Unit 5

Volcano Hazards
Table of Contents
Introduction 3

Essential Questions 4

Lesson 1: Lava Flow 5

Starting Out 5
Learn about It 5
Check Your Understanding 9
Explore Your World 11
Case Study 11

Lesson 2: Volcanic Gases 12

Starting Out 12
Learn about It 12
Check Your Understanding 16
Explore Your World 18
Case Study 18

Lesson 3 : Pyroclastic Flows 19

Starting Out 17
Learn about It 19
Check Your Understanding 23
Explore Your World 24
Case Study 25

Lesson 4: Ballistic Projectiles and Tephra Falls 26

Starting Out 26
Learn about It 26
Check Your Understanding 30

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 Explore Your World 31
Case Study 31

Lesson 5: Lahars 32

Starting Out 32
Learn about It 32
Check Your Understanding 38
Explore Your World 40
Case Study 41

Real World Challenge 42

Wrap-Up 43

Check and Reflect 45

Bibliography 46

Glossary 49

Answers to Check Your Understanding 51

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GRADE 11/12 |Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

Unit 5

Volcanic Hazards
Volcanic eruptions in the Philippines have been recorded for centuries. Some were recorded
for its catastrophic events while others were recorded for its mild activities. Take the case of
Mt. Pinatubo eruption of 1991 for instance. Its eruption was one of the largest volcanic
eruptions in recent history. Mt. Pinatubo spewed an unquantifiable amount of volcanic
material that affected the Philippines socially, economically, and environmentally. Its effects
were felt before the main eruption event and even years after that.

What hazards from Mt. Pinatubo affected many lives for many years? Were all these hazards
similar to one another or were they completely different? How do we recognize these hazards
brought about by volcanoes? In the succeeding lessons, we will be discussing different
hazards, and effects brought about by eruptions of volcanoes.

Fig. 1. The summit caldera of Mt. Pinatubo a month and a half after the main eruption in 1991.

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 ● What are the different types of volcanic hazards?
● How do we recognize the different volcanic hazards?
● What are the negative effects of volcanic hazards?
● How do we prevent disasters brought about by volcanic hazards?
● How do we prepare for impending volcanic eruptions?

In this unit, you should be able to:

● explain various volcano-related hazards;
● differentiate among different volcanic hazards;
● recognize signs of an impending volcanic eruption;
● interpret different volcanic hazard maps; and
● apply appropriate measures/interventions before, during and after a volcanic
eruption.

● Recall the concept of plate tectonic theory where Earth’s surface have rigid
tectonic plates that move along with its inner parts, similar to how a surfboard rides
along the waves of the sea. These tectonic plates move towards, away, or beside one
another creating different geologic features on the surface of the Earth, including
volcanoes.
● The plates’ movements created the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area along the
boundaries of the Pacific Ocean where a chain of volcanoes is located. This includes
the Philippines which contains more than 50 active and potentially active volcanoes.

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Imagine a glowing red hot substance oozing out of a volcano as it erupts. With that, you can
create a mind picture of lava that threatens lives and structures alike. What are lava flows
and why is it hazardous to people and the environment?

With a pair, create an inclined surface using a non-absorbent material such as plastic. Put a
paper block at the bottom of the inclined surface. Pour water and glue side by side on top of
the inclined surface. Which among the flowing water and glue will reach the paper first?

What effects do the two different liquids have on the paper block?

Lava is a molten rock or magma that has reached the surface of the earth. Lava flow occurs
when magma contacts the surface of a volcano and erupts or overflows downhill from
different volcanic openings.

Lava flows can be fluid or viscous depending on its composition, temperature, and gas
content. Lava with low silica content, high temperature, and low gas content is considered
more fluid. While lava with high silica content, low temperature, and has a high gas content is
more viscous.

Lava is a molten material. It is not solid, liquid, nor gas, but a combination of all three.

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Types of Lava Flows
Lava flows come in two types: Pahoehoe, pronounced as /pa-hoy-hoy/, and Aa, pronounced
as /ah-ah/. Pahoehoe is lava flow that has high fluidity creating a smooth and ropy texture
when they harden. As this type of lava cools, Pahoehoe transitions into an Aa. This is because
of the slower and more viscous characteristics of the lava creating a blocky and jagged
appearance. Aa does not necessarily transition from Pahoehoe.

Fig. 1. Pahoehoe (left) has a smooth and ropy texture while Aa (right) has a blocky and jagged texture.

Negative Impacts of Lava Flows

Lava flows seldom threaten human life as most lava flows as fast as a human’s normal walking
pace. They can also be monitored quite easily compared to other volcanic hazards. Lava flows
are still hazardous because they can crush and bury structures and livelihoods. They solidify
over time making the areas buried by the lava useless. The solidification of lava also blocks
roads and other pathways normally used by people. Lava flows also burn surroundings
because of its intense heat. Flammable resources such as wood, plants, and houses can get
caught on fire as lava flows along their path.

Mitigating the Negative Effects of Lava Flows

Like other volcanic hazards, lava flow cannot be stopped. Some can be controlled, however, to
minimize its effects on people’s lives. Artificial barriers can be constructed to prevent and
divert lava from flowing over a particular area. Water jets can also be used to cool and slow it
down, eventually stopping its movement. Use of explosives can also alter the pathway and
source of the lava flow.

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Examples of Volcanic Eruption with Lava Flows and Response of Communities
Mayon Volcano: Mount Mayon, located in the Bicol Region, is one of the most active
volcanoes in the Philippines. It has erupted several times on different occasions, spewing
different types of material including lava. Lava flows from Mayon Volcano have been
recorded since the early 17th century. Since then, no casualties caused by lava flow has been
recorded. This is due to the ease of monitoring of the lava flow, and the fast information
dissemination to the communities about the impending lava flow arriving on their area.
Damages on properties and livelihoods, however, were imminent as lava flowed through the
different towns surrounding the volcano. Early warning systems have been put in place by the
Philippine government’s volcano observatory agency, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology
and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), to minimize casualties and lessen the effects of these lava flows
to the community.

Fig. 2. Mayon volcano showing lava flows on its 2009 eruption

Top1963 / Tryfon Topalidis, Mayon 0021, CC BY-SA 3.0

Kilauea Volcano: Mount Kilauea in Hawaii is one of the most recognizable volcanoes in the
world that produces lava flow. Hawaii is one of the known areas where lava flows constantly
occur. Because the island of Hawaii is made out of active volcanoes, volcanic hazards have
become part of their lives.

