: (i) a very high rate of penetration
can be achieved; (ii) a large spoil is obtained in short time; (iii) no flushing medium
is required; (iv) noise level is very low. The common applications include,

16
prospecting foundation tests, soil reinforcements, fence posts, some type of well
drilling and blast holes.

1.2.2.3 Core drilling (diamond drilling)

To produce a core sample, diamond drilling is chosen because it is more
suitable than other drilling forms for deep hole work in hard rocks. Diamond
drilling are used as surface rigs and underground, by the oil, civil engineering,
quarrying and mining industries and for holes varying in depth from a few inches
(cm) to many thousands of feet (meters) in oil well drilling. The use of diamond
drilling include: sampling in site, quarry and geological investigation, mineral
prospecting and proving reserves, gas and well (oil well) drilling, certain forms of
blast hole drilling and proving the quality of structural concrete. Today there are
two main types of diamond drilling: standard or conventional and wire-line. In
conventional drilling the rods have to be removed from the hole each time it is
necessary to recover core from the core-barrel. In wire line drilling the core can be
removed from the hole without withdrawing the rods. This is achieved by a special
core tube which slots into the core-barrel and can be withdrawn by a device known
as an overshot which is lowered down the inside of the rods on a cable and locks
onto the top of the core tube. The action of the overshot locking onto the core tube
causes latches that hold the core tube in the core-barrel to be withdrawn thus
freeing the core tube so that it can be hoisted to the surface.

Core-barrels:
There are three known types of core-barrels:

1-Single-tube core-barrel

The simplest type of core-barrel is a single tube 1.5-9 m long to which

reaming shell and bit are attached with a circular core spring or lifter fitted inside

17
just above the bit to prevent core from falling out. The drill pipes are attached to the
upper end of it by means of safety joint. At the lower end of the core-barrel the
coring bit is attached. Above it there is a core catcher.
In a single tube core-barrel, the mud flows through the interior of the single
tube, round the core, changes its direction at the core bit face and rises outside the
core-barrel. Thus the rising of the core in the tube is hindered by the mud-flow. The
results are washing out of the core or swelling, and jamming of the core in the tube
in clayey rock. Thus core recovery is often reduced. Furthermore, the core is
surrounded directly by the rotating tube and then further core losses may occur.

The advantages of the single tube core-barrel are:

1- The simple design
2- The low purchase price
3- The low maintenance costs
4- As well as the possibility of keeping the kerfs of the coring bit very thin, which
allow fast penetration.
5- The single tube core-barrels are at present still used in hard, homogenous rock
in exploration drilling and employed in deep drilling.

2- Double-tube core-barrel
Double tube core-barrel consists of outer and inner tubes. The inner tube is
stationary and does not participate in the rotation of outer tube and core bit. The
outer core barrel is attached to the bottom drill collar. In double tube core-barrel
the mud cannot flow through the inner barrel and forced to flow through the
annulus between the outer and inner barrels to the coring bit. This means that the
mud comes into contact with the core only at the level of the coring bit.

The advantages are:

18
1- The double tube core-barrel with stationary inner tube facilitates high core
recoveries.
2- It gives representative core material.
3- The stationary inner tube barrel largely prevents the core.
4- Easy length adjustment of inner tube barrel.
5- Abrasion protection and stabilization of the core-barrel.
6- With the customary double tube core-barrel approximately 90 % of the rocks
can be cored.
7- The inner core tube is taken out of the core-barrel each time to remove the core,
which is pushed out with a thin metal rod or pumped out with water.

3- Triple tube core-barrel

The triple tube core-barrel is designed for drilling very soft or friable
formations. These contain a further tube, split along its full length and nested
inside the core tube. Core is protected in the split tube which is extracted from the
core tube each time it is necessary to remove the core. Used in conjunction with
bottom-discharge bits, these core barrels give optimum protection to soft or friable
core.

Drilling Fluid Drilling Fluid

Hole Outer
Tube
Single-tube Inner
Tube
Core barrel

Core Core
Bit

Core catcher
Single and double tube core barrel

19
Rods:
Standard drill rods usually come in lengths varying from 1.5-6 m and can be
joined together by threaded couplings. They are flush-jointed on the outside, but
not on the inside where the couplings have narrower internal diameters than the
rods themselves. Wire-line rods have thinner walls and are flush-jointed internally
as well as externally so that the core tube can be withdrawn without obstruction.
Thread designs and specifications vary slightly according to the manufacture.

1.2.2.4 Non-core drilling

Non-core drilling methods generally have the advantages of lower costs than
core drilling methods. Consequently, when core is not required, a non-core drilling
methods is preferable. Non-coring drilling methods are commonly used for:
1. Geophysical logging
2. Obtaining samples for assay and metallurgical testing.
3. Defining ore contacts in extensive sedimentary deposits.
4. Drilling through thick sections of overburden, and
5. Hydrological testing

1.2.2.5 Heavy rotary blast hole drilling

In surface/quarry mining, large diameter drilling equipment gives a high
productivity rate. Heavy rotary blast hole drilling is far superior to down-the-hole
or percussive methods in broken ground and in ground consisting of alternating
bands of hard and soft rock or rock with substantial clay bonds. The advantages of
this method are:
1. It is preferable in many sedimentary rocks
2. It is an alternative in hard rock; provided that the drill is of adequate large
holes are acceptable.
3. It gives a wider range of hole size and may be used to greater depths
20
 4. In “bad” ground it may be the sole economical method.
Factors to be consider in selecting a rotary blast hole drill rigs are: mounting,
power source, rotation pull down system, air volume requirement, most inclined
drilling capability, dust system, water, foam injection and noise suppression, etc.

1.2.2.6 Rotary percussive drilling

In rotary percussive drilling penetration of drill bit in rock occurs due to
resultant action of both percussive and rotary movements. The rotational movement
applies free on the bit end to break the bond, holding the rock particles, while
percussive action produces longitudinal impact on the rods resulting in penetration
of bit driven into rock. Rotary percussive drilling is used in mining, in
constructional materials, in building hydraulic structures, in ore mines of annual out
put up to 4 million cubic meters and also for auxiliary operations done in large
output ore mines. These drills are used in dealing with high abrasive difficulty
drilled rocks. These drills are of simple design, hydraulically operated and truck
and boom mounted. This is likely to succeed the pneumatic percussive drill in
tunneling and hard rock work. Future development should ensure greater
penetration rates combined with less noise. The main shortcomings of the drills are:
short bit life, low output and considerable dust formation.

21
 Chapter (2)

2.1 Major factors influencing penetration rate

The most important factors, which affect the rate of penetration, are:

2.1.1 Weight on the bit (thrust) and rotary speed

Since bit weight and rotational speed considerations are interrelated i.e., an
increase in one usually necessities a reduction in the other for minimum cost
drilling. In soft formation doubling of either bit weight or rotational speed will
double the drilling rate. In hard formation when bit weight and rotational speed
increased the rate of penetration increased too.

2.1.2 Rock properties

Fundamental studies in rock mechanics lead to better define rock properties.
The hardness and abrasiveness characteristics of a rock have an influence on bit
life. In general, penetration rate varies inversely with compressive strength and
proportional directly with porous or permeable formations.

2.1.3 Fluid properties (circulation)

Water is the most commonly used drilling fluid, but when drilling in soft
rocks, it is found to be too erosive. In such cases drilling mud, which consists of a
bentonite-water mixture is used. In blast hole drilling direct air flushing is used
with three-cone rolling bits because of greater penetration rate and for longer life.
The principle functions of drilling fluid are: carry cuttings from the hole, cool and
clean the bit, reduce friction and maintain stability of uncased holes.

