Faculty Of Engineering

Automotive And Tractors Engineering Dep.

Mataria – Cairo

AUTOMOTIVE FAULT
DIAGNOSIS

Ass. Prof. Mahmoud Atef

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 Brake Fluid
Brake Fluid Functions
 flow freely at extremely high temperatures
260 °C and at very low temperatures −75 °C,

 a lubricant for many parts to ensure smooth

and even operation,

 fight corrosion and rust in the brake lines

 must resist evaporation.

Brake fluid is specially blended to perform a variety of functions. Brake fluid is specially
blended to perform a variety of functions. Brake fluid must be able to flow freely at
extremely high temperatures ( 500 ° F [ 260 ° C ] ) and at very low temperatures ( − 104 °
F [ − 75 ° C ] ). Brake fluid also serves as a lubricant for many parts to ensure smooth and
even operation. In addition, brake fluid must fight corrosion and rust in the brake lines
and various assemblies and components. Another important property of brake fluid is
that it must resist evaporation.

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 Brake Fluid
 Most brake fluids are
hygroscopic; that is,
they readily absorb
water,

 As the amount of water

in the fluid increases,
the boiling point of the
fluid decreases.

 The viscosity of the fluid at low temperatures is also

affected by the amount of moisture.

 It takes approximately 2 years for the fluid to have

moisture levels that lower the fluid’s boiling point to a
dangerous level.

Most brake fluids are hygroscopic; that is, they readily absorb water. Moisture can enter
the fluid when the fluid is exposed to the atmosphere and while it is in the brake system.
For this reason, brake fluid should always be kept in a sealed container and should only
be exposed to outside air for limited periods. Moisture also builds up in the fluid due to
condensation. The fluid gets hot because of brake applications, and then when at rest it
cools. This change in temperature causes condensation. Today’s vehicles are more prone
to hot brake fluid because there is little airflow under the hood to cool the fluid and
braking system.
The performance of brake fluid is affected by moisture. As the amount of water in the
fluid increases, the boiling point of the fluid decreases. This can cause vapor to build in
the system, which could lead to sudden brake failure or an unpredictable spongy pedal.
Vapor is a gas and therefore is compressible. When pressure is applied to the brake fluid,
it will compress the vapor before moving on through the system if it is able to do so.
The viscosity of the fluid at low temperatures is also affected by the amount of moisture.
The viscosity increase, which means the fluid will have a harder time moving through the
system, when it is cold. This means poor cold weather braking.
Moisture may cause corrosion to build on internal parts of the system. This also
decreases the efficiency of the brake system.
Tests have shown that within 1 year of service in a typical vehicle, the water content of
the fluid is about 2 percent. It takes approximately 2 years for the fluid to have moisture
levels that lower the fluid’s boiling point to a dangerous level.

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 Brake Fluid Inspection

Special brake fluid testers

Test strips

Brake Fluid Inspection

There are many ways to check for contaminated fluid. The color of the fluid is not always
a good indication of its condition. Most brake fluids should be clear to amber in color
but will darken with age. If the fluid is cloudy or thick, it is contaminated. The fluid can
also be checked by placing a small amount of fluid in a clear glass jar. If the fluid is dirty
or separates into layers, it is contaminated.
Test strips are also available. A strip of treated paper is dipped into the reservoir. The
paper will change colors corresponding to the condition of the fluid. The resulting color
is then matched to the color chart that accompanies the test strips.
Special brake fluid testers are also available. These measure the fluid’s boiling point,
which is an indication of moisture content.
Contaminated brake fluid can damage rubber parts and cause leaks. To rid the system of
contaminated brake fluid, the system should be flushed and refilled with new fluid.
If the brake fluid level is low and there are no signs of external leaks, it is likely the brake
pads are nearing their wear limit. As the disc brake pad linings and rotors wear, the
caliper pistons extend further out of the caliper bore. This increases the volume of fluid
inside the calipers and reduces the fluid level in the master cylinder reservoir. If the fluid
level is low, possibly causing the brake warning light to illuminate and no leaks are
present, recommend to the customer to have the entire brake system inspected to
check for worn linings.

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 Master Cylinder Inspection
 Check the master cylinder housing for cracks and damage.

