Air Quality Air Quality Index Protect Your Health

Good 0-50 No health impacts are expected when

air quality is in this range.

Moderate 51-100 Unusually sensitive people should

consider limiting prolonged outdoor
exertion.

Unhealthy for 101-150 Active children and adults, and people

Sensitive Groups with respiratory disease, such as
asthma, should limit prolonged outdoor
exertion.

Unhealthy 151-200
Active children and adults, and people
with respiratory disease, such as
asthma, should limit prolonged outdoor
exertion, everyone else, especially
children should limit prolonged outdoor
excertion.

Very Unhealthy (Alert) 201-300 Active children and adults, and people
with respiratory disease, such as
asthma, should limit prolonged outdoor
exertion everyone else, especially
children, should limit outdoor exertion.
• An air quality index (AQI) is a number used by
government agencies to communicate to the
public how polluted the air currently is or how
polluted it is forecast to become
• AIR QUALITY MONITORING
o National Air Quality Monitoring Network
o Parameters monitored – SO2, NO2, TSP, PM10 (at all the
locations); PM2.5, BTX, PAH, O3, CO, NH3 (Selected
locations)
o Characterization of PM10
o Continuous monitoring initiated in different cities –
o Dissemination of data – Annual Reports, Trend
Analysis, Environmental Data Bank; Real- time data
from Continuous Air Quality Monitoring Stations of
Delhi
 Purpose of AQI
• Daily release of air quality conditions to the
public
• Convey the health implications of air quality
• Protect public interest and take actions to reduce
emissions
• Forecast air pollution level
• Pollutant-specific statements
– Health effects statements
– Cautionary statements
– Sensitive group statements
• In Bangladesh the AQI is based on 5 criteria pollutants;
Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5), NO2, CO, SO2
and Ozone (O3). The Department of Environment (DOE)
has also set national ambient air quality standards for
these pollutants. These standards aim to protect
against adverse human health impacts. The AQI
standard for Bangladesh is given as under.
Air quality measurements are designed to determine the levels of all types of
contaminants in the atmosphere we breathe with no attempt made to
differentiate between naturally occurring contaminants and those that result
from human activity. Measurements of air quality fall into three classes:
• Measurement of emissions. This is called stack sampling when a
stationary source is analyzed. Samples are drawn out through a hole or
vent in the stack for on-the-spot analyses. Mobile sources like automobiles
are tested by sampling exhaust emissions while the engine is running and
working against a load.
• Meteorological measurements. The measurement of meteorological
factors: wind speed, wind direction, lapse rates, etc., is necessary to
determine how pollutants travel from source to recipient.
• Measurement of ambient air quality. Ambient air quality is measured by
a variety of monitors. Almost all evidence of health effects of air pollution
are based on correlation of these effects with measured ambient air
quality.
 ChE 485
Industrial Pollution Control
Scope & Purpose
(Industrial Air Pollution)
 Ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4]

Ammonia (NH3)

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

Water vapor (H2O) Carbon monoxide (CO) and

carbon dioxide (CO2)
Sulfur trioxide (SO 3 )

Oxygen (O2)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Burning coal and oil

Oxygen (O2)

Sulfur (S) in Carbon (C) in

coal and oil Stepped Art
coal and oil
Fig. 18-8, p. 476
 PANS and other pollutants
Volatile organic
compounds (VOCs)
Ozone (O3)

Oxygen (O2)
Nitric oxide (NO)
+
Oxygen atom (O)
Water
vapor
Hydrocarbons (H2O) UV radiation
Peroxyacyl
nitrates Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
(PANs)
Oxygen (O2)
Nitric oxide (NO)
Oxygen (O2) Burning fossil fuels

Nitrogen (N) in fossil fuel

Fig. 18-9, p. 477
 Wind
Transformation to sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) and nitric
acid (HNO3) Windborne ammonia gas and
some soil particles partially
neutralize acids and form dry Wet acid depostion
sulfate and nitrate salts (droplets of H2SO4 and
Nitric oxide (NO) HNO3 dissolved in rain
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Dry acid deposition (sulfur and snow)
and NO dioxide gas and particles of
sulfate and nitrate salts)
Acid
fog
Lakes in shallow
Lakes in deep soil
soil low in
high in limestone
limestone become
are buffered
acidic