22
 2.1.4 Bit type and condition

The bit type selected has a large effect on penetration rate. It is play an
important role to determine the performance of a drill. These bits are classified as
follows:
Bit Types

Rotary Percussive Diamond

Bits Bits Bits

Drag Roller Blade Button Core Non-

Type Type core

Cross Bits Impregnated

Blade Replaceable Flat with
A No. of
X-Bits TC inserts Surface-set

Chisel Polycrystalline
Two Three
Bits
Cone Cone

Pilot Taper Con-

Type Type cave
Soft Medium Hard Very Type
formation hard

2.2 Automatic optimization of drilling techniques

23
 2.2.1 Drill productivity evaluation by monitoring
Primarily, drill monitoring is used to characterize the drilled rock, but the
technique can also provide very detailed information on every sequence of the
drilling cycle and about different types of stoppage and non-productive time
consumption. The main advantage of accurate time data from a drilling operation is
either application in the evaluation of performed drilling work and in the planning
of new contracts. Improvement in the drilling cycle, resulting in improved overall
production, is another likely outcome of use of the technique. Two types of
parameters that must be monitored are running times and operational variables. The
operational variable should indicate how the machine is performing. For a drilling
rig the operational variable may be penetration rate, but other parameters can also
be used.

To obtain detailed time data a drill rig was equipped with a monitoring
device and a field test of production drilling was conducted at a site in Sweden.
Holes of lengths between 20 and 55 m were drilled with an 11.5-cm (4.5-in) in the
hole hammer. The ground at the site was fairly uniform, consisting of a single rock
type. The drilling information was collected for five months. During these period
all holes, amounting to more than 5000 m of bore hole, were monitored. During
drilling the time at which data were sampled, h: min: s, drill hole depth, m,
penetration rate, m/min., rotation speed, rev/min., thrust, kN, air percussive
pressure, bar, and torque pressure, bar, were recorded for every 10 mm of hole
length. The monitored drill parameters were stored on an ordinary 3.5 diskette in
the monitoring instrument, which was mounted in the operator’s cabin of the
drilling rig and the diskettes were transferred to the office for analysis. The
statistics for all the drilled holes were compiled. A small computer program was
developed to extract the useful information from each hole log. An example of the
result from the program is presented in Table 2.
24
 Table 2 Production statistics sheet for single borehole
Time, Hole Duration Length
h: min: s depth, of stop, s drilled, m
m
7:48:52 1.89 213 1.90
7:57:08 3.77 366 1.88
8:05:13 5.65 331 1.88
8:10:39 7.53 199 1.88
8:16:48 9.41 254 1.88
8:23:08 11.29 255 1.88
8:30:39 13.17 320 1.88
8:38:48 15.05 339 1.88
8:47:12 16.93 341 1.88
8:55:26 18.81 327 1.88
9:03:46 20.69 334 1.88
9:12:04 22.57 337 1.88
9:21:04 24.45 349 1.88
9:29:44 26.33 325 1.88
9:38:30 28.21 323 1.88
9:47:15 30.09 321 1.88
9:55:51 31.97 296 1.88
Registered average penetration rate 42.7 cm/min

2.2.2 Rock characterization

During the last decade, the use of micro processor-based drill monitoring
equipment to permit scanning, measurement, processing and storage of drill
performance parameters has become an accepted technique. On the basis of the
recorded drill performance, such as penetration rate, torque pressure and thrust, a
fast and early evaluation of ground condition can be made. Percussive drill
monitoring can provide detailed information on hardness, fracturing and
weathering of rock mass as well as location ore and rock type boundaries with high
accuracy. There is great potential in using the information collected from
percussive drill monitoring to characterize rock, since this drilling technique is
inexpensive and frequently used both in mining and construction industries. Since
25
drill monitoring is performed during the drilling operation the measurement does
not cause any disturbances in production. The major advantage is the speed at
which the result can be presented. Since, the data are monitored in digital form and
analysis on an ordinary computer only takes a few minutes, the method can be
made an integrated part in a decision process. The recorded parameters are: time
when data are recorded, drill hole length, penetration rate, rotation speed, thrust, air
pressure and torque pressure. This technique has been used successfully in several
mining and underground applications, providing rock properties with high
agreement with the observed conditions. In general, percussive drill monitoring is
an excellent method for location of lithological boundries.

In the field however, most holes are drilled into areas of unknown geology or
regions for which knowledge is limited. Researches have shown that measurements
of specific energy, in conjunction with accurately known drill depths, can be used
to indicate the location of strata boundries and voids, etc. However, research at
Nottingham University has produced some very encouraging results. Several rock
samples consisting of limestones and sandstones were cored and the drill
parameters monitored. The data were used, along with measurements of uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS) made on the cores, to calculate the specific energy (e),
for each core sample. It could be seen the two lithologies group into distinct areas
of the plot.

Recently, the above-mentioned program is being extended to other

lithologies. In this research, the selected rocks represent sedimentary rocks (6 types
of limestones), metamorphic rocks (5 types of marbles) and igneous rocks (4 types
of granites). Drilling rates of diamond core drilling into the15 types of rocks at
different thrust loads and rotary speeds have been obtained. The specific energy
(SE) and the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) for all types of rocks have been
26
determined. The drilling rates against USC/ES for all rock types have been plotted.
The interpretation of the results shown that at lower thrust and higher rotary speeds
the three groups of rocks are lying into distinct zones Fig. 2. From these results
with other information from drilling cuttings it can be possible to identify the rock
type to be drilled.

2.2.3 Measurement While Drilling (MWD)

Today all interpretation is done by software, allowing information to be
delivered to different centers in the mine. Measurement while drilling (MWD)
techniques can provide a useful tool to aid drill and blast engineers in open cut
mining. The scope of application of this information is extensive for instance,
geologists can compare the inferred lithologies to the mine model, scheduling
engineers can receive feedback on the timing and performance of each drill rig;
drill and blast engineers can produce details of each blast hole; and quantity of the
rock types presented in the blast. The system relies on a set of parameters that have
to be considered together and cannot be taken individually. The parameters in
27
MWD system can be divided into three categories: measured, calculated and
inferred. Measured parameters are for example, RPM, bailing air volume, vibration,
pull down force, depth of drill bit and rotation pressure. Calculated parameters
include direct values such as rate of penetration and torque, and indirect values
such as specific energy. Inferred parameters are dependent on the operating
conditions, and whose calculation must be calibrated for the drill equipment, local
rock properties and structure and drilling performance. MWD systems on
production drills in surface coalmines offer the potential to define mine bench
geology in detail and in advance of explosives loading. MWD will reduce costs, by
improving drilling performance, increasing tool life, and avoiding troubles.

System description:
Specification for MWD system are driven by four functional requirements:
1- Identifying the information that is useful to the driller
2- Process surface and down hole measurements to provide that
information.
3- Collect down hole data with appropriate sensors.
4- Use telemetry ‫ القياس عن بعد‬to bring down hole data to the surface
and return signals down hole.
These four requirements translate into hard ware and soft ware needs as
shown in fig 3. Data from all parts of the drilling system, will be acquired, analyses
and displayed for driller at a rate of fast enough to provide feeling of response.

Driller
Optimizes drilling process
using real-time data

28
 Drilling software
Data reduction,
analysis and display

High
Speed
Data
Link

MWD Tool
RPM, WOB, ROP
torque, inclination, etc.

Fig. 3 Schematic representation of the MWD system

2.2.4 Rotary and percussive drilling rate prediction models

An accurate prediction of blast hole drilling rate helps to make more efficient
the planning of drilling operations in a mine or quarry. However it is important to
note that the prediction of physical and mechanical properties of rock formations
from drilling rates may help the mining engineer to control the changing
characteristics of the formation. A new model has been developed for prediction of
rotary blast hole drills using a drill-ability index newly described from the force-
indentation curves. Investigators have carried out many theoretical and
experimental studies of rock indentation. Also, a standard indentation test has been
recommended by ISRM. Indentation tests were executed using Servo-controlled
stiff testing machine in the laboratory of Mining Faculty of Istanbul Technical
University.