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The map below shows Hawaii, and the different volcanoes found on the island. Most of Hawaii
is highlighted with mid to high risk of hazards occurring. These zones are areas where lava
flows have previously occurred and are expected to occur once new lava erupts. Only less
than half of the island shows low risk of hazards happening because little to no volcanic
activity occurs within those zones.

Fig. 5 A lava flow hazard map with labels of the five volcanoes around the island of Hawaii. The hazard map
shows areas at risk of hazards and areas relatively safe from hazards.

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 A. Comprehension Questions.
1. What texture would best describe Pahoehoe lava?

___________________________________
2. What texture would best describe the Aa lava flow?

___________________________________
3. How would you call a magma when it reaches the surface?

___________________________________
4. Which temperature would make the lava flow more viscous?

___________________________________
5. What government agency monitors the volcanoes around the Philippines?

___________________________________

B. Answer in brief but complete sentences.

1. Do all lava flows start out as Pahoehoe or can they start as Aa? Why or why not?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What can be done to prevent lava from overflowing into a certain area?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What happens when lava flows over structures and livelihoods?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What can be done to change the pathway and source of the lava flow?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________

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 C. Synthesis and evaluation.
1. The image below shows the lava flow hazard map of Hawaii island and its volcanoes.
The map is also divided into different hazard zones (1-9). Based on this data, which
zone is the safest place to live in and why?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________________________
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There are 50 active and potentially active volcanoes in the Philippines that have been
categorized by PHIVOLCS. Research on these volcanoes and identify which ones had historical
occurrences of lava flow eruptions. Among these occurrences, which ones had severe
hazardous impacts on the community?

Recurrent eruptions by the largest active volcano on Earth

Mauna Loa is the largest active volcano on the planet. It is one of the two well-known
active volcanoes in Hawaii that have been continually spewing lava for the past
centuries. Most of the lava flows produced from Mauna Loa are slow-moving flows.
However, there are records of lava flowing quicker than usual such as its 1950 eruption.
The recurrent lava flows erupting from this volcano has produced minimal casualties,
but has damaged properties around Hawaii numerous times.

Let us Investigate!
What problem/s is/are described in the text above?
What solutions can you suggest to lessen the problem/s?

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Volcanoes release gases during and even in between eruptions. What are volcanic gases
and why is it hazardous to people?

Buy a bottle of soda. Observe the gas bubbles inside the bottle before opening. Then, open
the bottle with your nose close to the cap. Observe the gas bubbles as you open the cap and
minutes after opening. Did you smell the soda? Did you notice how the gas bubbles move
before, during, and after opening the bottle?

Where did the gas bubbles go after opening the cap?

Similar to a bottle of soda, magma contains volcanic gases that try to escape to Earth’s
surface through volcanic openings. The release of volcanic gases is one of the most common
volcanic activities that occur before, during, and after eruptions. They are released through
different openings on the volcano.

Volcanic gases are composed of different materials depending on its location. Water vapor
(H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) typically make up the bulk composition of volcanic gases,
followed by sulfur dioxide (SO2). Other common volcanic gases include hydrogen chloride
(HCl), and hydrogen fluoride (HF).

Volcano hazards are not mutually exclusive. Different volcano hazards can occur at the
same time just like how volcanic gas can occur with or without lava flow.

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Negative Impacts of Volcanic Gas
Most volcanic gases are hazardous to people except for water vapor. Sulfur dioxide, when
injected into the atmosphere, can form into sulfuric acid which is a component of acid rain.
Acid rain does not only harm people but the environment as well. Acid rain can lessen water
intake by plants making them difficult to thrive. An increase in the acidity of aquatic bodies is
harmful to plenty of animals and can damage buildings, cars, statues, and other man-made
structures. Direct contact with sulfur dioxide can also irritate the eyes, cause skin rash, and
poison the respiratory system. Carbon dioxide is also dangerous, especially in high
concentrations. It can cause asphyxiation without warning because of the gas’ odorless and
colorless nature. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air, and it moves toward low-lying areas from
its initial source which can create a high concentration of the gas within populated areas.

Fig. 1. Some effects of volcanic gases on Earth. Sulfur dioxide mixes with the atmosphere creating sulfuric acid.
Volcanic gases also help in reflecting the heat outside Earth creating an albedo effect. Hydrochloric acid helps in
the degeneration of the ozone layer.

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Mitigating the Negative Effects of Volcanic Gas
Unlike lava flows which move slowly thus giving time for an early warning to those at risk,
volcanic gases sometimes get released into volcanic openings with minimal notice. Their flow
is also dependent on the current wind direction, unlike lava flows which merely follows the
contour of the land.

Volcanic gases are monitored using different techniques by volcano observatories to

frequently identify if a volcano is emitting hazardous levels of volcanic gas. Those immediately
surrounding the area would be adversely affected, and wearing of masks is recommended. It
is advisable to leave the vicinity immediately, once volcanic gases have been released into the
atmosphere.

Public awareness of the different types of volcanic gas hazards is also one of the most
effective means to reduce risk.

Volcanic Gases and their Impacts

The Disaster in Lake Nyos: One of the most notable disasters that occurred because of
volcanic gases was in 1986 in Lake Nyos, Central Africa. Lake Nyos is a crater lake formed on
the top of an old volcano. Underneath the lake was a large pocket of carbon dioxide gas
waiting to be unleashed.

Fig. 2. The image on the left shows the murky waters of Lake Nyos after the volcanic gas eruption of 1986. The
image on the right shows Lake Nyos 28 years after, where a degassing pipe has been installed to release the
carbon dioxide pressure build up at the bottom of the lake at a controlled rate.

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In August 1986, the unexpected happened. An eruption of gas took place underneath Lake
Nyos spewing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the air. Residents saw this eruption, but
they were not aware of the hazards it would cause because of the odorless and colorless
nature of the gas.

The dense carbon dioxide gas rushed down towards the northern valleys near the lake and
suffocated almost two thousand people. Since then, the stretch has been mitigated by
putting a degassing pipe to safely release the gas pressure underneath the lake and prevent
future casualties.

The Sulfur Gas of Mount Ijen: There is an active volcano named Mount Ijen located in Java,
Indonesia that releases high amounts of sulfur-rich volcanic gases. The locals are mining the
area near the crater of the volcano for its high sulfur concentration. It is also well known to
tourists because the volcano produces blue flames when sulfur from its lava combusts when
in contact with the air.