 Most internal leaks are actually fluid bypassing the cups in the master
cylinder

Master Cylinder Inspection

Master cylinder problems are quite common but not always readily evident. However,
there are times when the master cylinder is suspect and the problem lies elsewhere.
Accurate and logical troubleshooting is the only way to truly determine if the master
cylinder is working properly. Although brake pedal response and reservoir fluid levels are
strong indicators of problems with the master cylinder pinpoint the problem.
Check the master cylinder housing for cracks and damage. Look for drops of brake fluid
around and behind the master cylinder. If a reservoir chamber is cracked, it may be
completely empty and the surrounding area may be dry. This is because the fluid drained
very quickly and has had time to evaporate or wash away. But with only one-half of the
brake system operational, the brake warning lamp should be lit and a test drive should
reveal the loss of braking power.
If the master cylinder has two separate fluid reservoirs, refill the master cylinder
reservoir section that is empty and apply the brakes several times. Wait 5 to 10 minutes
and check for leakage or fluid level drop in the reservoir.
Hydraulic brake system leaks can be internal or external. Most internal leaks are actually
fluid bypassing the cups in the master cylinder. If the cups lose their ability to seal the
pistons, brake fluid leaks past the cups and the pistons cannot develop system pressure.
Internal and external rubber parts wear with use or can deteriorate with age or fluid
contamination. Moisture or dirt in the hydraulic system can cause corrosion or deposits
to form in the bore, resulting in the wear of the cylinder bore or its parts. Although
internal leaks do not cause a loss of brake fluid, they can result in a loss of brake
performance. Internal leakage will cause sinking pedal complaints and can be hard to
pinpoint.

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 Master Cylinder Inspection
Check for an internal leak in the master cylinder

• remove the master cylinder cover and

• the reservoirs are at least half full
• Watch the fluid levels in the reservoirs
• slowly presses the brake pedal
• and then quickly releases it.

If the fluid level rises slightly under steady pressure,

the piston cups are probably leaking.

Fluid level rising in one reservoir and falling in the other

bypassing the piston cups

Another quick test

• hold pressure on the brake pedal for about 1 minute.

If the pedal drops fluid

bypassing the piston cups.

If the primary piston cup seal is leaking, the fluid will bypass the seal and move between
the vent and replenishing ports for that reservoir or, in some cases, between reservoirs.
If there are no signs of external leakage, but the brake warning lamp is lit, the master
cylinder may have an internal leak. To check for an internal leak in the master cylinder,
remove the master cylinder cover and be sure the reservoirs are at least half full. Watch
the fluid levels in the reservoirs while a helper slowly presses the brake pedal and then
quickly releases it. If the fluid level rises slightly under steady pressure, the piston cups
are probably leaking. Fluid level rising in one reservoir and falling in the other as the
brake pedal is pressed and released also can indicate that fluid is bypassing the piston
cups. Replace or rebuild the master cylinder if there is evidence of leakage.
Another quick test for internal leakage is to hold pressure on the brake pedal for about 1
minute. If the pedal drops but no sign of external leakage exists, fluid is probably
bypassing the piston cups.

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 Air Entrapment Test
• Make sure the reservoirs are filled to the proper level

• Hold the cover and gasket against the reservoir top but do not
secure it with its clamp or screws.

• Watch for A squirt of brake fluid from the reservoirs

• An assistant pump the brake pedal ten to twenty times rapidly

• Then have and maintain pressure after the last pedal application.

• Remove the cover and have the assistant quickly release

pedal pressure.

If fluid back faster than normal and cause fluid to squirt in the reservoir.
air compressed in the system force it

If a fluid squirt appears in one side of the reservoir but not the other,
that side of the split hydraulic system contains the trapped air

Air Entrapment Test

Poor pedal feel or action may be caused by trapped air in the system. Trapped air can be
the result of a worn or defective master cylinder or other parts of the system. Air will
also enter the system if there is a fluid leak. If there are no signs of leaks, check the
system for trapped air.
To check for entrapped air, remove the cover of the master cylinder and make sure the
reservoirs are filled to the proper level. Hold the cover and gasket against the reservoir
top but do not secure it with its clamp or screws. Then have an assistant pump the brake
pedal ten to twenty times rapidly and maintain pressure after the last pedal application.
Remove the cover and have the assistant quickly release pedal pressure. Watch for a
squirt of brake fluid from the reservoirs. If air is compressed in the system, it will force
fluid back through the compensating ports faster than normal and cause fluid to squirt in
the reservoir. If a fluid squirt appears in one side of the reservoir but not the other, that
side of the split hydraulic system contains the trapped air. If there is air trapped in the
system, bleed the system and recheck.