Penetration rate model:

29
 The model of penetration rate for rotary drills with tri-cone bit was
developed by using Bilgin’s approach [40]. The penetration rate may be expressed
as:
PR=Np…………………(1)
Where, PR is the penetration rate, N the rotational speed and p the bit
penetration per revolution. Assuming the actual bit penetration rate per revolution
(p) is directly proportional to the test bit-tooth penetration (p') in a given rock or
p=kp', then,
PR=Nkp'……………….(2)
By multiplying the static threshold force (F) by the average number of bit
elements working (I) we should arrive at an effective drilling weight (W)
W=FI…………………..(3)
Where I =0.08C, and C=total number of bit elements, therefore,
W=0.08FC……………..(4)
As a function of bit diameter (D), C=nD, where n is a constant varies between 6
and 7 thus,
W=0.08FnD……………(5)
From the drill-ability index, α =F/p' or F= αp', then,
W=0.08 αp'nD…………(6)

p'= ……………(7)

So equation 2 can be written as follows:

PR=k …………(8)

The equation (8) may be written as:

K= …………(9)

30
 After the valid k values are substituted separately in equation (8), if the
constant n is selected as 6.5 and the equations are re-arranged, the following final
equations are found:

-For conical bit-tooth:

PR= ………………(10)

-For spherical bit-tooth:

PR= ………………..(11)

Where, PR is penetration rate, m/hr, N the rotational speed, rpm, W the thrust, kN,
α the drill-ability index, kN/mm and D the bit diameter, cm.

The proposed model is shown to be valid for rock type having compressive
strength over 40 MPa and it emphasizes that penetration rates of blast hole drills
may be predicted accurately from drill bit diameter, rotational speed, thrust force
and one of the rock properties mentioned above. These relationships may also help
the engineer to predict all these rock properties from penetration rate [41]. There
have been numerous attempts to use drilling simulators to improve the drilling rates
for different drilling techniques.

The models of penetration rate for rotary, DTH and hydraulic top hammer
drills were developed. Regression analysis was carried out using a computer
package called “Statgraphic-Statistical Graphic System”. The best models
developed for three drill types are given below.
-For rotary drills:

PR=1.05 ………R2=0.87

31
Where, PR=estimated penetration rate (cm/min), W=weight on bit (kg), D=bit
diameter, (cm) and
σc=uniaxial compressive strength (MPa)

-For DTH drills:

PR=3.24 ……….. R2=0.89

Where,
P=operating pressure (bar),
d=piston diameter (mm) and
Rn=Schmidt hammer (N-type)Rebound number.

-For hydraulic top hammer drills:

PR=0.47 ………. R2=0.85

Where,
bmp=blow frequency (bmp),
σc =uniaxial compressive strength (MPa) and
q =quartz content %.

To check the validation of the models, each one has been statistically tested.
The model for rotary drills is valid for the sedimentary rocks and for air operated
drills having tri-cone bit with tungsten carbide insert. The DTH drills model is
valid for 90-100 mm bit diameter, 12-22 bar feed pressure, 40-60 bar rotational
pressure and 5-8 bar air pressure. The model for hydraulic top hammer drills is
valid for 76-100 mm bit diameter, 11.5-17.5 kW rock drill impact power, 60-100
bar feed pressure, 100-150 bar blow pressure and 50-70 bar rotational pressure.

32
 Chapter 3
Applications of Some Drilling Methods
3.1 Deep Sampling Methods
Introduction
Deep sampling methods may be employed in evaluating alluvial deposits
‫رواسب طينية‬ or in reconnaissance ‫ استكشاف‬geological surveys and areas
covered by superficial‫سطحي‬ deposits such as peat ‫ فحم‬, ‫نباتات متحجرة‬,
alluvium and glacial till ‫طبقة جليدية‬, or with areas with heavy surface leaching
‫ صفي أو روق‬which may have removed elements of interest from the near surface
soil horizons.

Deep Sampling Methods

Pitting & Auger Hand held Wagon Banka

Trenching Drilling percussion Drilling Drilling

3.1.1- Pitting and Trenching

The simplest method of deep sampling is the digging of pits and

trenches. In countries where labor is cheap this is generally carried out by hand, but
in other parts of the world mechanical excavators are used. If pits have been dug
for evaluation purposes, larger samples can be taken by cutting channels 10-15 cm
wide and 5 cm deep over length of 1-3 m.

In tropical regions ‫ المناطق االستوائية‬where thick lateritic soil ‫تربة‬

‫ طوبية‬, it is possible to dig pits to depths of 30 m or more by hand. Two laborers
‫ عاملين‬are used and the only tools required are a short-handled shovel, a pick or
sharpened straight crowbar ‫ عتلة‬and a bucket tied to a rope for removing soil. It is
important to keep the pit vertical and circular with a diameter of approximately 1
33
m. The work is quite safe provided that the soil is firm and dry. If it becomes wet or
dry and crumbly ‫ سهلة التفتت‬, work should be stopped as the pit could collapse
causing a fatal accident.

If the condition is good it should be possible to complete a pit to 10 m in

10 man-days or less. Pits 20 or 30 m deep may take 40 man-days or more to
complete. Hand or motor driven pumps may be used to supply fresh air to the
bottom of the pit. Mechanical diggers are very quick and 3 m pits can be dug,
logged and sampled within half an hour. 17 pits with an average depth 3 m were
dug, logged sampled and filled in over a space of two days by using mechanical
backhoe in central Ireland.

Pitting and trenching has distinct advantages over other deep sampling
methods:

- Undisturbed samples can be collected from precise locations

- Large samples can be taken if necessary
- Detailed logging and geological information can be obtained if the pit
reach bedrock

The main disadvantages are:

- Pits can only be dug in firm, dry ground

- Deep pits take a lot of time to dig and can be expensive.
- The digging of pits may create unnecessary disturbance if exploration is
being undertaken over expensive farmland. For safety reasons all pits
and trenches should be filled in when the sampling program is
completed.
34
 Trenching is really an extension of pitting and is used to take samples
over a long length. Trenches can be dug by hand or with mechanical diggers. It is
rarely ‫ نادرا‬practical to dig trenches more than 5 m deep. For detailed evaluation
work very large trenches are sometimes put in with bulldozers, but trenches of this
size are probably more correctly classified as small open-cuts. The sampling of
trenches is accomplished by taking channel or panel samples.

3.1.2- Auger Drilling

In areas when thick soil profiles are developed, power augers are useful
for deep sampling, particularly where ground conditions make pitting difficult or
impossible. Power augers are varying in size from small to large. The smaller
machines can rarely attain depths in excess of 10 m and in practice are generally
restricted for much shallower holes of 5-6 m. The auger drills for deep drilling are
generally from 50-75 mm in diameter and rod lengths from 1-1.5 m.

With large machine augers up to 140 m can be drilled in 12 hr shift,

though 80-100 m is a more normal average. Drilling costs are usually about half
those of percussion drilling. The main disadvantages of auger drilling are that
sample condition may be a problem and drilling may be impossible if the ground
contains numerous boulders.

The main advantages of this method are as follows:

1- Avery high rate of penetration can be achieved.
2- A large amount (volume) of spoil (cutting) is obtained in short time.
3- The hole remains clean and stable.

35
 4- No flushing medium is required which eliminates the need for a compressor
or flush pumps.
5- Noise level is very low.
6- Drilling costs are usually about half of percussion drilling.