Fig. 3. Mt. Ijen showing high volcanic gas activity where miners go about to collect sulfur. Among the crowds are
also tourists and filmmakers.
© Sémhur / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA-3.0 (or Free Art License), Sulfur mining in Kawah Ijen - Indonesia - 20110608, CC BY-SA
4.0

Locals and tourists hike here every day even if they are exposed to high amounts of volcanic
gases. Short exposure to these gases does not have a lasting effect. However, the sulfur
miners around the area have had different health problems such as poisoned lungs, irritated
eyes, and teeth dissolution.

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 A. Comprehension Questions.
1. What are the three most common volcanic gases?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What acid forms when sulfur dioxide is mixed into the atmosphere?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the effect of a high concentration of carbon dioxide?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What volcanic gas is odorless and colorless?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What volcanic gas does little or no harm to humans?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

B. Answer the following in brief but complete sentences.

1. How do you minimize the effects of volcanic gases to a person?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How does sulfur dioxide affect a person’s body?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How does sulfur dioxide affect the environment?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How can public awareness reduce risk?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________

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 C. Synthesis and evaluation.
1. The image below is a satellite imagery by ESA/NASA showing the volcanic gas plume
(colored) composed mainly of sulfur dioxide spewing from the Puyehue-Cordón Caulle
Volcanic Complex (black triangle). Locate this in a map. Where is the volcanic gas
currently hovering over? What could possibly have caused the L-shape movement of
the gas?

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Volcanic gases are known to have negative impacts on people and the environment, but do
you know that volcanic gases also have some benefits?
Research and identify the benefits gained from spewing volcanic gases into the atmosphere.

Degassing of Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua

Degassing is not only a man-made occurrence like what was done in Lake Nyos. It can
also be a natural occurrence, just like what is happening in Nicaragua. Masaya Volcano
in Nicaragua has been cyclically degassing sulfur dioxide which exceeds the threshold of
what humans can inhale.

The result of this natural degassing had overall negative impacts on their lives including
physical, social, emotional, agricultural, economic, and structural impacts. Risk
mitigation has been done to at least improve the agricultural yield of the area. However,
health impacts to the communities have been overlooked.

Let us Investigate!
What problems are encountered in the communities near Masaya Volcano?
What solution can you recommend to lessen the health risks posed by degassing?

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Volcanic eruptions can come with pyroclastic flows. What are pyroclastic flows and why is it
hazardous to people?

Find a partner. Get a balloon, face powder, sand, and air pump.

Put some face powder and sand inside the balloon. One person will invert the balloon such
that its opening is facing down and the pump is facing upward, simulating a volcanic vent with
the contents of the balloon as volcanic materials. The other member will observe from a
distance as the other person pumps the balloon until it pops.

What happened to the contents of the balloon? How did the materials inside move as
the balloon exploded?

Pyroclastic Flows are hot, dry, turbulent mass mixtures of different pyroclastic materials
and gases that move downwards along the slope of a volcano at speed that can go up to
several hundred meters per second. Pyroclastic materials, also known as tephra, is a
collective term for volcanic fragments that have been ejected out of a volcano which vary in
sizes from ash to boulders.

Pyroclastic flows are composed of two parts: a basal flow of coarse pyroclastic materials, and
a turbulent ash cloud riding over the basal flow. When the turbulent ash cloud separates
from the main pyroclastic flow, they are separately called the pyroclastic surge. Pyroclastic
surges have lower density and are more mobile than pyroclastic flows because of their higher
ratio of gas to tephra.

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Pyroclastic flows are different from pyroclastic surges. Pyroclastic flows are denser and
follow the topography of the area. Pyroclastic surges are less dense and less predictable
because they can move in any direction other than the topography of the area.

Fig. 1. Small pyroclastic flow from Mayon volcano on September 23, 1984. Ash cloud can be seen on top of the
basal flow.

Types of Pyroclastic Flow

Pyroclastic flows occur in different ways. The most notable type is called the Soufrière type.
This forms from the collapse of a high vertical column coming from a highly explosive
eruption. When the force of gravity overcomes the momentum of the upward thrust of the
eruption, the pyroclastic materials begin to fall creating a pyroclastic flow along the sides of
the volcano.

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Meanwhile, the Pelée type occurs when a highly viscous lava dome blocks the opening of a
volcano, building pressure until it can no longer be contained and explodes to one side of the
volcano without forming a high eruption column.

The Merapi type, on the other hand, occurs when a lava dome grows too steep over a
volcanic crater which then falls due to gravitational force.

Fig. 2. The three types of pyroclastic flows

Negative Impacts and Mitigation of Pyroclastic Flows

One of the most dangerous hazards from a volcano is pyroclastic flows. Its highly destructive
nature is attributed to its high temperature, high velocity, and high mobility relative to other
volcano hazards. Without warning, they can cause casualties, damages and destruction.

Its size, accompanied by intense heat, and speed of travel, can destroy virtually any structure
along its path. The impact from its speed can crush, shatter, and carry away objects of even
large sizes. The intense heat from within the flow can burn forests, lands, agriculture,
buildings, and other flammable materials along its path. Its internal heat after the pyroclastic
flow can even last for decades, so immediate resettlement within the area is not possible.

Humans can get asphyxiated, be buried alive, and incinerated upon contact. Pyroclastic flows
and surges are also precursors to one of the many volcano hazards, like lahar, which is
formed when pyroclastic materials mix with water or ice creating a muddy mixture that can
affect areas further downslope.

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There are no possible ways to stop a pyroclastic flow from happening. Pyroclastic flows cannot
also be easily identified before an eruption. Early warning and evacuation before a potential
volcanic eruption are the only risk-mitigating actions possible for such events.

Example of Impacts of Pyroclastic Flows

One of the five greatest eruptions of the 20th century was the Mt. Pinatubo eruption. For the
first time in roughly 500 years, Mt. Pinatubo erupted on June 9, 1991 and continued to erupt
weeks after. It had the most explosive eruption on June 12, and 15 wherein unquantifiable
amounts of volcanic material spewed out to the atmosphere as high as 30 kilometers and
resulted to 36 hours without daylight on the surrounding area. The resulting eruption created
a disastrous pyroclastic flow that traveled as far as 16 kilometers from the volcanic vent.

Fig. 3 . The Pinatubo showing a violent eruption on June 12 (left) and June 15 (right), 1991.

About 20,000 indigenous people and more than a million lowlanders surrounding the volcano
were directly affected. As a result of the unprecedented eruption, about 200 to 300 people
died. This number is comparatively small relative to the number of people affected,
considering the violence caused by the explosions. The minimal casualties was a result of the
early warning system and evacuation enforced by the government within the area. Public
information dissemination on the risk of eruption prior and during the early warning also
helped in the cooperation and response of the affected people.