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 Brake Pedal Inspection
Engine running for power brakes
Apply heavy foot pressure to the brake pedal
Pedal action should feel firm.
Check for a spongy pedal and pedal reserve.
The pedal should not go lower than 25 or 50 mm above the floor
With the engine off,
Hold light foot pressure on the pedal for about 15 seconds.
There should be no pedal movement during this time.
Pedal movement indicates a leak.
Engine running for power brakes
Repeat the procedure using heavy pedal pressure
If the fluid level is low,
there may be an external leak
If there is pedal movement but the fluid level is not low,
the master cylinder has internal leakage
Depress the pedal and check for proper stoplight operation.

Brake Pedal Inspection

Depress and release the brake pedal several times (engine running for power brakes).
Check for friction and noise. Pedal movement should be smooth, with no squeaks from
the pedal or brakes. The pedal should return quickly when it is released.
When operating the engine, be sure the transmission lever is in neutral or park. Be sure
the area is properly ventilated for the exhaust to escape.
Apply heavy foot pressure to the brake pedal (engine running for power brakes). Check
for a spongy pedal and pedal reserve. Spongy pedal action is springy. Pedal action should
feel firm. Pedal reserve is the distance between the brake pedal and the floor after the
pedal has been depressed fully. The pedal should not go lower than 1 or 2 inches ( 25 or
50mm ) above the floor.
With the engine off, hold light foot pressure on the pedal for about 15 seconds. There
should be no pedal movement during this time. Pedal movement indicates a leak.
Repeat the procedure using heavy pedal pressure (engine running for power brakes).
If there is pedal movement but the fluid level is not low, the master cylinder has internal
leakage. It must be rebuilt or replaced. If the fluid level is low, there may be an external
leak somewhere in the brake system. The leak must be repaired.
Depress the pedal and check for proper stoplight operation.

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 Power Brakes Inspection

With the engine off

Pump the brake pedal numerous times

to bleed off the residual hydraulic pressure that
is stored in the accumulator.

Hold firm pressure on the brake pedal and start the

engine.

The brake pedal should move downward, then push up

against the foot.

The basic operational test of these systems is as follows. With the engine off, pump the
brake pedal numerous times to bleed off the residual hydraulic pressure that is stored in
the accumulator. Hold firm pressure on the brake pedal and start the engine. The brake
pedal should move downward, then push up against the foot.

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 Warning Lights
The red warning light indicates there is a problem in the
regular brake system, such as low brake fluid levels or
that the parking brake is on.

Whenever the fluid is low, you should suspect a leak or very

worn brake pads.

The red warning light indicates there is a problem in the regular brake system, such as
low brake fluid levels or that the parking brake is on. A low fluid light may be present in
addition to the red brake warning light. Whenever the fluid is low, you should suspect a
leak or very worn brake pads.
The yellow or amber brake warning light is tied into the antilock brake system (ABS). This
light turns on for two reasons: the ABS is performing a self-test or there is a fault in the
ABS.
A blue or yellow warning light lets the driver know the wheels are slipping because of
poor road conditions.

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 Pulsating Pedal
Customers will feel a vibration or pulsation in the brake pedal
when the brakes are applied if a brake rotor is warped

A warped brake rotor is one that no longer has parallel friction

surfaces or has side-to-side movement.

If this symptom exists, check the rotors for runout and

parallelism,

Pulsating Pedal
Customers will feel a vibration or pulsation in the brake pedal when the brakes are
applied if a brake rotor is warped. A warped brake rotor is one that no longer has parallel
friction surfaces or has side-to-side movement. If this symptom exists, check the rotors
for runout and parallelism, described later in this chapter. A warped rotor may need to
be replaced and can be caused by improper tightening of the wheel lug nuts. In fact,
uneven lug nut torque can cause a pulsating brake pedal. You should be aware that pedal
pulsation is normal on vehicles with ABS when the ABS is working.