The main disadvantages are:

1- Sample contamination may be a problem.
2- Drilling may be impossible if the ground contain numerous boulders.

Procedure for Drilling and Sampling:

1- The bit and first flight are run into the ground to its full length.
2- The operator holds the flight feed stationary while continuing to rotate the
auger. This causes soil to be spiraled up to the surface where it can be
shoveled to one side.
3- Another flight is added and the process is repeated until the required depth is
reached or until it becomes impossible for the auger to penetrate deeper.
4- The material brought to the surface at the end of each run and should be put
carefully to one side in order to collection.
5- Geo-chemical sample packets can be filled from each sample pile and the
remainder bagged and stored in case more sample material might be required
at a later date.

Some auger machines are not powerful enough to spiral samples to the
surface and in such cases the sampling procedure is to run the auger flights into the
ground to the desired depth, pull them up and scrape off the sample material lodged
‫ الملتصق‬in auger spiral.

36
 Samples should be recorded on logging sheets which can be made up for
that purpose. These should include details of the property, hole number, date, depth
of water table, final depth and description of the samples together with sample
depths and numbers.

3.1.3- Hand-Held Percussion Drills

It was originally developed to obtain deep soil samples on engineering

sites for soil mechanics tests and has been adapted for geo-chemical sampling. It
consists of a series of hollow one meter 25 mm O.D (outer diameter) rods, which
can be screwed together by couplings, a sampler, a hand rock drill for driving the
rods and a rod puller for extracting the rod from the ground.

Rock drill

Rod 1m

30cm Piston sampler

Bit

Piston sampler for sampling the bottom

37
Sampler and Sampling:
A number of different sampling head are available. These include the
piston sampler and the window sampler, and the Holman type sampler developed
by R. C. Holman in Ireland.

1. Piston Sampler
The piston sampler consists of a hollow steel tube with a retractable
plunger or piston. The procedures to take a sample by piston sampler are as
follows:
1- The sampler is driven into the ground to the required depth
2- The rod string is rotated 30 revolutions clockwise, this causes the piston to
be retracted into the sampler leaving a hollow open tube at the bottom of the
hole.
3- The sampler is then driven down wards by the rock drill a further 30 cm, thus
filling the open tube with sample material.
4- To retrieve the sample a recovery jack withdraws the entire rod string.
5- The sampler is dissembled, washed clean and reassembled with piston and
the process repeated.

2. Window Sampler
The main difference between piston and window samplers is that the
window sampler or gravel spoon sampler has a sample intake opening in the side.
The procedures to take a sample by window sampler are as follows:
1- The sampler is driven down to the desired depth in the same manner as the
piston sampler.

38
2- The rods are pulled out about 25 mm given half a turn clockwise and pushed
down again to the original level this opens the sample window.
3- The rods are then given one full turn clockwise and driven down 3 cm and
rotated again, repeating the entire process about 10 times.
4- This causes a small blade at the side of the sample intake to scrape material
from the sides of the hole into opening.
5- On completion of the sampling process, the rods are pulled 25 mm and given
half a turn anticlockwise to close the sample window.
6- The sampler is withdrawn from the hole by the recovery jack and the sample
removed by unscrewing the end of the sampler.
7- The sampler is then washed clean, reassembled and the sampling process
repeated.

Rock drill

Rod 1m

Window
Sampler 30 cm

Bit
Window sampler for sampling the bottom

39
Disadvantages of the two above sampler types are:
1- They are larger in diameter than the rods and therefore are difficult to
recover.
2- They are also expensive and have to be disassembled and cleaned before
another sample can be taken.
3- This is often a time consuming procedure, which greatly reduces
productivity in the field.

3. Holman type Sampler:

All the above disadvantages are overcome by using Holman type
sampler. The procedures to take a sample by Holman type sampler are as follows:
1- The sampler is driven down to the desired depth in the same manner as the
piston and window samplers.
2- With this type the sample material continually passes through it as it driven
down so that taking a sample is easy (simply) a matter.
3- The rods are then pulled from the hole to recover the sample, which comes
from the final depth reached.
4- When the sampler is full it might become blocked and prevent the movement
of the sample material through it.
5- The sample is easy extracted by using a sample extractor (short vertical steel
rod less than the internal diameter of the sampler.
6- The bottom of the full sampler is pushed or hammered down the steel rod
forcing the sample material out.

Owing to the length of time involved in removing the sample and

cleaning and reassembling piston and window samplers, it is general practice to
40
take only one sample per hole just above the bedrock. To do this the bedrock is first
determined by driving a probe down until it can be driven no further and vibration
of the machine indicates to a trained operator that the bedrock has been reached.
The rods are then withdrawn and a second hole is drilled with the sampler 1 m or
less. When the sampler is 30 –50 cm off bedrock, the sample is taken. With the
Holman type sampler this procedure is not necessary. The sample collected every
1-2 m can taken less time in a 20 m hole than the procedure of probing and taking
with a piston sampler.

Comparison of sampler types

Index Piston sampler Window sampler Holman type

sampler
Cost Expensive Expensive Cheap
Weight 6.2 kg 5 kg 0.6 kg approx.
Outer diameter 39 mm 44 mm 26 mm
Overall length 665 mm 625 mm 175 mm
Ease of pulling often difficult often difficult generally easy
Sample volume 125 cm3 170 cm3 about 25 cm3
Time to remove
sample and clean 20-40 min 15-30 min 1-5 min
Very wet sample
material often no sample sample generally often no sample
recovered

41
3.1.4- Wagon Drilling
Percussion drills mounted on trailers are commonly known as wagon
drills and are widely used in initial work in geo-chemical exploration or
prospecting. Depths up to 50-60 m are possible with most wagon drills, but for
general work average hole depths are 30-40 m.

Drill rod
Rubber pad Container for catching sample

Casing with
T-piece

Diagram showing a method of collecting samples from Wagon Drill

The procedures to take a sample by wagon drilling are as follows:

1- A more satisfactory method of sample collection is to run a short length of
casing or pipe into the hole with a T-piece attached to the top and projecting
‫ بارز‬to the side above the hole collar.

42
 2- A thick rubber pad ‫ تكاية أو مسند‬made from old conveyor belting with a
hole in its center, so that the drill rods can be pass through it, is held over the
top of the casing while drilling is progress.
3- The drilling cuttings are then deflected through the T-piece and into a
suitable container. In addition to this method, the drill manufacturers produce
special dust collecting cyclones, which can be used for sampling.

This method has the advantage over other methods of deep sampling in
that:
1- Rock can be drilled as easy as overburden so that tests for shallow bedrock
source can be made at the same time that the overburden samples.
2- The method is fast and it is possible to complete two 30-m hole/shift.
3- Wagon drills are relatively light and can be maneuvered into small places.

The major disadvantages are:

1- Samples can not be taken below the water table or in broken ground
2- Overall mobility of the drill is limited by the ancillary compressor, which is
heavy and has to be positioned near the drill.

43
 3.2. Water well drilling

Introduction

This chapter provides the basics of equipment and methods used for drilling and
completion of geothermal wells. It provides data needed by architects, engineers,
and consultants to assist them in specification writing, selection of contractors, and
drilling and completion inspection.

Most direct use geothermal wells can be drilled using conventional water well
technology and equipment. Most of the wells will produce water at temperatures
less than boiling and without artesian flow at the surface; however, some will be
hotter or will flow. Blowout preventers and other sophisticated ‫ متطورة‬safety
equipment are not usually required; however, this does not mean that there are not
significant safety considerations that should be addressed. Many of the wells have
water above 140oF and this will scald. Public and drilling crew safety must be
ensured.