Fig. 18-12, p. 479

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION in Bangladesh

• Vehicular Emission and Traffic Congestion

•
• Fuel quality
•
• Cooking fuel quality
•
• Brick Field
•
• Solid Waste
Nature of Air pollutants

Air Pollutants
The gaseous constituents of ambient air (Troposphere) are:
Nitrogen (78%),
Oxygen (21%),
Water vapor (H2O),

Trace quantities of substances such as

Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Methane (CH4),
Hydrogen (H2),
Argon (Ar) and
Helium (He).
In most cases, these traces are linked to the human activities or interventions on the
planet [Mc Cormac, 1971].
Classifications of Air Pollutants

A. Classification Based on Origin

The air pollutants may be classified in two general categories on the basis of their
origin:

1. Primary pollutants, and

2. Secondary pollutants

1. Primary Pollutants
Primary pollutants emit, into atmosphere, directly from natural or man-made sources.
Examples of primary pollutants are:
Sulfur-containing compounds (SO2, H2S),
Nitrogen containing-compounds (NO, NH3),
Carbon-containing compounds (C1-C5 compounds),
Oxides of carbon (CO, CO2),
Halogen compounds (HF, HCl),
Radioactive compounds,
Particulate matters (particles less than 100 µm in diameter). Finer particles
include metals, carbon, tar, resin, pollen, bacteria and ashes [Seinfeld, 1975].
2. Secondary Pollutants
Secondary pollutants are those formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions
between primary pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents.

Several types of reactions in atmosphere may take place:

(i) thermal reactions (gas-phase),
(ii) photochemical reactions (gas-phase), and
(iii) thermal reactions in small liquid drops (liquid-phase).

Thermal gas-phase reactions are the result of the collision between two molecules
possessing appropriate energies.
Photochemical reactions however, involve the dissociation or excitation of a molecule
upon absorption of radiation by the molecules.
Thermal liquid-phase reactions are mostly ionic in nature, possibly catalyzed by
substances present in the liquid. Surfaces of liquid drops and solid particles may
provide a locus for reactions, which might not otherwise take place.

Examples of the secondary pollutants are:

Sulfur-containing compounds (SO3 and SO4-2),
Nitrogen-containing compounds (NO2 and NO3-),
Carbon-containing compounds (aldehydes, ketones and acids),
Ozone,
PAN (peroxyacyl nitrates) [Seinfeld, 1975].
B. Classification based on Physical State
Air pollutants may also be classified in two general categories on the basis of their
physical states as follows:
1. Gaseous pollutants, and
2. Particulate pollutants.

1. Gaseous Pollutants
The gaseous pollutants are in the form of gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
ozone and carbon oxides. Vapor pollutants such as gasoline, alcohols, paint
solvents and dry cleaning agents are also considered as gaseous pollutants.

Gaseous pollutants are further classified into inorganic and organic [Perry and Green,
1984].

Inorganic (gaseous) pollutants are [Perry and Green, 1984]:

(i) Sulfur gases: sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide and hydrogen sulfide
(ii) Oxides of carbon: carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
(iii) Nitrogen gases: nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and
other nitrogen oxides
(iv) Halogens and halides: hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride,
chlorine, fluorine and silicon tetra fluoride
(v) Photochemical products: ozone and oxidants
(vi) Cyanides: hydrogen cyanide
(vii) Ammonium compounds: ammonia
Organic gaseous pollutants consist of [Perry and Green, 1984]:

(i) Hydrocarbons:
Paraffins (methane, ethane and octane),
Olefins (ethylene, butadiene and Acetylene) and
Aromatics (benzene, toluene and benzpyrene)

(ii) Aliphatic oxygenated compounds:

Aldehydes (formaldehyde),
Ketones (acetones),
Organic acids,
Alcohols,
Organic halides (cyanogen chloride and bromobenzyl cyanide),
Organic sulfides (dimethyl sulfide) and
Organic hydroperoxides (peroxyacyl nitrite or nitrate [PAN]).
2. Particulate Pollutants

Particulate pollutants in atmosphere are in the form of liquid or solid particles with an
effective diameter (under normal conditions) are larger than a molecule (about
0.0002 µ) but smaller than 1000 µ.