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 Spongy Pedal

The customer will probably feel the need to pump the brake
pedal to get good stopping ability.

The complaint may also be described as a soft pedal.

This problem is caused by air in the hydraulic system.

Although bleeding the system may remove the air,

Spongy Pedal
With a spongy pedal, the customer will probably feel the need to pump the brake pedal
to get good stopping ability. The complaint may also be described as a soft pedal. This
problem is caused by air in the hydraulic system. Although bleeding the system may
remove the air, you should always question how the air got in there. Check for leaks and
for proper master cylinder operation.

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 Hard Pedal
Hard pedal normally indicates a problem with the power brake
booster.

However, it can also be caused by a restricted brake line or

hose.

Carefully check the lines and hoses for damage.

A hard pedal can also be caused by frozen caliper or wheel

cylinder pistons.

Hard Pedal
The driver’s complaint of a hard pedal normally indicates a problem with the power
brake booster. However, it can also be caused by a restricted brake line or hose. Carefully
check the lines and hoses for damage. Feel the brake hoses. If they seem to have lost
their rigidity, the hose may have collapsed on the inside, and this is causing the
restriction. Make sure the brake hoses have not been twisted. Incorrect caliper
installation can twist and restrict the hose. A hard pedal can also be caused by frozen
caliper or wheel cylinder pistons.

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 Dragging Brakes
Dragging brakes make the vehicle feel
as if it has lost or is losing power as it
drives down the road.

Check the parking brake first.

Check for restricted brake hoses

keeping pressure applied to the
calipers.

Inspect the calipers and wheel

cylinders for sticky or seized piston

Dragging Brakes
Dragging brakes make the vehicle feel as if it has lost or is losing power as it drives down
the road. The problem also wastes a lot of fuel and generates destructive amounts of
heat that can cause serious brake damage and brake failure. While trying to find the
cause of this problem, check the parking brake first. Make sure it is off. Check the rear
wheels to make sure the parking brakes are released when they should be. If the
problem is not in the parking brakes, check for restricted brake hoses keeping pressure
applied to the calipers. Inspect the calipers and wheel cylinders for sticky or seized
pistons.
Seized caliper pistons can be freed by using a pry bar or C-clamp to push the pistons
back into the calipers, as shown in Figure 52–22 . Position the pry bar to pull the caliper
outward, forcing the piston backward into its bore. If the piston does not retract, loosen
the bleeder valve and retry. If the caliper still does not move, the piston is likely seized. If
the piston retracts, the brake hose is likely the cause of the problem.

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 Grabbing Brakes

When the brakes seem to be overly sensitive to pedal

pressure

Normally this problem is caused by contaminated brake

linings

Then replace the pads and refinish or replace the rotor.

Grabbing Brakes
When the brakes seem to be overly sensitive to pedal pressure, they are grabbing.
Normally this problem is caused by contaminated brake linings. If the linings are covered
or saturated with oil, find the source of the oil and repair it. Then replace the pads and
refinish or replace the rotor.

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 Noise
Verify during the road test that the problem is in the
brakes.
Pay attention to the type of noise
Remember, some brake pads have wear sensors
The rotor rubbing against the splash shield
Something has become wedged between the rotor
and another part
Failure to install all of the hardware when replacing a
caliper or brake pads.
Other sources of noise include the pads themselves.

Noise
If the customer’s complaint is noisy brakes, verify during the road test that the problem
is in the brakes. If the noise is caused by the brakes, pay attention to the type of noise
and let that lead you to the source of the problem. Remember, some brake pads have
wear sensors that are designed to make a high-pitched squeal when the pads are worn.
Other causes could be the rotor rubbing against the splash shield or that something has
become wedged between the rotor and another part of the vehicle. Noise may also be
caused by failure to install all of the hardware when replacing a caliper or brake pads.
Other sources of noise include the pads themselves. Depending on the lining materials,
some pads are more prone to make noise. These noises can be like a light wire brush
against metal sound, grinding, or high-pitched squeal depending on the pad.