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 A. Comprehension Questions.
1. What is another term for pyroclastic materials? __________________
2. What are the three types of pyroclastic flow? _________________________________________
3. What are the two parts that comprise a pyroclastic flow? _____________________________
4. What volcano hazard is formed when pyroclastic materials mix with water? __________
5. What makes pyroclastic flows highly destructive? _____________________________________

B. Answer in brief but complete sentences.

1. How do you differentiate pyroclastic flows from pyroclastic surges?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Can you prevent pyroclastic flows?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the similarities and differences of Pelée type and Merapi type of pyroclastic
flows?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How did the Philippine government reduce the casualties brought about by the Mt.
Pinatubo eruption in 1991?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________

C. Synthesis and evaluation.

1. Summarize the immediate impacts of pyroclastic flows. Based on your summary,
what could be the long term impacts of pyroclastic flow and its deposits to the
communities affected? Give examples to elaborate your answers.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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There have been some pyroclastic flows that have happened around the world that has
affected the lives of many people.

Form a group with 4-5 members and research about one volcanic eruption that resulted in a
pyroclastic flow.

Present to the class the following:

● volcano’s eruption history,

● type of pyroclastic flow occurred, and
● its impacts on the community and the environment .

Present this to the class in any audio-visual format such as blackboard presentation, video,
role play, etc.

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The Buried Ancient Cities of Rome

One of the most notable eruptions in history is the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius on August
24, 79 A.D. that buried Pompeii and Herculaneum, cities south of Rome. There have
been signs of the volcano erupting before the event, but the people of Pompeii did not
know these.

The eruption resulted in a pyroclastic flow that rushed down towards the city burying it
along with as many as 16,000 inhabitants. The disaster of Pompeii and Herculaneum
was worse compared to that of Mt. Pinatubo. This is because volcanologists have
identified the signs of impending volcanic eruptions and early warning system has been
put in place to warn the communities affected by the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991.

Let’s investigate!
Use internet resources to research about the Mount Vesuvius eruption in 79 A.D.
1. What are some of the signs of impending volcanic eruptions that could have also
saved the lives of thousands in the city of Pompeii?
2. What caused the inhabitants of the place to perish during the ancient times?
3. What were the lessons learned from this part of history?

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Ballistic and tephra flows are volcanic hazards that can reach long distances and cause harm
to people. What are ballistic projectiles and tephra falls and why are they hazardous to
people?

Research on the issue of haze occurring in many countries around the world and answer the
following questions:

How do volcanic eruptions cause haze in some parts of the world? How do these
phenomena affect people’s lives? What measures are done to mitigate the effects of
haze on the affected countries?

Tephras are fragments of volcanic material that are ejected into the atmosphere from the
eruption of a volcano. They are differentiated based on the size of the ejected fragment. They
can be classified as ash, if it is less than 2mm, lapilli if it is 2-64mm, or blocks and bombs if
they are greater than 64 mm in size.

Tephras ejected into the atmosphere will fall back into the earth’s surface. Large tephras that
leave the volcanic vent with force and trajectory are called ballistic projectiles. These can
have speeds of up to hundreds of meters per second and affect areas that are usually within
the five-kilometer radius of the volcanic vent.

On the other hand, tephra falls occur as a result of tephra being spewed out by a volcano
initially hovering and riding over the prevailing wind direction before eventually falling into the
earth’s surface. They can hang in the atmosphere for long periods of time before falling,

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especially the ash particles that can be carried even up to thousands of kilometers.

Tephra fall deposits typically become thinner and finer as tephra goes farther from the
volcanic eruption source. Tephra falls are also interchanged with ash falls because notable
tephra falls are typically made up of ash since tephra, that is greater than a millimeter in size,
typically falls thirty minutes after.

● The distribution of tephra falls is dependent on the prevailing wind direction

while ballistic projectiles are nominally affected by wind direction.
● Blocks and bombs are categorized into one because they have similar size
categories. However, blocks are angular in shape while bombs are rounded.

Fig. 1. Illustration of a tephra fall and ballistic projectile formed from an explosive eruption of a volcano. Ballistic
projectiles have a smaller radius of hazard compared to tephra fall. Tephra fall also thins out, and its particles get
finer as it moves farther away from the source.

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Negative Impacts of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles
Tephra falls have the widest range of effects amongst all other volcano hazards. They can
spread over a wide range of area depending on how large the volcanic eruption is and how
the prevailing winds move them. Ballistic projectiles, on the other hand, have effects that are
in relative proximity to the volcanic source. This is because the projectiles are too heavy to be
carried by prevailing winds. Their movement is mainly due to the initial force of the eruption
of the volcano.

Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles can destroy properties and endanger lives because of the
force of impact as they fall into the Earth’s surface. Fragment size decreases as you move
farther from the source which lessens the effect of impact hazard. Burial can also occur if
large amounts of tephra are concentrated over a certain area. Accumulated ash also gets
heavier when mixed with water. This can collapse roofs, destroy electrical lines, and destroy
agriculture. Furthermore, tephra falls can carry harmful and poisonous particles and gases.
Accumulated tephra can also block the drainage, sewage, pumping stations, and other critical
facilities. Suspended ash can also hinder aircrafts from flying over the vicinity.

Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

Unlike most volcanic hazards, some tephra fall hazards can be practically mitigated to
minimize its destructive effects without the need for evacuation. Clearing the ash fall buildup
over a certain structure before it accumulates, can lessen the risk of failure of the structure.
Roofs over a structure can be designed to prevent ash buildup. Strengthening of structures
can also be done to lessen the effect of projectile impacts and withstand the load of ash
buildup. Humans can also wear masks or respiratory apparatuses that can significantly reduce
the inhalation of ash and poisonous gases.

Examples of Impacts of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

Volcanic ashes of Eyjafjallajökull: Iceland’s volcano, Eyjafjallajökull, that erupted in 2010,
spewed ash into the atmosphere. This was a minor eruption compared to its other previous
activities, but the massive amounts of ash it released resulted in the disruptions of traffic in
large parts of Europe. The effect lasted for weeks as thousands of commercial flights were
canceled causing hundreds of thousands of travelers to be stranded, and millions of dollars
lost by different countries due to its economic effects.