The cementing portion may appear to be overly detailed and long. However, the
author's view is that, all too often, cementing is considered simply as a means of
plugging up the annulus between the casing and borehole wall. Little attention is
paid to methods and materials, and a poor cement job is the result. This can result
in lost production zones, cold water leaking into production zones, geothermal
water leaking into freshwater zones and reduced useful well life. Also, in view of
the increasing awareness and concern about inter-zonal migration and possible

44
fresh water aquifer contamination, proper cementing is of increasing importance. A
glossary of drilling terms is included at the end of this chapter. For some readers, it
may be wise to read this section first in order to fully understand the text.
Drilling equipment
Two basic types of drilling rigs are used for drilling wells: cable tool (percussion)
and rotary. There is just one basic cable tool rig, but there are several variations of
rotary rigs. The following is a brief description of these rigs.

3.2.1 Cable Tool

This is not a drill in the common sense, because it is not power rotated. This
drilling method uses a heavy bit that is repeatedly lifted and dropped that crushes
and breaks the formation. Figures (1and 2) show general view and the basic
elements of a cable tool rig (Anderson & Lund, 1979). With a cable tool rig, an
experienced driller can drill through any formation, including large crevices
(cracks) and caverns (pieces of stone) that can cause problems with other drilling
methods. The main disadvantage of this method is that it is slow. Drilling is
accomplished with a tight drill line, as shown in Fig. (1).

Fig. (1) Cable tool water well drilling rig.

45
The pitman arm and spudder beam impart an up-and-down motion to the cable and
drill bit. The length of cable is adjusted so that on the down stroke the tools stretch
the line as the bit hits the bottom of the hole, striking with a sharp blow and
immediately retracting. The twist, or lay, of the cable imparts a slight turning
motion to the tools so the bit hits a new face with each stroke. Left lay cable is used
so that the twisting action tightens the tools screwed connections on each upstroke.
If the borehole is dry, water is added to form slurry that is bailed out. Usually about
5 ft of well hole is drilled between bailing.

In consolidated formations, no casing is required for drilling. If the formation

caves, 5 to 10 ft of hole is drilled; then casing with a drive shoe is driven to the
bottom with driving clamps attached to the tools. With this casing in place, another
5 to 10 ft is drilled, and the operation is repeated again. Because the bit must be
lowered through the casing, the diameter of the casing must be larger than the
diameter of the bit. Driving the casing enlarges the hole and eventually friction
prevents further advancement of the casing. Under these conditions, smaller casing
is telescoped inside and drilling continues with a smaller bit.

A method used to increase driving depth is to utilize an oversized drive shoe,

slightly opening the hole. Bentonite slurry, placed around the casing, helps hold
unconsolidated material in place and lubricates the casing. The bentonite also
serves to seal leaks around the casing because of artesian pressure or differences in
pressure in different aquifers.

Most states require cementing water well casings to the borehole wall down to
some competent formation. In a geothermal well, it is usually cemented down to
the geothermal zone to prevent mixing of geothermal fluids with shallower fresh
surface waters. This also prevents mixing that
46
reduces the water temperature. Any pipe driven down to that level must be
considered a temporary casing and must be removed before or during cementing of
the well. This places serious restrictions on any drill and drive technique. Although
drilling is very time consuming at depths over
1,500 to 2,000 ft, because of the time it takes to trip bailers and tools, deep holes
can be drilled. The depth record is 11,145 ft, completed in New York in 1953
(Campbell, 1973). Large rigs can drill 18 to 24 in. holes to several hundred feet.

Cable tool rigs have several advantages over certain rotary methods:
1. There is no potential for plugging producing formations with drilling mud.
2. Rigs cost less, are simpler to maintain, and can be operated by one or two
persons. Transportation and setup are easy and less water is required.
3. Sampling and formation logging are simple and fairly accurate. There is little
chance for contamination by previously drilled zones, especially in consolidated-
formations. In unconsolidated formations, there is always some chance the cable,
tools, or bailer will wipe the side walls, carrying material down to be sampled later.
4. Qualitative and quantitative data can be obtained during drilling, including good
flow estimates, and temperature, static water level, and water chemistry
measurements.

The disadvantages are:

1. Depth and penetration rates are limited.
2. Blowout preventers are not easily adapted.
3. In unconsolidated formations, casing must be driven as the hole progresses.
4. There is a lack of experienced personnel. Cable tool drilling is somewhat of an
art and the preponderance of rotary drilling means a cable tool driller with wide
experience may be hard to find.
5. The method is limited to vertical holes.
47
Accurate sampling, the ability to assess down hole conditions, and suspicion that
drilling mud can adversely affect low- and moderate-temperature geothermal wells,
are the reasons that some engineers are specifying the use of cable tool rigs in
geothermal production zones. Holes are drilled to a specified formation,
temperature, or simply the first lost circulation zone at elevated temperature, by
conventional mud rotary method; then, the hole is completed using a cable tool rig.
Temperatures can be measured at the surface, after water is brought up in the
bailer. If the hole is deep and the static water level shallow, the measurements will
only be approximate. Flows can be estimated from bailing rates. There is very little
chance of mud and debris filling cracks and crevices in the producing zone.
Although relatively high temperature bores have been successfully completed by
continuous flooding with cold
water, the method is not applicable:
(1) where expected temperatures are higher than 2500 F,
(2) where significant artesian flows at the surface are expected, or
(3) where depths are so great the cable tool rig is simply uneconomical.

48
3.2.2 Rotary Drilling

Rotary drilling is the most common drilling method in both water and geothermal
well drilling. There are several variations, each having their advantages and
disadvantages.
Figure 2 illustrates the important operational components of this truck-mounted
drilling machine. This machine, operating with either an air-based or water-based
drilling fluid, can drill more rapidly than a cable tool rig (Gardner-Denver Co.)

Figure 2 A Rotary Drilling Rig components

49
Torque is applied through the rotary table and Kelly. Drilling fluid is circulated
down the drill pipe and out openings in the bit where it cleans cuttings from
beneath the bit, cools the bit and carries cuttings to the surface where they are
separated from the fluid. Weight on the bit is applied by the heavy drill collar
assembly. The drill pipe is held in tension by the traveling block. Too much weight
on the bit tends to drill crooked holes and, in some formations, slows down drilling
because of insufficient cleaning action at the drilling face. Rigs with top head drive
do not use a rotary table and kelly. Instead, a hydraulic motor that travels up and
down the mast supplies torque directly to the drill pipe. Often a much shorter and
lighter collar is used, and the rigs have pull-down chains to utilize part of the rig's
weight at shallow depths. Drilling fluids can be water, mud (water with additives
such as bentonite, polymer, etc.), air and water (mists), air, or air and water with
foaming agents.

Rotary Drilling Bits

Fig. (3) Common Bit types

50
The drill bit, usually a tri-cone roller, is rotated by the hollow drill collar and drill
pipe, the common drilling bits are shown in fig. 3.

For recommended rotating speeds for all sizes and types of bits in various
formations see Table 5-2

Bit Selection:

For selecting a suitable type of bits see Figure 5 and the following steps.

(1) Tri-cone Roller Bits. These bits bit consists of three cone-shaped rollers are best
suited for brittle or friable materials. The tricone with steel teeth milled into the
surfaces. Tooth locations are designed so that as the cone rotates, each tooth strikes
the bottom of the hole at a different location. Drilling fluid is jetted on each roller
to clean and cool it. The cutting action is a progressive crushing under the point
load of each tooth. Roller bits designed for rock, rocky soil (gravel), and soft
formations (shale) have long teeth. The bits for harder formations have smaller,
stronger teeth. The gauge teeth on bits designed for very hard rock are reinforced
with webs. For extremely hard formations, milled teeth are replaced with connected
carbide buttons.