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 Pulling

When a vehicle drifts or pulls to one side while cruising or

when braking, the cause could be in the brake system or in
the steering and suspension system.

If only one front wheel is actually doing the braking, the

vehicle will seem to stumble or pivot on that one wheel.

Pulling
When a vehicle drifts or pulls to one side while cruising or when braking, the cause could
be in the brake system or in the steering and suspension system. Check the inflation of
the tires, the tires’ tread condition, and verify that the tires on each axle are the same
size. Check the operation of the brakes. If only one front wheel is actually doing the
braking, the vehicle will seem to stumble or pivot on that one wheel. If no problems are
found in the brake system, suspect an alignment or suspension problem such as worn
control arm bushings.

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 Rotor Inspection

ROTOR INSPECTION
The rotors should be inspected whenever brake pads are replaced and when the wheels
are removed for other services. They should be carefully checked to determine if they
can be reused or machined or if they should be replaced. When inspecting the rotor,
make sure you look at the sensor wheel for the wheel-speed sensor. If a good look at the
surface is impossible because of dirt, clean the surfaces with a shop cloth dampened in
brake cleaning solvent or alcohol. If the surface is rusted, remove it with medium-grit
sandpaper or emery cloth and then clean it with brake cleaner or alcohol.
Most brake rotors have a discard thickness dimension cast into them. If you cannot find
this dimension on the rotor or if it is hard to read, check the service information for
thickness specifications. Rotor discard thickness dimensions are given in two or three
decimal points (hundredths or thousandths of an inch or hundredths of a millimeter),
such as 1.25 inches , 1.375 inches , 0.750 inch , or 24.75 mm . If you resurface the rotor,
it must be 0.015 to 0.030 inch ( 0.38 to 0.76 mm ) thicker than the discard dimension
after machining to allow for wear. If a rotor is already below the minimal thickness spec,
replace it. It is always wise to replace both rotors on the same axle.
New rotors come with a protective coating on the friction surfaces. To remove this
coating, use brake cleaner, or the solvent recommended by the manufacturer.

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 Rotor Inspection
Thickness and Parallelism

Thickness and Parallelism

To measure rotor thickness, place a brake disc micrometer about 1 inch in from the
outer edge of the rotor and measure the thickness ( Figure 52–36 ) . Compare the
measurement to specifications. Repeat the measurement at about eight points
equidistant ( 45 degrees) around the surface of the rotor and compare each
measurement to specifications. Take all measurements at the same distance from the
edge so that rotor taper does not affect the measurements. If the rotor is thinner than
the minimum thickness at any point or if thickness variations exceed limits, it must be
replaced. Also check the service information for an allowable thickness variation. Many
manufacturers hold tolerances on thickness variations as close as 0.0005 inch ( 0.013
mm ) .
Rotor parallelism refers to thickness variations in the rotor from one measurement point
to another around the rotor surface. If the rotor is out of parallel, it can cause excessive
pedal travel; front end vibration; pedal pulsation; chatter; and, on occasion, grabbing of
the brakes. The rotor then must be resurfaced or replaced.

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 Rotor Inspection
Lateral Runout

Lateral Runout
Excessive lateral runout is the wobbling of a rotor from side to side when it rotates. This
wobble knocks the pads farther back than normal, causing the pedal to pulse and vibrate
during braking. Over time, runout can cause excessive parallelism. This occurs as the
rotor rubs against the pads as it rotates, wearing away at the rotor and causing it to
become thinner in certain sections. Chatter can also result. Lateral runout also causes
excessive pedal travel because the pistons have farther to travel to reach the rotor. If
runout exceeds specifications, the rotor must be turned or replaced.
For the best braking performance, lateral runout should be less than 0.003 inch ( 0.08
mm ) for most vehicles. Some manufacturers, however, specify runout limits as small as
0.002 inch ( 0.05 mm ) or as great as 0.008 inch ( 0.20 mm ) .
Runout measurements are taken only on the outboard surface of the rotor, using a dial
indicator and suitable mounting adapters. If the rotor is mounted on adjustable wheel
bearings, readjust the bearings to remove bearing end play. Do not overtighten the
bearings. On rotors bolted solidly to the axles of FWD vehicles, bearing end play is not a
factor in rotor runout measurement. If there is excessive bearing end play, the bearing
assembly must be replaced. Bearing end play is best checked with a dial indicator.
Clamp the dial indicator support to the steering knuckle or other suspension part that
will hold it securely as you turn the rotor. Position the dial indicator so that its tip
contacts the rotor at 90 degrees. Place the indicator tip on the friction surface about 1
inch in from the outer edge of the rotor. Do not place the dial indicator on a dirty, rusted,
grooved, or scored area. Rotate the rotor until the lowest reading appears on the dial
indicator; then set the indicator to zero. Turn the rotor through one complete revolution
and compare the lowest to the highest reading. This is the maximum runout of the rotor.