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 Fig. 2 . The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010.
Bjarki Sigursveinsson from Ísafjörður, Iceland, Eyjafjallajökull (4530326521), CC BY-SA 2.0

Volcanic eruption hampering war efforts:

In 1944, during World War II, a violent eruption
of Mt. Vesuvius hampered the war efforts of
the Allied forces against the Germans. The
Allied forces have advanced towards Naples,
Italy, but further progress was halted to focus
on the evacuation efforts to minimize
casualties as ballistic projectiles from the
violent eruptions had been bombarding areas
around Mt. Vesuvius. Other than ballistic
projectiles, Mt. Vesuvius also ejected large
amounts of ash that covered areas up to a
meter thick, and released lava that slowly
advanced towards the city, destroying
structures and buildings along its way.

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 A. Answer briefly or complete each statement.
1. What are the three types of tephra? ___________________________________________________
2. How are the three types of tephra classified? _________________________________________
3. What do you call large tephras that are ejected from the volcanic vent with force?
4. Tephra fall deposits become ___________ and ____________ as tephra goes farther away
from the source.
5. Between the two volcanic hazards, which has a direct effect limited to areas near the
volcano? ______________________________________

B. Answer in brief but complete sentences.

1. How do you differentiate ballistic projectiles from tephra falls?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Why can tephra fall affect areas even thousands of kilometers away from the source?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What negative impacts do ballistic projectiles and tephra falls have in common?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Why is it easier to mitigate the effects of tephra fall as compared to other volcanic
hazards?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

C. Synthesis and evaluation.

Do you think it is still safe to stay in areas affected by tephra fall? Explain your answer.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________

30
Tephra fall is one of the most widespread and most common volcanic hazards during a
volcanic eruption. Fortunately, it is easily mitigated compared to other volcanic hazards.

Create a group of 3-4 people and make an INFOGRAPHICS that can be used to educate your
community in mitigating hazards brought about by tephra fall.

Ash fall cleanup operation

Kagoshima is one of the southernmost cities in Japan. More than half a million residents
live in the city. Sitting just a few kilometers away from the city is the active Sakurajima
Volcano.

SInce the twentieth century, this volcano has erupted more than 600 times and is still
active up to this day. Eruptions from the Sakurajima had caused plenty of volcanic ash
falling into the city of Kagoshima, resulting in more than a million dollars to annually
mitigate the effects of ash fall.

Let’s Investigate!
Use internet resources to find out more about the mitigation efforts in Kagoshima.
1. What mitigating measures and actions have been done by Kagoshima city to
significantly reduce the negative effects of ash fall in their city?
2. In your opinion, were these measures effective? Why or why not?

31
After almost three decades, the lahar from the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption is still evident in
Central Luzon. What is lahar? Why is it considered hazardous to people?

Form a group with 3 members. Create cassava starch or cornstarch paste with three different
solutions.

● Solution 1 is composed of 1 part water and ½ part starch

● Solution 2 is composed of 1 part water and 1 part starch
● Solution 3 is composed of 1 part water and 1½ part starch

Scoop some up at a certain height and let them drip down back into the container. How are
the three solutions different in terms of appearance and movement? How does the
viscosity of a substance like lahar affect its speed and impact to the things on its path?

Lahar is an Indonesian term for mudflow that has been globally used as a term for a specific
type of mudflow. Lahar is created when tephras mix with water and form a slurry. It flows
along the slopes of a topography. As they move downhill, lahar incorporates other materials
along its path which can result in its volume growing more than ten times its initial size. Lahar
can form during the eruption event, called the primary lahar, or years after deposition of
tephra called the secondary lahar.

Primary lahar can form when pyroclastic flows occur along areas where bodies of water such
as streams and rivers are present. The pyroclastic flow is eventually converted into lahar as
the pyroclastic flow engulfs more water as it flows down the slope. Crater lake volcanoes can
also be a source of primary lahars. When crater lake volcanoes rupture due to a volcanic
eruption, the volcanic material mixes with the lake water and flows down from the source of

32
the rupture. A particular type of primary lahar which typically occurs in Iceland and the Andes
region is called Jökulhlaups or glacier bursts. They are formed when glaciers melt as hot lava,
gas, or pyroclastic materials are ejected out of a volcanic vent. The resulting melt, along with
the volcanic materials and frozen particles in the melt, forms to become Jökulhlaups.

Secondary lahar can form after an eruption event. Secondary lahar flows are generated
when rain falls on unconsolidated tephra and mobilizes them downslope collecting more
tephra as it progresses downward. Mass failure or overtopping of dams formed by lava flows,
lahar, pyroclastic flows, or crater rims can also cause secondary lahars.

● Lahar is a type of mudflow, having a specific source of material that comes from
volcanoes.
● Lahars can occur with or without any volcanic activity.

Fig. 1. An example of lahar, dark-colored deposit over snow, that resulted from a violent eruption of Mount St.
Helens on March 19, 1982. The pyroclastic materials mixed with water from the Toutle River.

33
Negative Impacts of Lahar
Lahar flows have destroyed cities and killed countless lives in the past decades. Their
destructive nature can be attributed to their speed of flow, the extent of reach, composition,
and difficulty of prediction. Lahar can travel quickly especially on steep slopes where its speed
can reach more than 20 km/h. Its speed decreases as it flows into gentler low-lying areas.

The force of impact from lahar, which contains varying materials of different sizes, can destroy
virtually anything in its path. The reach of lahar flows defines their hazard. Some can reach up
to more than 50 km from their source when confined to narrow pathways. Lahar is
hyperconcentrated nearer its source. This means that it has a lot more material to water ratio,
which decreases as lahar flows farther away from the source.

Hyperconcentrated lahar destroys structures and agriculture through erosion. The diluted
lahar, usually found farther from the source, can dry out and become as hard as concrete
which becomes dangerous when it fills and buries an urbanized or agricultural area. A freshly
deposited lahar can also act like quicksand that hampers immediate search and rescue
efforts.

Fig. 2 . The town of Armero in Colombia covered in lahar after the Nevaro del Ruiz volcano erupted in 1985 killing
more than 20,000 people.

34
Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Lahar
Lahar flows cannot be predicted easily because they can occur with or without any volcanic
activity. Their exact source and magnitude are also challenging to pinpoint before its onset
but there are still ways to lessen the risks of lahar.

Lahar hazard mitigation begins with education of the affected community and the local
government. This increases their awareness and interest in the disaster that can be brought
about by the lahar. Depending on the gathered information on the community and gained
knowledge on the potential lahar hazard within the region, specific risk reduction measures
can be designed.

Basic Risk Reduction Strategies

Four basic risk reduction strategies can be done within a particular area depending on its
practicality. Hazard avoidance, hazard modification, hazard warning, and hazard response
and recovery planning are risk reduction options that can be used by communities.