(2) Drag Bits. These bits are used in soil and other unconsolidated materials. The
blades are designed so that they cut into the formation with a carving or scraping
action. Drag bits may have multiblade, hardened-steel, finger-shaped teeth or may
have connected carbide-reinforced cutting edges.

51
Rotary Operation. Standard rotary drilling involves the bit rotating against the
formation. Drilling fluid is pumped through the drill string and face of the drill bit
and backup the annulus to the surface. The rotary action of the bit loosens the
material, while the drilling fluid cools and lubricates the drill pipe and bit and
carries cuttings to the surface. The drilling fluid is under high hydrostatic pressure
and supports the wall of the borehole against caving. The properties of the drilling
fluid are important to the drilling operation. Well drillers must have knowledge of
drilling fluids and their use for successful rotary drilling. Drillers must also know
about drilling-fluid additives used to prevent problems in drilling. Preventing
drilling problems, such as an unstable borehole wall or a stuck tool, is easier than
fixing the problem after it occurs.

52
Before drilling with mud, build a mud pit. The pit may be either a portable pit or an
excavated mud pit. The decision depends on the hole depth and the alternatives
available.

Drilling Fluids. Drilling fluid is circulated in rotary drilling to cool, clean, and
lubricate the drill string, to flush cuttings from the hole, and to stabilize the
borehole wall. Water is the basic fluid and is satisfactory for lubricating and
cooling the tools. However, water has limited abilities to carry cuttings and
stabilize the borehole wall. Many drilling fluid additives are prepared and
formulated for various purposes. Polymer fluids and water-based clay fluids (muds)
are the primary additives used in water-well drilling.

Mud cools and lubricates through heat absorption from the bit and reduction of
drill-string abrasion against the borehole wall. Heat is generated as the bit scrapes
and grinds. Without the cooling fluid, the bit would overheat and be useless.
Research indicates that removing the cuttings around and under the bit is the most
important factor in keeping the bit cool. Requirements for cooling fluid are less
than those for removing the cuttings.

You can mix natural clays with water for use as a drilling mud. Drillers often use
water in shallow clayey strata and depend on the formation clay to produce a
suitable mud. Natural-clay mud properties are marginal for good water-well
drilling.

Hydrostatic pressure allows the fluid to support the borehole wall and is a function
of the density or weight of the mud column. Important characteristics of a drilling
mud are viscosity and weight to carry cuttings, gel strength, yield point, and active
clay solids for filter cake. Use the following formula to calculate hydrostatic
pressure:
Hp=(Md)(d)(0.052)
where--
53
Hp = hydrostatic pressure, in psi.
Md = mud density, in pounds per gallon.
d = hole depth, in feet.
For example, the hydrostatic pressure of a 200-foot hole with a mud weight of 9
pounds is as follows: 9 ft x 200 ft x 0.052 = 93.6 psi.

Reverse Circulation
In reverse circulation, drilling fluid (usually water or very thin mud) flows down
the annulus, up the drill pipe to the suction side of a pump, and into the tank or pit.
Cuttings are lifted inside the drill pipe that has a smaller cross section than the
annulus. Suction lift of the pumps limits this method to approximately 450 ft depth
at sea level (Driscoll, 1987).
The method that is preferred for geothermal wells utilizes an air pipe inside the drill
pipe to provide the lift, and a cyclone or similar separator to separate air from the
water and cuttings mixture. The air lift greatly increases depth capacity. Fluid level
in the annulus is maintained at or very near the surface. The drill pipe is similar to
conventional air drilling pipe (see the following Figure).

54
The advantages of reverse circulation are:

1. The reduction of velocity in the annulus reduces the possibility of wall erosion.
2. The increase in velocity up the drill pipe provides fewer time lags to the surface
and less mixing of cuttings, which enhances sampling.
3. Because water or very thin light mud is used, there is less possibility for
formation damage by mud invasion.

The disadvantages are:

1. Large amounts of water can be required because there is very little or no filter
cake to prevent losses to permeable zones. Fluid loss can be minimized by a good
fluids program.
2. Since annulus fluid level is at the surface, it effectively prevents under-pressured
geothermal fluid from entering the hole for detection by temperature or chemistry
change.
3. If geothermal fluid does enter, the chemistry can be changed by the large amount
of air that effectively scrubs out carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
and may remove minor amounts of other species.

Auger drilling

Solid-flight Auger Drilling .1

In areas when thick soil profiles are developed, power augers are useful
for deep sampling, particularly where ground conditions make pitting difficult or
impossible. Power augers are varying in size from small to large. The smaller
machines can rarely attain depths in excess of 10 m and in practice are generally
restricted for much shallower holes of 5-6 m. The auger drills for deep drilling are

55
generally from 50-75 mm in diameter and rod lengths from 1-1.5 m. See the
following figure

Solid-flight Auger Drilling

With large machine augers up to 140 m can be drilled in 12 hr shift,

though 80-100 m is a more normal average. Drilling costs are usually about half
those of percussion drilling. The main disadvantages of auger drilling are that
sample condition may be a problem and drilling may be impossible if the ground
.contains numerous boulders
:The main advantages of this method are as follows
1. Avery high rate of penetration can be achieved.
2. A large amount (volume) of spoil (cutting) is obtained in short time.
3. The hole remains clean and stable.
4. No flushing medium is required which eliminates the need for a
compressor or flush pumps.
5. Noise level is very low.
6. Drilling costs is usually about half of percussion drilling.

56
:The main disadvantages are

1. Sample contamination may be a problem.

2. Drilling may be impossible if the ground contain numerous boulders.

2. Hollow-stem auger

 center of auger is hollow like a straw when the inner drive rods and plug are
removed
 during drilling or formation cutting, the center is filled with rods connected
to a plug at the bottom bit
 once the desired drilling depth is reached, the center plug and rods can be
pulled out - leaving the hollow augers in place
 the hollow augers hold the borehole open for sediment sampling and well
installation. See the following figure.

Hollow-stem Auger Drilling

57
 Chapter (4)
Applications of Drill Holes in Ore Reserve Calculations

1. Ore and Ore Reserves

Ore is defined as a mineral mixed with a gange, from which a metal or
metals can be won at a profit or in the hope of a profit. Before it can be decided
whether or not a mineral deposit might be economically, it is necessary to
determine the tonnage available together with the overall grade. It is obvious that
the degree of confidence with which this can be done depends upon the amount of
data available. There are three standard categories for ore reserves:
1. Proven or measured
2. Indicated or probable
3. Inferred or possible
The proven or measured category is only applied when there is a high
degree of certainty ‫ مؤكد أو محقق‬usually in mines where the ore is blocked out
and sampled. This category should not normally used in exploration work where
the sample information is all from drill holes. An exception ‫ استثناء‬to this may be
material, which is very uniform and predictable such as a bed limestone or
phosphate rock.
Indicated or probable should only be used for ore that has been clearly
outlined in three dimensions by drilling, pitting, trenching, etc. This category is
often referred to as “drill indicated ore”.
The inferred or possible category implies ‫ يدل علي‬a degree of
uncertainty and is used in cases where there is good geological evidence for
continuity, but only a limited amount of sample data such as a few widely spaced
boreholes.