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 Rotor Inspection
Additional Checks

Additional Checks
The following are some of the typical rotor conditions that warrant disc replacement or
machining.
Grooves and Scoring Inspect both rotor surfaces for scoring and grooving. Scoring or
small grooves up to 0.010 inch ( 0.25 mm ) deep are usually acceptable for proper
braking performance. Scoring can be caused by linings that are worn through to the
rivets or backing plate or by friction material that is harsh or unkind to the mating
surface. Rust, road dirt, and other contamination could also cause rotor scoring. Any
rotor having score marks more than 0.15 inch should be refinished or replaced ( Figure
52–39 ) .
If the rotor is deeply grooved, it must be thick enough to allow the grooves to be
completely removed without machining the rotor to less than its minimum thickness.
Measure rotor thickness at the bottom of the deepest groove. If rotor thickness at the
bottom of the deepest grooves is at or near the discard dimension, replace the rotor.
Cracks Check the rotor thoroughly for cracks or broken edges. Replace any rotor that is
cracked or chipped, but do not mistake small surface checks in the rotor for structural
cracks. Surface checks will normally disappear when a rotor is resurfaced. Structural
cracks, however, will be more visible when surrounded by a freshly turned rotor surface.
Bluing or Heat Checking Inspect the rotor surfaces for heat checking and hard spots (
Figure 52–40 ) . Heat checking appears as many small interlaced cracks on the surface.
Heat checking lowers the heat dissipation ability and friction coefficient of the rotor
surface. Heat checking does not disappear with resurfacing. Therefore, a rotor with heat
checks should be replaced.
Hard spots appear as round, shiny, bluish areas on the friction surface. Hard spots on the

21
surface of a rotor usually results from a change in the metallurgy caused by brake heat.
Pulling, rapid wear, hard pedal, and noise occur. These spots can be removed by
machining. However, only the raised surfaces are removed, and they could reappear
when heat is again encountered. The rotor should be replaced.
Rust If the vehicle has not been driven for a period of time, the discs will rust in the area
not covered by the lining and cause noise and chatter. This also can result in excessive
wear and scoring of the discs and pads. Wear ridges on the discs can cause temporary
improper pad contact if the ridges are not removed before the installation of new pads.
Rusted rotors should be cleaned before any measurements are taken.
Inspect the fins of vented rotors for cracks and rust. Rust near the fins can cause the rotor
to expand and lead to rotor thickness variations and excessive runout problems.
Machining the rotor may remove runout and thickness variations, but rotor expansion
due to rust may cause these problems to reappear soon. Rusted rotors should be
replaced ( Figure 52–41 ) .