Hazard avoidance, or a complete ban of development in a lahar prone area, is the most
effective way to reduce risk. If this cannot be avoided due to reasons such as attachment to
the area, livelihood concerns, and lack of alternative settlements, hazard modification can be
done. This is accomplished by engineering structures to protect the affected area by diverting
or blocking lahars, or weakening, or preventing lahar flows altogether.

If hazard modification cannot be done due to some constraints such as budget or

impracticality, a hazard warning can be an alternative. Hazard warnings help in
disseminating information to the community of an impending lahar flow before it reaches and
affects the community. At times, hazard warnings for lahar are difficult especially in areas
near the lahar source. There will only be a limited time between the warning and the actual
lahar flow.

Unlike the first three strategies, hazard response and recovery planning focuses on the
response to the lahar hazard after it has occurred. This strategy plans on the rescue of those
affected by the hazard, how they will be taken care of, and the identification of long-term
plans for the affected community.

35
 Fig. 3 . Different strategies that can be done to mitigate the effects of lahar.

Examples of Impacts of Lahar

Lahar depositing years after Mt. Pinatubo eruption of 1991: When Mt. Pinatubo erupted in
1991, typhoon Diding also passed through Luzon causing heavy rainfall in areas also affected
by the eruption. Lahar formed within hours following the explosion of Mt. Pinatubo, as heavy
rainfall mixed with the fresh tephra ejected by the volcano. Lahar flows reached speeds of
more than 80 km/h on the highlands and slowed to about 40 km/h as they reached the
lowlands.

Lahar continued to form even years after its initial occurrence, flowing down along river
systems and finding their way through populated areas around Mt. Pinatubo. Significant
damages were inflicted on these occurrences as lahar ran down and buried everything that
came across its path. The lahar has taken many lives, destroyed buildings and infrastructures,
and hampered economic activities.

Hazard warnings have been put in place to evacuate the locals before the hazard occurrence
which resulted in minimal casualties during the lahar events. Response and recovery after
lahar events were also done to tackle different concerns such as resettlement, livelihood, and
repairs of infrastructure. The various impacts of lahar on the communities surrounding Mt.
Pinatubo have resulted into a more comprehensive program in reducing risks on succeeding
hazards.

36
 Fig. 4 . The after effects of lahar deposits from the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991.

Primary lahar and Jökulhlaups from Mount St. Helens in 1980: The violent eruption of Mt.
St. Helens in 1980 was considered as the worst volcanic disaster in the United States. One of
the hazards of the eruption resulted in an advancing pyroclastic flow that had mixed with the
North Fork Toutle River. The hot material erupted from the volcanic vent also resulted in the
melting of the mountain glaciers and overlying snow. These produced massive lahar that grew
bigger as it engulfed more materials while progressing to the lowlands. More than 200 homes
and 300 kilometers of road system were damaged as a result of this.

Fig. 5 . The pyroclastic flow from the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 mixed with the North Fork Toutle River
that created lahar resulted to destroyed infrastructures such as bridges (left) and houses (right)
TedQuackenbush, Toutle River Bridge Destruction After Mt. St. Helens Eruption-1, CC BY-SA 3.0 (left)

37
 A. Answer briefly or complete the statements.
1. What do you call lahar that forms during an eruption event? _________________________
2. What is another term for glacier burst? _______________________________________________
3. What is a specific type of mudflow that occurs when volcanic materials mix with
water? ________________________
4. Secondary lahars are formed ___________ an eruption event.
5. Lahar’s destructive nature can be attributed to its speed of flow, extent of reach,
difficulty in prediction, and ____________.

B. Answer the following in brief but complete sentences.

1. How do you differentiate primary and secondary lahar?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What can be done to minimize the effects of lahar on a community?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Why does lahar move faster nearer the source and slower as they go farther away?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How can lahar occur even without a volcanic eruption?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________

C. Synthesis and evaluation.

1. The hazard map shown was created from the past eruptions of Nevado del Ruiz
volcano such as its 1985 eruption which resulted in the deaths of more than 20,000
people. Based on the map, which areas should be avoided to prevent disasters to occur
in the future? Explain your reasons.

38
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

39
Lahar had affected countless lives in different ways. They occur not only in the Philippines, but
also in other parts of the world. Conduct a research on other lahar-affected areas which were
not discussed above, classify and analyze them by putting in appropriate information based
on the table below. Only one example is needed per type of lahar.

Example
Type of Negative Mitigating
(Name of
Lahar impacts measures
volcano source,
location, year of
occurrence)

from pyroclastic flow

primary
lahar

from crater lake

rupture

Jökulhlaups

induced by rainfall
secondary
lahar

induced by mass or
dam failure

40
Lahar monitoring of Mount Rainier

Mount Rainier is an active volcano situated in the state of Washington, USA. It is

considered as one of the most dangerous volcanoes because of its potential hazards if it
erupts. One of these potential hazards is lahar that can generate because of the massive
glacial ice overlying the volcano.

Thousands of people live in the area of Mount Rainier where potential lahar flows can
affect them within as little as a few minutes to up to three hours. As such, local
government agencies have responded to create a system for monitoring and responding
to the potential lahar hazard that may happen at any time in the future.

Find out through research the measures that have been laid out to create their
monitoring system.

41
Form a group with 3-4 members. Create a safety plan presentation for your school to reduce
the risk of volcanic hazards. The presentation must include the different volcanic hazards that
the school is exposed to, based on its location; and which areas of the school would be
susceptible to those hazards.

The output should consist of pre and post-disaster risk reduction measures with details to
help the school community identify the most effective response to different hazards. It should
be presented orally to school representatives and a written document should also be
submitted. Visual aids and photo documentation should be included in your output. Your
output will be rated using the rubrics below:

Criteria Beginning Developing Accomplished

(0-12 points) (13-16 points) (17-20 points)

Content: None to few Some types of volcanic All types of volcanic hazards
hazards were hazards that can that can potentially affect the
identified; none to potentially affect the school were identified; DR
few DR measures school were identified; measures well- designed and
suited to school DR measures are doable by the school
context acceptable community

Organization: No to incomplete Safety Plan is Safety Plan is complete and

safety plan is presented in an presented in an organized
created; lacks organized manner both manner both orally and in
logical orally and in written written form;
arrangement; form; reader/audience reader/audience can follow
lacks audience can follow the logical the logical sequence easily
suitability sequence easily

Presentation: Oral and written Oral and/or written Oral and written presentation
presentation are presentation lacks in are clear, concise, accurate,
none to unclear or some aspects (e.g. with materials to guide
inaccurate, lacks clarity), lacks materials audience/readers visually.
materials to guide to guide
audience/readers audience/readers
visually. visually.