58
 In ore reserve calculation we are concerned with calculating a volume
and an average grade. The tonnage is derived from the volume by multiplying by
the tonnage factor. If the volume is determined in cubic meters, the tonnage factor
is simply the specific gravity of the ore. The volume is commonly determined by
calculating an area in two dimensions and then multiplying by the third dimension
to determine the final volume. To determine total area it is usually possible to
divide the area into number of regular geometric figures such as squares,
rectangles, triangles, trapezium, etc.
Examples for some known areas:

Parallelogram Trapezium Triangle

a B

h h h c a
h
b b A b C
A=b.h, m2 A=1/2 h (a+b) A=1/2b.h =1/2bcsinA
A=

S=

The average grade is determined by making use of weighted averages

Example:
The following figure shows a vertical section through two drill-holes (X1
and X2) in copper deposit, the distance between X1 and X2 is 80 m. The average
length and grade from the two boreholes are 45m, 4% and 10m, 1% respectively.
Determine the area of copper ore between the drill holes and what is the average
grade to it ? X2 X1
45m, 4%

59
 10m, 1% 80m

From trapezium formula:

Area of copper ore A=(10+45)/2 *80=2200 m2
Grade =(1+4)/2=2.5%
Using the meter % method, the average grade =is given by:

, Where,

P=The grade , T=The thickness

Using the percentage method, the mean grade is determined by:

=[3.45+(1+4)]/3=2.82%

In this example there is a positive correlation between grade and thickness, i.e., the
longer intersection has a higher grade. If we swap‫ عكس أو بادل‬the grades between
X1 and X2 , we will have an example of negative correlation.
- The straight mean value is =(1+4)/2=2.5% the same.

- The meter % method gives

The percentage method gives =[1.55+(1+4)]/3=2.18%

The ordinary mean should never be used because it gives the same answer
whether there is positive or negative correlation. The meter% method gives over-
evaluates for positive correlation and under-evaluates for negative correlation. For
this reason the percentage method is preferred.
60
2. Methods of Ore Reserve Calculations
In exploration geology we are normally required to calculate ore
reserves from number of drill hole intersections. For tabular bodies with a low dip
(up to 20°) a number of different methods can be used. These can be divided into
two types:
1. Plan Methods
2. Cross-sectional Methods.
1. Plan Methods
Some of the plan methods are based on assigning ‫ تحديد‬an “area of
influence” around each drill hole as shown in the following figures:

a) Regular blocks b) Polygon method

The first method (a) is based on dividing the ore body into rectangular
blocks. If the holes are regularly spaced, the lines separating the blocks are drown
halfway between the holes. If the holes are irregularly spaced, the size of the blocks
will be arbitrary. In second method (b) the sides of the polygons around each hole
located by joining the points at the intersections of the bisectors of the angles

61
between the lines joining the hole, or the sides of the polygons are the
perpendicular bisectors of the lines between the holes.
In the area of influence methods each block or polygon is assigned the
grade and thickness of the hole at its center. The area of each block or polygon is
determined and then multiplied by its thickness to determine the volume. The sum
of the individual volumes gives the total volume of the ore body. The average grade
is determined by summing the products of each block volume and its grade and

dividing this sum by the total volume ( ).

c) Triangular method

In triangles method (c), the area is divided into triangles by drawing

lines between the holes. The thickness and grade for each triangle is determined as
a weighted average of the values in the holes at the corners of the triangle. The
grade can be determined by either the meter % or percentage method. In case of
percentage method the formula for three-dimensional case becomes:

62
The average thickness can be determined as a simple mean of the three thicknesses
at each corner.

Example:
The following figure shows a plan view of three boreholes intersecting
copper ore jointed for ore reserve calculation. Determine the grade and the
thickness by triangle method.

25m,5.2%
70°

8m, 2.9% 30° 80° 15m,3.8%

By the meter% method the grade assigned to the block is:

, and the thickness is:

…. by the percentage method the grade is:

(4.38+2.9+3.8+5.2)/4=4.07% and the thickness is 16 m as before

We can determine the average thickness by using the weighting factor.

The weighting factor is determined by dividing the angle included in degrees at
each corner by 60. If we do this the thickness becomes:

and the grade becomes:

by meter % and

by percentage method

63
(4.5 + 2.9 + 5.2 + 3.8 )/4=4.1 %
The triangular method is better than the area of influence methods and,
if there is either positive or negative correlation between grade and thickness, it is
better to use the percentage method in calculating the mean grade. If there is no
correlation, the meter % method is adequate and less laborious ‫ مشقة أو تعب‬in
calculate. Whether the meter % or the percentage method is used it is best to weight
the values according to the size of the included angles as shown above.

64
 2. Cross-Sectional Methods

These are based on drawing sections across the ore body, determining
the areas of ore in each section and computing the final volume by using the
distance between sections. Cross-sectional methods are used for determining
reserves of irregular bodies or bodies of variable dip, which cannot be calculated by
ordinary, plan methods.
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5

14m, 5% 11m, 3.5% 8m, 3.2%

The above figure shows an example of a drill section through a copper

ore body to illustrate ore reserve calculations by the cross-sectional method. It is
required to determine its area and average grade. In this example the calculations
are easy as the section through the ore body has been drawn as a regular figure.
First the ore section is divided into compartments at the midpoints between holes
and the grade in each hole is assigned to its respective compartment. Next the area
of each compartment is calculated and multiplied by its grade. These are summed
and divided by the total area to give the average grade.
The average grade becomes:
65
Over a total area of 1059 m2
But it is not always possible to draw the sections as regular figures and
we need to consider methods of determining areas of irregular figures.
One method is to measure it directly with Planimeter. Another method is
known as “give and take”, and consists of fitting figures (triangles, rectangles,
trapezium, etc.) into the figure making sure that al small areas of irregular figures
left out along boundary lines (give) are made up by approximately equal areas
outside the figure (take).

(a) Give and take

(b) Counting squares

d a11 a12

a1 a

66
 a2

(c) Trapezoidal and Simpson’s rule

A third method known as “counting squares”, consists of placing a squared

overlay on the figure and counting whole and part squares contained within the
boundaries of the irregular figure (b). The total area is then obtained by summing
the fractions of the squares and whole squares.

Another method is known as trapezoidal rule. This is done by drawing a

longitudinal line within the figure and dividing it into a number of equal
compartments with cross lines drawn at right angles to it.
The total area is given by:

, Where,

d is the width of the compartments and a1, a2, …..an the lengths of the cross lines.

Another method, which gives greater accuracy than the other methods, is
known as “Simpson’s rule”. The figure is divided up in the same manner as for
trapezoidal rule, but it is essential that there is an uneven number of equal strips.
According to the rule, the area is given by:

A=d/3[a1+an+2(a3+a5+…….an-1)+4(a2+a4+……..an-2)

Once the areas of the individual cross-sections have been calculated, there
are three ways of determining the total volume. One method is multiply the area of
each section by the distance between the adjacent cross-sections. A second method
is known as the trapezium method for volumes. If the sections are equidistant, the
formula is:
67
 V=D[(A1+An)/2 + A2 + A3 + ……..An-1]
Where,
A1, A2, …An are the corresponding areas and D the distance between them.
If the sections are not equidistant, the formula is:
V=1/2[d1(A1+A2) +d2( A2 + A3) d3(A3+A4) + …….dn-1(An-1+An)]
Where:
d1, is the distance between A1 and A2 , d2 is the distance between A2 and A3,
and so on.

The third method is known as Simpson’s rule for volumes and can only be
applied if all cross-sections are equal distances and if is an odd number of sections.