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 Drum Brake Inspection

Drum Inspection
One of the most important parts that need to be inspected is the brake drum.
Thoroughly clean the drums with a water-dampened cloth or a water-based solution. If
the drums have been exposed to leaking oil or grease, thoroughly clean them with a
non-oil base solvent after washing to remove dust and dirt. It is important to determine
the source of the oil or grease leak and correct the problem before reinstalling the
drums.
Brake drums act as a heat sink. They absorb heat and dissipate it into the air. As drums
wear from normal use or are machined, their cooling surface area is reduced and their
operating temperatures increase. Their structural strength is also reduced. This leads to
distortion, which causes some of the drum conditions shown in Figure 51–24 .
Also take a look at the brake shoes while they are still mounted. Their condition can
often reveal defects in the drums. If the linings on one wheel are worn more than the
others, it might indicate a rough drum. Uneven wear from side to side on any one set of
shoes can be caused by a tapered drum. If some linings are worn badly at the toe or
heel, it might indicate an out-of-round drum.
Scored Drum Surface The most common cause of this condition is buildup of brake dust
and dirt between the brake lining and drum. A glazed brake lining, hardened by high heat
or in some cases by very hard inferior grade brake lining, can also groove the drum
surface. Excessive lining wear that exposes the rivet head or shoe steel will score the
drum surface. If the grooves are not too deep, the drum can be turned.
Bell-Mouthed Drum This distortion is due to extreme heat and braking pressure. It
occurs mostly on wide drums and is caused by poor support at the outside of the drum.
Full drum-to-lining contact cannot be achieved and fading can be expected. Drums must

22
be turned.
Concave Drum This is an excessive wear pattern in the center area of the drum brake
surface. Extreme braking pressure can distort the shoe platform so braking pressure is
concentrated at the center of the drum.
Convex Drum This wear pattern is greater at the closed end of the drum. It is the result of
excessive heat or an oversized drum, which allows the open end of the drum to distort.
Hard Spots on the Drum This condition in the cast-iron surface, sometimes called chisel
spots or islands of steel, results from a change in metallurgy caused by braking heat.
Chatter, pulling, rapid wear, hard pedal, and noise can occur. These spots can be removed
by grinding. However, only the raised surfaces are removed, and they can reappear when
heat is applied. If this condition reappears, the drum must be replaced.
Threaded Drum Surface An extremely sharp or chipped tool bit or a lathe that turns too
fast can result in a threaded drum surface. This condition can cause a snapping sound
during brake application as the shoes ride outward on the thread, then snap back. To
avoid this, recondition drums using a rounded tool and proper lathe speed. Check the
edge of the drum surface around the mounting flange side for tool marks indicating a
previous machining. If the drum has been machined, it might have worn too thin for use.
Check the diameter.

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 Drum Brake Inspection
Heat Checks

Cracked Drum

Out-of-Round Drums

Heat Checks
Heat checks are visible, unlike hard spots that do not appear until the machining of the
drum ( Figure 51–25 ). Extreme operating temperatures are the major cause. The drum
might also show a bluish/gold tint, which is a sign of high temperatures. Excessive
damage by heat checks or hard spots requires drum replacement.
Cracked Drum Cracks in the cast-iron drum are caused by excessive stress. They can be
anywhere but usually are in the vicinity of the bolt circle or at the outside of the flange.
Fine cracks in the drums are often hard to see and, unfortunately, often do not show up
until after machining. Nevertheless, should any cracks appear, no matter how small, the
drum must be replaced.
Out-of-Round Drums Drums with eccentric distortion might appear fine to the eye but
can cause pulling, grabbing, and pedal vibration or pulsation. An out-of-round or egg-
shaped condition is often caused by heating and cooling during normal brake operation.
Out-of-round drums can be detected before the drum is removed by adjusting the brake
to a light drag and feeling the rotation of the drum by hand. After removing the drum,
gauge it to determine the amount of eccentric distortion. Drums with this defect should
be machined or replaced.

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 Drum Measurements

Drum Measurements
Measure every drum with a drum micrometer ( Figure 51–26 ) , even if the drum passed
a visual inspection, to make sure that it is within the safe oversize limits. If the drum is
within safe limits, even though the surface appears smooth, it should be turned to
ensure a true drum surface and to remove any possible contamination in the surface
from previous brake linings, road dust, and so forth. Remember that if too much metal is
removed from a drum, unsafe conditions can result.
Take measurements at the open and closed edges of the friction surface and at right
angles to each other. Drums with taper or out-of-roundness exceeding 0.006 inch ( 0.152
mm ) are unfit for service and should be turned or replaced. If the maximum diameter
reading (measured from the bottom of any grooves that might be present) exceeds the
new drum diameter by more than 0.060 inch ( 1.5 mm ) , the drum cannot be reworked.
If the drums are smooth and true but exceed the new diameter by 0.090 inch ( 2.2 mm )
or more, they must be replaced.
Brake drums are stamped with a discard dimension ( Figure 51–28 ) . This is the
allowable wear dimension and not the allowable machining dimension. There must be
0.030 inch ( 0.762 mm ) left for wear after turning the drums. Some states have laws
about measuring the limits of a brake drum.