42
Volcanic Definition Negative Effects
Hazard

Lava flow magma that reaches the surface of a crush, bury, and burn
volcano and erupts or overflows downhill
from the different volcanic openings

Volcanic gas any gas that is contained within a volcanic acid rain, lowers water pH,
body and is released to the atmosphere asphyxiation, damage
respiratory system, irritate
eyes

Pyroclastic hot dry turbulent mass mixtures of different crush, burn, burn,
flow tephra and gases that move downwards asphyxiation
along the slope of a volcano

Ballistic ballistic projectile is a large tephra that leave crush, bury, roof collapse,
Projectile and the volcanic vent with force and trajectory; damage transportations,
tephra fall tephra fall is tephras that was ejected and block drainage, flooding
suspended into the atmosphere that falls to
the Earth’s surface

Lahar a type of mudflow created when tephras crush, bury, block drainage,
mix with water forming a slurry that flows flooding
along the slopes of a topography

43
Different Types of Volcanic Hazards

44
Check I can…

...explain various volcano-related hazards.

...differentiate among different volcano hazards.

...recognize signs of an impending volcanic reaction.

...interpret different volcanic hazard maps.

...apply appropriate measures/interventions before, during and after a

volcanic eruption.

Reflect

I find __________________________ the most interesting lesson because ______________________.

I got ____ checks because _______________________________________________________.
I need to further study on _______________________because _____________________________.
I need to practice _________________________ because _____________________________.
I plan to _____________________________________________________________________ .

45
Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun (2016). Pyroclastic Density Current Hazards at the
Baekdusan Volcano, Korea: Analyses of Several Scenarios from a Small-Case to the
Worst-Case Colossal Eruption, Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to
Volcano Geology, Dr. Karoly Nemeth (Ed.), InTech, DOI: 10.5772/62340. Available from:
[Link]
olcano-geology/pyroclastic-density-current-hazards-at-the-baekdusan-volcano-korea-anal
yses-of-several-scenarios-fro

Blong, Russell J. 1984. Volcanic Hazards: A Sourcebook on the Effects of Eruptions. Orlando,
Florida: Academic Press, Inc.

Dukehart, Coburn. 2015. "The Struggle and Strain of Mining “Devil’s Gold”." National
Geographic, 17 November.

Erickson, Jon. 1988. Volcanoes and Earthquakes. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB BOOKS, Inc.

Keller, Edward A., and Duane E. DeVecchio. 2012. Natural Hazards. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education, Inc.

Fatimah, Aliyah, Wahdjoedi, Danardana Murwani, and Mit Witjaksono. 2016. "The Efforts to
Increase the Income of Sulfur Miners through." IOSR Journal of Humanities And Social
Science 23-31.

Fisher, Richard V., and Grant Heiken. 1982. "Mt. Pelee, Martinique: May 8 and 20, 1902,
pyroclastic flows and surges." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 339-371.

International Volcanic Health Hazard Network. n.d. "Volcanic Gases and Aerosols Guidelines."
U.S. Geological Survey. Accessed 1 January, 2018.
[Link]

International Volcanic Health Hazard Network. n.d. "The Health Hazards of Volcanic Ash: A
guide for the public." The International Volcanic Health Hazard Network. Accessed 23

46
 January, 2018.
[Link]

Keller, Edward A., and Duane E. DeVecchio. 2012. Natural Hazards. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Lopez-Carresi, Alejandro, Maureen Fordham, Ben Wisner, Ilan Kelman, and JC Gaillard. 2014.
Disaster Management: International lessons in risk reduction, response and recovery. Oxford:
Florence Production, Ltd.

Manen, Saskia M van. 2014. "Perception of a chronic volcanic hazard: persistent degassing at
Masaya volcano, Nicaragua." Journal of Applied Volcanology.

Newhall, Chris, James W. Hendley II, and Peter H. Stauffer. 2005. The Cataclysmic 1991
Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. 28 February. Accessed 14 January, 2018.
[Link]

Newhall, Christopher G., and Raymundo S. Punongbayan. 1996. FIRE and MUD: Eruptions and
Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. Hong Kong: University of Washington Press.

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. 2008. PHIVOLCS Volcano Monitoring. 9

May. Accessed 21 January, 2018.
ttp://[Link]/[Link]?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Ite
mid=500030.

Pierson, Thomas C., Nathan J. Wood, and Carolyn L. Driedger. 2014. "Reducing risk from lahar
hazards: concepts, case studies, and roles for scientists." Journal of Applied Volcanology 25.

Pratt, Sarah E. 2016. "Benchmarks: March 17, 1944: The most recent eruption of Mount
Vesuvius." Earth Magazine, 17 March.

Punongbayan, Raymundo S. 1992. Volcanoes of the Philippines. Makati, Metro Manila: Tahanan
Books for Young Readers.

Shroder, John F., and Paolo Papale. 2015. Volcanic Hazards, Risks, and Disasters. Oxford:
Elsevier Inc.

47
Tilling, Robert I. 1989. "Volcanic and Related Hazards." 28th International Geological Congress.
Washington: American Geophysical Union. 9-24.

Tarbuck, Edward J., and Frederick K. Lutgens. 2015. Earth Science, 14th Ed. U.S.A: Pearson
Education, Inc.

U.S. Geological Survey. 2016. Hazards: Pyroclastic Flow. 12 February. Accessed 21 January,
2018. [Link]

Williams-Jones, Glyn, and Hazel Rymer. 2015. "Hazards of Volcanic Gases." In The Encyclopedia
of Volcanoes, 2nd Edition, by Haraldur Sigurdsson, Bruce Houghton, Steve McNutt, Hazel
Rymer and John Stix, 985-992. Academic Press.

2014. "Mayon Volcano Historical Eruptions." PHIVOLCS. 12 August. Accessed 16 January, 2018.
[Link]
pdf.

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Accessed 16 January, 2018. [Link]

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[Link]
olcanoes-of-the-philippines&layout=default.