V=D/3[A1+4(A2 + A4 + ….An-1) + 2(A3 + A5 + ….. An-2 ) + An]

Example:
The following figure shows a small stratiform copper deposit outlined by
number of vertical diamond drill holes. It is required to calculate drill indicated ore
reserves and average grade using various methods. The specific gravity of the ore is
2.7 t/m3.
A B C D E

60 m

68
 The areas determined for each cross-section and average grades are shown in
the table below.

Section Area, m2 Grade, %

A 1292 4.34
B 3907 3.21
C 2939 3.48
D 2059 3.27
E 1751 3.92

Solution
Volume outside A = 1292*20=25840 m3
Where, 20 is one-third of the distance to adjacent non-ore section.
The grade is 4.34%, then Volume * grade ≈112146
A+B=(1292+3907) * 60/2=155970 m3
Average grade = (1292*4.34)+(3907*3.21)/(1292+3907)=3.49%
Volume*grade=155970*3.49=544463
Section Volume, m3 Grade, % Vol. * grade
Outside A 1292*20=25840 4.34 112146
A+B (1292+3907)* 60/2=155970 3.49 544463
B+C (3907+2939)* 60/2=205380 3.33 683076
C+D (2939+2059)* 60/2=149940 3.39 508820
D+E (2059+1751)* 60/2=114300 3.57 407906
Outside E 1751 * 20 = 35020 3.92 137278

Total 686450 2393689

69
Average grade=2393689/686450=3.49%
Tonnage=686450*2.7=1853415

Using Simpson’s rule for volumes we can calculate the tonnage as follows:

V=D/3[A1+4(A2 + A4 + ….An-1) + 2(A3 + A5 + ….. An-2 ) + An]

V=60/3 [1292+4(3907 + 2059) + 2(2939) + 1751]=655700 m3

Then, adding volumes for ore outside the end cross-sections, the total
volume becomes:
1292*20 + 655700 + 1751*20=716560 m3
Tonnage = 716560*2.7=1934712 tones
To calculate the average grade:
(1292*20*4.34)+60/3[1292*4.34+4(3907*3.21 + 2059*3.27) + 2(2939*3.48) +
1751*3.92]+(1751*20*3.92)=2446783.2
Average grade=2446783.2/716560=3.415
Average grade ≈ 3.42%

70
 Cut-Off Grades

Before determining ore intersections for reserve calculations, it is important

to define the minimum grade that should be included. The value chosen is usually
somewhat below the actual minimum economic grade as it is generally found that
the higher grades in the deposit will raise the overall average to the economic grade
required.

Example: A B
The following figure shows two drill
holes intersections sampled in 50 cm lengths. 0.3% 0.2%
In case A using a 0.5% cut-off gives an 0.8 0.8
intersection of 4.5 m at 1.78% cu, 1.2 3.3
2.5 2.3
(0.8+1.2+2.5+3.4+2+1.9+2.7+0.9+0.6)/9=1.78% 3.4 1.9
distance=9*50=450 cm =4.5 m 2.0 3.2
Whereas a 1% cut-off gives an intersection 1.9 25
of 3 m at 2.28%, 2.7 6.2
(1.2+2.5+3.4+2+1.9+2.7)/6=2.28% 0.9 2.8
distance=6*50=3.0 m 0.6 0.9
In case B there is one sample of a high value (25%). 0.6
Using 1% cut-off and including the high value gives 0.3
an intersection of 3.5 m at 6.39%, whereas using the
same cut-off and excludes high value gives an
intersection of 3.0 m at 3.28%.
71
 In addition to specifying a cut off grade it is also necessary to use a
minimum grade * thickness to determine what can be considered as ore. This is
done to take into account minimum mining widths. Economic mining widths are
usually of the order of 3 m or more. Then, in calculating the ore reserves of copper
deposit we might use cut-offs of 1% cu and 3-meter%, i.e., a grade of 1% is
required over a minimum width of 3 m. The following table gives some
intersections of copper mineral, which have been defined as “ore” and “non-ore”
according to cut-offs of 1% and 3 m meter%.

True Grade, Meter Ore Non-

thickness, m % % ore
2.31 1.51 3.49 X
4.53 3.20 14.50 X
1.20 2.73 3.28 X
8.27 0.81 6.70 X
5.20 1.73 9.00 X
1.34 2.20 2.95 X

72
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Hustrulid, W. A, “Open pit mine planning and design”, Drill Evaluation, pp 247-255
AIME, New York, 1979.
2. Sayed, M.A, “Optimum number of drilling machines required for any production plan”
Bulletin of the Faculty of Engineering, Assiut University, Vol. 29 No. 3(2/2) September
2001.
3. Kahraman, S., Polc Yazic, S and Bilgin, N., “Prediction of the penetration rate of rotary
blast hole drills using a new drill ability index”, Int. J. Rock Mech. Sci., Vol. 37 pp 729-
743, 2000.
4. Marx, C., “Diamond bits and their use in shallow holes” Christensen Diamond Products
Co. Mining division, POHL, CELLE, April 1972.
5. Sayed, M. A, “Development and optimization of drilling systems”, Ph D thesis, Faculty of
Engineering Assiut University, 1992.
6. Chugh, C. P, “Manual of drilling technology”, Chapter 8, Oxonian Press. Pvt. Ltd. New
Delhi, 1985.
7. Ersoy, A and Waller, M. D, “Drilling detritus and operating parameters of thermally
stable PDC coring bits”, Int. J. Rock Mech. Sci., Vol. 34, No. 7 pp 1109-1123, 1997.
8. Kerr, C. J, “PDC drill bit design and field application evolution”, Journal of Petroleum
Technology, March 1988.
9. Rowsell, P. J and Waller M. D, “Automatic optimization of rotary drilling parameters”,
Trans. Instn. Min. Metall. (Sect. A: Mine industry), 99, May-August 1990.
10. Chiang, L. E and Elias, D. A, “Modeling impact in down-the-hole rock drilling”, Int. J.
Rock Mech. Sci., Vol. 37 pp 599-613, 2000.
11. Chugh, C. P, “High technology in drilling and exploration”, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam,
1992.
12. Auranen, I., “Modern blast hole drilling-vertical or inclined blast holes?”, Mine and
Quarry, September 1986.
13. Rzhevsky, V. V, “Open cast mining unit operations” Chapter 5 Technological
Fundamentals of drilling, Mir publishers, Moscow, 1985.
14. Raitt, G. D and Lyon, R, “Advantages and disadvantages of down-the-hole hammer blast
hole drilling vs. rotary drilling in large scale open pit surface mining”, International
Society of Explosive Engineers, Copyright 2000.
15. Boucher, D. S and Dupuis, E, “Core drilling for extraterrestrial mining”, Canadian space
Agency, 6767 Canada Space Resources Round table II 2000.
16. Richard, D. C, “Open pit mine planning and design”, Chapter 3 Development Drilling,
AIME, New York, 1979.
17. Sanner, B and Andersson, O, “ Drilling methods for shallow geothermal installations”,
Int. Summer School on Direct Application of Geothermal Energy, Int. Geoth. Days “,
Skopje, Bad Urach, Germany 2001.
18. Crowder, T. and Hust, J, “ Rock drilling and blasting”, presentation 4, presented for CEE
5074, Hampton Roads Center, March 15, 1999.
73
19. Workman, J. L and Calder, P. N, “Large hole rotary drill performance”, International
Society of Explosive Engineers, P 334, Copyright 2000.
20. Peck, J. and Vynne, J. F, “Current status and future trends of monitoring technology for
drills”, Int. Mining Geology Conference, Kalgoorlie, Australia (Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metall, pp3211-325, 1993.
21. Sayed, M. A and Abdel Rhman, A. M, “Using diamond core drilling parameters for
identifying the rock type to be drilled”, Journal of Engineering Sciences, Assiut
University Vol. 30, No. 4 pp1011-1025, October 2002.
22. Schunnesson, H, “Drill productivity evaluation by monitoring”, Trans. Instn. Min. Metall.
(Sect. A: min. industry) 106, May-August 1997.
23. Schunnesson, H and Sturk, R, “Drill monitoring at the Hallandsas Project in Sweden”
Research report, Vol. 21, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden, 1997.

74