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 Inspecting Wheel Cylinders
Wheel cylinder leaks reveal themselves in several ways:
1) Fluid can be found when the dust boot is peeled back

2) The cylinder, linings, and

backing plate, or the inside of a
tire might be wet; or

3) There might be a drop in the

level of fluid in the master
cylinder reservoir.

Inspecting Wheel Cylinders

Wheel cylinder leaks reveal themselves in several ways:
(1) fluid can be found when the dust boot is peeled back ( Figure 51–39 ) ;
(2) the cylinder, linings, and backing plate, or the inside of a tire might be wet; or
(3) there might be a drop in the level of fluid in the master cylinder reservoir.
Such leaks can cause the brakes to grab or fail and should be immediately corrected.
Note the amount of fluid present when the dust boot is pulled back. A small amount of
fluid seepage dampening the interior of the boot is normal. A dripping boot is not.

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 Road Testing Brakes
Before test driving any car,
 First check the fluid level
 Depress the brake pedal to be sure there is adequate pedal
reserve.
 Make a series of low-speed stops
 Make a preliminary inspection of the brake system in the
shop

Brakes should be road tested on a dry, clean, reasonably

smooth, and level roadway

Test brakes at different speeds with both light and heavy pedal
pressure

Avoid locking the wheels and sliding the tires on the roadway.

ROAD TESTING BRAKES

Road testing allows the brake technician to evaluate brake performance under actual
driving conditions. Whenever practical, perform the road test before beginning any work
on the brake system. In every case, road test the vehicle after any brake work to make
sure the brake system is working safely and properly.
WARNING!
Before test driving any car, first check the fluid level in the master cylinder. Depress the
brake pedal to be sure there is adequate pedal reserve. Make a series of low-speed
stops to be sure the brakes are safe for road testing. Always make a preliminary
inspection of the brake system in the shop before taking the vehicle on the road.
Brakes should be road tested on a dry, clean, reasonably smooth, and level roadway. A
true test of brake performance cannot be made if the roadway is wet, greasy, or covered
with loose dirt. Testing is also adversely affected if the roadway is crowned so as to
throw the weight of the vehicle toward the wheels on one side, or if the roadway is so
rough that wheels tend to bounce.
Test brakes at different speeds with both light and heavy pedal pressure. Avoid locking
the wheels and sliding the tires on the roadway.

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 Road testing brakes
External conditions that affect brake road-test performance

 Tires (equally inflated - tread pattern equal)

 Loading (unequal loading, heavily loaded)

 Loose front-wheel bearing (causing pulsations)

 Misalignment of the front end (cause to pull to one side)

 Faulty shock absorbers (the erroneous impression that the

brakes are too severe)

ROAD TESTING BRAKES

There are external conditions that affect brake road-test performance. Tires having
unequal contact and grip on the road cause unequal braking. Tires must be equally
inflated and the tread pattern of right and left tires must be approximately equal. When
the vehicle has unequal loading, the most heavily loaded wheels require more braking
power than others and a heavily loaded vehicle requires more braking effort.
Misalignment of the front end may cause the brakes to pull to one side. Also, a loose
front-wheel bearing could permit the disc to tilt and have spotty contact with brake shoe
linings, causing pulsations when the brakes are applied. Faulty shock absorbers that do
not prevent the car from bouncing on quick stops can give the erroneous impression
that the brakes are too severe.

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 Brake Inspection

Problems such as spongy pedal, excessive pedal travel, pedal pulsation, poor braking
ability, brake drag, lock, or pulling to one side, and braking noises can be caused by
trouble in the hydraulic system or the mechanical components of the brake assembly. To
aid in doing a complete inspection and diagnosis, a form like the one shown in Figure
51–18 is very helpful. Working with such a form helps the technician avoid missing any
brake test and components that may cause problems.

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