Particles dispersed in air or in a gaseous medium is collectively called aerosol, such as

smoke, fog, fume and dust.

Particle sizes and settling rates are characteristic properties of many pollutants. For
example, particles larger than 100 µ may be excluded from the category of
dispersions because they settle too rapidly [Perry and Green, 1984]. However,
particle sizes between 0.1 to 1.0 µ may be transported over distances of 8000 km
(trophospheric layer) and to an altitude of as high as 20 km for a period of 2 to 3
weeks, which are regarded as permanent suspensions.

Smaller particles in atmosphere can be removed by coagulation and larger particles

undergo rapid settling under the influence of gravity.
Dust Particles
In general dust particles generate from civil construction, earthwork, chemical or
mechanical processes. These particles or powder are produced through pulverization or
mechanical disintegration of solid matters following crushing, grinding and drilling.
Dusts particles are in the range of 1 to 200 µ or even larger. Dust particles are usually
irregular in shape. Common examples are fly ash, rock dusts and ordinary flour
[Seinfeld, 1975].
Mist or Fog Particles
Mist or fog particles are typically formed either by condensation of water or vapors on
suitable nuclei giving a suspension of small liquid droplets, or by atomization of liquids.
Particle sizes of natural fogs and mists usually lie between 2 and 200 µ. When the
particles grow above 200 µ then the particles settle out as drizzle or rain [Perry and
Green, 1984].
Smoke Particles
Smoke particle is typically derived from burning of organic materials or biomass such as
wood, coal, tobacco and plastics. Smoke particles are fine in the range of 0.01 to 1µ.
Smoke could be of either in liquid or solid form. If solid then the particles are usually
spherical in shape and if liquid (or tarry) then the shape could be irregular. Smoke
particles may remain suspended in air for long time and exhibit brownian motion in air
medium [Seinfeld, 1975].
Fume Particles
Fume particles are typically formed by processes such as sublimation, condensation or
combustion. These processes operate relatively at high temperatures. Fume particles
are in the range of 0.1 to 1 µ in size. Fume particles also settle very slowly and exhibit
brownian motion similar as smoke particles [Perry and Green, 1984].
C. Classification based on US EPA
The Environmental Protection Agency of USA (USEPA) classifies ambient air pollutants (for
regulatory purposes) into following groups:

1. Criteria Pollutants, and

2. Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)

Criteria Pollutants
Criteria Pollutants are identified as being both common and detrimental to human welfare.
USEPA currently designated the following six pollutants as criteria pollutants [Core,
2004]:
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Sulfur oxides (SOx)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Ozone (O3)
Lead (Pb) and
Particulate matter (PM).

These criteria pollutants are considered as air quality indicators.

Hazardous Air Pollutants
EPA refers chemicals that cause serious health and environmental hazards as
hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) or air toxics.

These pollutants are linked to cancer, reproductive and birth defects, and adverse
environmental and ecological effects.

Presence of hazardous air pollutants in the air is more localized than that of criteria
pollutants, and is usually found at highest levels close to their sources.

Examples of air toxic pollutants are follows:

Benzene (found in gasoline)

Mercury (from coal combustion)
Perchloroethylene (emitted from some dry cleaning facilities), and
Methylene chloride (used as a solvent by a number of industries)
Sources of Ambient Air Pollutants
There are mainly two broad type sources of air pollutants:
i. Biogenic sources, and
ii. Anthropogenic sources

i. Biogenic Sources
Biogenic sources is known as natural sources such as volcanoes, sea spray,
lightning, unplanned forest fire, transpiration from vegetation, windblown dust
from desert, fields and agricultural lands. In some seasons in some area, trees
and vegetation release large amounts of pollen and spores to atmosphere
causing discomfort to human life [Wark and Warner, 1981].

ii. Anthropogenic Sources

Anthropogenic source is linked to human activities. Sources of this category
could be classified as stationary and mobile sources [Wark and Warner, 1981].
These sources are further classified as follows:

Stationary sources
– Point source, and
– Area source
Mobile sources
– On-road source, and
– Off-road source
Stationary Sources
Stationary sources are non-moving sources mostly industries such as:
power plants,
chemical plants,
oil refineries and manufacturing facilities.
Stationary sources emit both criteria pollutants and hazardous air pollutants
(HAPs). Air pollution from stationary sources is produced by two primary
activities, which are as follows [Wark and Warner, 1981]:
i. by combustion
Stationary combustion at power plants using fuels such as
coal and oil, and
ii. by fugitive emission
The pollutant losses from industrial processes due to leaks in
vessel, pipelines, seals etc
Point Sources
Normally emission from any individual industry is considered as point source.
Pollutant Emission threshold for point sources (tons per year)
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 1,000
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 100
Sulfur Oxides (SOx) 100
PM10. 100
PM2.5. 100
Lead or Lead Compounds 5 and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) 100
Area Source
Area Source (Non-point Source) includes a whole range of small individual sources
over an area. Emission load from area source is significantly higher than point
sources. Area source includes construction, agriculture, live stock, domestic
waste and wind erosion. Area source has two general categories [Core, 2004].
1. Sources related to Fuel Combustion
Examples include sources related to biomass burning, residential wood
combustion, and electric generators.
2. Sources related to Fugitive Emissions (Evaporative and Fugitive Particulate):
(i) VOC sources: Domestic LPG usage, fuel and organic material storage and
distribution, waste treatment and disposal, pesticide usage, fermentation,
organic solvent utilization in consumer products, dry-cleaning, industrial
surface cleaning (degreasing), and architectural surface coating
(ii) PM sources: Paved and unpaved roads, agricultural tilling and harvest activities,
construction activities, and wind erosion
(iii) Ammonia sources: Livestock, fertilizer usage, and domestic ammonia
Mobile Source
Emission from automotive vehicles and movable equipments are considered as
Mobile source.

Pollution from mobile sources is mostly due to fuel combustion and escape fuel
vapors. During combustion process in a typical engine generates carbon
monoxide, and nitrogen oxides [Wark and Warner, 1981].

Fuel + Air (O2+N2) = HC+NOx+CO+CO2+H2O

Evaporative emissions occur when liquid fuel evaporates and escapes into
atmosphere. A considerable amount of hydrocarbon pollution results from
evaporative emissions through leaks, spills and vapor escape from fuel tank and
engine.

In addition to exhaust, fuelling releases some escape hydrocarbon vapors into

the atmosphere. Escape hydrocarbons also come from transportation and
storage facilities. Escape vapors and combustion products emerge as fine
particulate matters [wark and warner, 1981]
 Emission from gasoline and diesel operated vehicles in Dhaka City (2000)
Type of Vehicle CO HC
(vol%) (ppmv)
Toyota Sedan (Corolla) 4.69 647
Economic Cars (Toyota Starlet and Publica) 6.78 857
Luxurious car (Mark-II, Toyota Creseda) 1.87 393
Honda Sedan 4.12 550
Hyundai Sedan 6.83 753
Mitsubishi and Nissan Sedan 7.34 1275
Microbus (Toyota HIACE) 6.04 637
SUV (Pajero, Land crusier, Nissan Patrol, Land Rover, Prado, 4.96 1893
Harrier)
Buses 7.35 1500
Motor Cycles (Honda, Yamaha, Honda RX, Honda XL, Bajaj) 6.32 708
DoE Standard, 1997 (Bangladesh) 4 180
EPA (USA) Standard, 1970 1 180
Important Trace Elements (PM) in Atmosphere and Their Sources

Aluminum (Al)
soil- dusts (both from natural sources and human activity)
coal combustion
vehicle exhaust
aluminum foil (used in pharmaceuticals)
solid waste from industrial waste-water treatment plant
metal smelting
civil construction
Al and Al-alloy manufacturing industries
cement industries
paper industries
electrical transmission line and manufacturing industries

Arsenic (As)
Sources of inorganic As emissions into air are considered to be wood and fossil
fuel combustion such as external combustion boilers, internal combustion
Engines and arsenical pesticides and herbicides
Other sources of inorganic arsenic emissions may include
mining operations,
windblown dust from dry lakebeds,
cement and glass manufacturing,
burning of agricultural residue,
waste incineration,
secondary lead smelting,
resource recovery operation [CARB, 1990]