48
Glossary
Aa – a type of lava with blocky and jagged texture because of its highly viscous flow

Acid Rain – a type of precipitation wherein acidic compounds such as sulfuric acid is mixed
with the atmospheric water vapor

Asphyxiation – a condition of depleted oxygen supply which can cause unconsciousness and
death; suffocation

Ash - tephra that are less than 2mm in size

Ash fall - ash that was ejected and suspended into the atmosphere falls to the Earth’s surface

Ballistic projectile - large tephra that is ejected out of a volcanic vent with force

Blocks and Bombs - tephra that are more than 64 mm in size

Diluted lahar - lahar with considerably lower material to water ratio

Glacier bursts - another term for Jökulhlaups

Hazard avoidance - a strategy in mitigating lahar hazard by complete ban of development in

a lahar prone area

Hazard modification - a strategy in mitigating lahar hazard by engineering structures to

protect the affected area

Hazard response and recovery warning - a strategy in mitigating lahar hazard by planning
on the aftereffects of lahar hazard

Hazard warning - a strategy in mitigating lahar hazard by alerting the community of an

impending lahar before it reaches and affects them

Hyperconcentrated lahar - lahar with considerably higher material to water ratio

Jökulhlaups - a type of primary lahar that occurs when glaciers melt as hot lava, gas, or
pyroclastic materials is ejected out of a volcanic vent

Lahar - is a type of mudflow created when tephras mix with water forming a slurry that flows
along the slopes of a topography

49
Lahars - a type of volcano hazards which forms from the mixture of pyroclastic materials and
water

Lapilli - tephra that has a size range between 2mm and 64mm

Lava – magma on the surface of the Earth

Magma – molten rock found beneath the surface of the Earth

Merapi type - a type of pyroclastic flow that results from a lava dome from the volcanic crater
collapsing due to gravitational force

Pahoehoe – a type of lava with smooth and ropy texture because of its highly fluid flow

Pelée type - a type of pyroclastic flow that results from an explosion of a lava dome due to
intense build up of pressure inside the lava dome

Primary lahar - a lahar that is formed during an eruption event

Pyroclastic flows - hot dry turbulent mass mixtures of different pyroclastic materials and
gases that moves along the topography of an area

Pyroclastic materials - collective term for volcanic fragments that have been ejected out of a
volcano

Pyroclastic surge - low density turbulent cloud of pyroclastic materials that can move in
directions other than along the topography of the area

Secondary lahar - a lahar that is formed after an eruption event

Soufrière type - a type of pyroclastic flow that results from the collapse of a high vertical
column of pyroclastic materials that violently ejected out of a volcanic vent.

Tephra - another term for pyroclastic materials

Tephra - a collective term for all solid volcanic material ejected out of a volcanic vent

Tephra fall - tephra that was ejected and suspended into the atmosphere falls to the Earth’s
surface

Volcanic Gas – any gas that is contained within a volcanic body and is released to the
atmosphere

50
 Lesson 1: Lava Flow
A.
1. smooth and ropy
2. blocky and jagged
3. lava
4. low
5. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS)
B.
1. Lava flow doesn’t necessarily start out as Pahoehoe. They can start as Aa if the initial
lava is already viscous.
2. Build artificial barriers.
3. Structures and livelihoods get crushed, buried, or burned.
4. Use explosives.
C.
1. Zone 1 is the safest place to live in because it has the lowest risk of hazard from lava
flow based on the given map. There is low risk of lava flow in the area even if it is sitting
on top of Mount Kohala because it is already inactive.

Lesson 2: Volcanic Gases

A.
1. water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide
2. sulfuric acid
3. asphyxiation
4. carbon dioxide
5. water vapor
B.
1. wear gas mask, leave the area, information dissemination
2. It causes eye irritation and respiratory tract problems.
3. Sulfur dioxide can create acid rain which can decrease water intake of plants, increase
acidity of water bodies, and mar buildings and structures.
4. Being informed helps us to decide what actions to take to minimize or remove the
hazards surrounding us.

51
C.
1. The volcanic gas is currently hovering over the Atlantic Ocean. The made an L-shaped
path because of the prevailing winds at the time of its release. The wind was initially
blowing east from the volcano source, but eventually blew northwards when it was
already at the Atlantic Ocean.

Lesson 3: Pyroclastic Flows

A.
1. tephra
2. Soufrière, Pelée, Merapi
3. basal flow and ash cloud
4. lahar
5. temperature
B.
1. Pyroclastic flows are denser and its flow follow the topography of the area while
pyroclastic surges are less dense and can move in directions other than along the
topography of the area.
2. No, pyroclastic flows cannot be prevented from happening, just like other volcano
hazards.
3. Both types of pyroclastic flow resulted from a lava dome being destroyed. The
difference is that Pelée type collapses the lava dome due to intense pressure within the
volcano while the lava dome collapses due to gravity on a Merapi type.
4. Casualties were reduced by identifying the signs of an impending eruption and relaying
these information to the government for information dissemination, early warning, and
evacuation prior to the eruption.
C.
1. Impacts to health, livelihood, physical structures, etc. should be discussed with
examples.

Lesson 4: Ballistic Projectiles and Tephra Falls

A.
1. ash, lapilli, blocks and bombs
2. They are classified based on their size.
3. ballistic projectiles
4. finer, thinner
5. ballistic projectiles

52
B.
1. Ballistic projectiles are directly ejected with force from the vent of a volcano while
tephra falls shower down to the Earth’s surface after being suspended on the
atmosphere.
2. Tephra fall can affect areas thousands of kilometers away from the source because the
lightweight ash-sized tephra can travel far as long as prevailing winds are present.
3. Both can destroy properties and endanger lives because of the force of impact as they
fall to Earth’s surface.
4. Tephra fall can be mitigated easier because its effects are cumulative and slow, unlike
other hazards wherein effects occur immediately and quickly. There is more time to
prepare for the hazards caused by tephra fall.
C.
1. As long as the area is outside the demarcated danger zones, it is safe to stay at areas
where ash fall occurs; typical warnings are just to stay indoors.

Lesson 5: Lahar
A.
1. primary lahar
2. Jökulhlaups
3. lahar
4. after
5. composition
B.
1. Primary lahars are formed during an eruption event while secondary lahars form after
an eruption event.
2. hazard avoidance, modification, warning, and response and recovery planning
3. Lahar flows move faster nearer the source because they start out on steeper slopes
and as they move farther away, they go to areas of lower elevation and gentler slopes.
4. Lahar is formed from the mixing of volcanic material and water. If volcanic material is
present from previous eruption events, rainfall can mix and with this volcanic material
to form lahar. Mass failures or ruptures of dams created by old volcanic material can
also cause lahar.
C.
1. Based on the legend, the areas on the map highlighted in gray are at risk of lahar;
hence, they must be avoided. River streams that are also affected by the gray highlights
should also be avoided.

53