Cadmium (Cd)
Cadmium generally emits from
soil, mines,
fossil fuel combustion,
mineral fertilizers,
battery manufacturing (Ni-Cd batteries) processes,
pigments,
electroplating,
plastic molding,
household and municipal wastes,
metal soldering, welding [Chauhan et al., 2004, WHO, 2000]
Cobalt (Co)
Cobalt emits mostly from
recycling scrap metal,
paint,
porcelain enamel,
electroplating industries
burning of coal and furnace oil
vehicle exhaust [WB, 1998]

Chromium (Cr)
The main sources of Cr emission are
soils,
manufacturing alloys (stainless steel) and other alloys,
bricks in furnaces,
dyes and pigments,
chrome plating,
leather tanning
wood preserving.
burning of fossil fuels also contribute to Cr emission [WB, 1998b, WHO,
2000].
Copper (Cu)

Major sources of Cu are

soil dust
decaying vegetation
sea spray
smelters
iron foundries
power stations
incineration of municipal waste
bactericides
fungicides
algaecides
electroplating and
textile-dyeing industries [WB, 1998]
Iron (Fe)
The possible sources of Fe could be fugitive emission from
soil dust,
dry sludge, smelters,
iron foundries,
welding and machining shop,
frictional parts of machinery and auto vehicles [Butler, 1979]

Manganese (Mn)
The major sources of Mn emissions are
dyes
paint
glass and ceramics industries
Mn-alloy processing industries

Blast furnace: 10.22 kg Mn/1000 tones of pig iron produced

Open-hearth furnace: 23.18 kg Mn/1000 tones of steel produced
Cast iron: 150 kg/1000 tones of cast iron
Nickel (Ni)
The major sources of Nickel (Ni) emission are
soil dust,
electroplating industries,
Ni-alloy industries,
ceramic and battery industries.
auto exhaust, hydrogenated-fat-oils,
industrial waste,
stainless steel manufacturing industries and
exhaust of fuel oil combustion [WHO, 2000]

Lead (Pb)
Possible sources of lead emission are from
soil dust,
paint industries,
Pb-battery manufacturing and recycling industries,
soldering,
ceramics and plastics industries
Pb-accetate containing fuel combustion [WHO, 2000]
Vanadium (V)
The sources of Vanadium emission are from
burning of fossil fuel,
fusing of welding rods,
ceramic industries,
cleaning and maintenance of furnaces, boilers and gas turbines [WB,
1998, WHO, 2000]

Zinc (Zn)
Major anthropogenic sources of Zn are
steel production,
corrosion of galvanized structures,
galvanizing industries,
coal and fuel combustion,
waste incineration,
zinc-containing fertilizers, pesticides and
tire wear [Fergussion and Kim, 1991]
Effects of Air Pollution

1. Green-house effect/Global Warming

Greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated

GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that
absorbs and emits radiation within the
thermal infrared range. This process is
the fundamental cause of the
greenhouse effect.

The primary greenhouse gases in the

Earth's atmosphere are water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, and ozone.
Contribution to Green House Effect

Water Vapor 36-72%

Carbon Dioxide 9-26%
Methane 4-9%
Ozone 3-7%

2. Ozone hole/Depletation
3. Acid Rain
4. Visibility Impairment
5. Fog formation and
Precipitation
6. Temperature and
wind distribution
alteration
8. Effect of air pollution
on material
9. Effect of air pollution
on vegetation
Phytotoxicants (substances harmful to vegetations)
SO2
PAN
Ethane
Chlorine
Hydrogen Chloride
Ammonia etc.
Destroy chlorophyll and disrupt photosynthesis

10. Effects of air pollution on human health

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

headaches
reduced mental alertness,
heart attack,
cardiovascular diseases,
impaired fetal development, and death
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
eye irritation,
wheezing,
chest tightness,
shortness of breath and
lung damage

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

susceptibility to respiratory infections,
irritation of the lung and respiratory symptoms,
cough,
chest pain and
difficulty in breathing

Ozone (O3)
eye and throat irritation,
coughing,
respiratory tract problems,
asthma, and lung damage.
Lead (Pb)
anemia,
high blood pressure,
brain and kidney damage,
neurological disorders,
cancer, and
lowered IQ

Particulate Matter (PM)

eye irritation,
asthma,
bronchitis,
lung damage,
cancer,
heavy metal poisoning, and
cardiovascular effects.