Rise of Modern West Assignment

Submitted by – Shubham kumar

Roll No – 0623011
Course – BA Hons. History
Semester – III
Topic – Renaissance

In simple terms, ‘Renaissance’ means ‘re-birth.’ Historically, it refers to a significant cultural

movement focused on reviving interest in the classical age of the Romans and Greeks. The goal was
to rediscover and apply classical arts, literature, and social values to create a new culture free from
medieval constraints, life in accordance with their own concept of social order that constituted
Renaissance representing a dramatic departure from the contemporary world.
Between 1300 and 1600, significant efforts were made, especially in the Italian city-states, to reshape
social values, leading to a period of intense creativity in thought, literature, art, architecture, politics,
and practical sciences. This complex movement varied according to each region's social climate,
making it challenging to define the Renaissance universally. Its nature and significance have
prompted changing interpretations and drawn the attention of many historians since its inception.
The Renaissance began around the time of the ‘Black Death’ in the 14th century and ended in the
early 16th century. Despite significant political turmoil, warfare, and natural disasters during this
nearly two-century period, it was remarkably fertile for cultural development in the Italian states and
some parts of Europe.
The concept of Renaissance and its place in history has undergone changes because of a variety of
interpretations.
The term ‘Renaissance’ originates from the writings of Italian art theorist Giorgio Vasari, who used
the term rinascita to describe the preceding two centuries. Around the same time, French naturalist
Pierre Belon employed the term ‘renaissance’ to refer to classical antiquity in a new spirit. Italians
referred to the movement as Rinascimento, viewed as an unexplained phenomenon coinciding with
the revival of classical literature. Theodore de Bèze attributed this to the fall of Constantinople in
1453, which prompted the flight of Greeks to Italy. While this view was popular in later centuries, it is
no longer accepted, as evidence shows the movement began in the early 14th century. The idea of
rebirth started gaining traction in Italy during Giotto's time.

Renaissance artists and poets were often compared to the ancients before being exalted.
Renaissance writers rejected the Middle Ages, referring to it as the "dark ages" or a time of "barbaric
darkness." The Renaissance marked a shift from medieval to modern Europe. Italians viewed the fall
of the Roman Empire, caused by the Goths and Vandals, as the end of a great civilisation, followed by
an era of darkness, stagnation, and conflict. They believed art and literature had vanished during this
time, and through the Renaissance, they aimed to revive intellectual, social, cultural, and political
life.
Renaissance intellectuals criticised the art of the Middle Ages as "Gothic," implying barbarism. They
were particularly critical of scholasticism, a dominant academic movement from 1250 to 1500, which
emphasised the rational justification of religious belief. Centered at the University of Paris,
scholasticism influenced many theological schools and debates, aiming to systematise Christian
theology using Aristotelian philosophy. Its writings were long and argumentative, focusing on logic,
philosophy, and theology. This has led Alister E. Mcgrath to observe that scholasticism was probably
one of the most despised intellectual movements in human history. Humanism, a key Renaissance
movement, launched sustained attacks on scholasticism.
The Enlightenment, an 18th-century movement before the French Revolution, deepened the
prejudice against the Middle Ages. Enlightenment writers saw the period as one of blind faith, ended
by the Renaissance's rational spirit. Voltaire emphasised the Renaissance's intellectual independence
and the rebirth of literature and art, especially in Italy. Enlightenment thinkers, like Peter Burke,
attributed this cultural flourishing to liberty and wealth in Italian states. Shaftesbury and Sismondi
similarly credited the revival of painting and Renaissance development to the civil liberties and
economic prosperity of Venice, Genoa, and Florence, believing that liberty fostered both commerce
and culture.

The belief in the Renaissance's pivotal role in modern civilization remained popular for a long time,
though the concept evolved in historical literature. Jacob Burckhardt's Die Kultur des Renaissance in
Italien (1860) is still considered a key analysis, despite criticism. Burckhardt linked culture to society
by examining the interaction of three 'powers' the state, culture, and religion, expanding the
Renaissance concept beyond the arts to include society and history. To Burckhardt, the Renaissance
introduced attitudes that first transformed Italy and then the world. It marked the beginning of the
"modern" era, with new perspectives on nature, morality, religion, public affairs, and the arts. It also
sparked an age of individualism. This view of the Renaissance remains widely accepted.
Denys Hay classifies Burckhardt's critics into two groups. The first argues that the Renaissance was
just one of several cultural revivals in Europe, making it part of a broader return to Classical
Antiquity. The second contends that the Italian Renaissance was not uniquely significant and should
not be treated as a distinct event.
The first view holds merit, as the Carolingian and twelfth-century Renaissances also sought to
preserve ancient manuscripts. However, these movements lacked the broad public appeal and
patronage of the Italian Renaissance. Burckhardt credited the Renaissance with fostering
individualism, which replaced corporate identities. Critics argue he overstated the decline of the
medieval corporate world, as institutions like guilds and the church remained influential in sixteenth-
century Italy.
The Renaissance writers' negative portrayal of the Middle Ages was unfounded. Modern research
shows that the High Middle Ages were not the "death" of classical learning. Interest in Greek culture
began during this period, with figures like Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon reviving Greek studies
and translating Aristotle. St. Thomas Aquinas and other humanists admired Aristotle, while the
revival of Latin classics focused on Cicero. Gothic art steadily revived, especially in the north. E.H.
Gombrich noted that Italians, less aware of this gradual development, viewed Giotto's achievements
as groundbreaking.
Karl Marx and Engels saw the Renaissance as a relation between the arts and the economy, i.e.
between cultural production and material [Link] suggested that the economic ‘base’
shaped the cultural ‘superstructure’.
In the Italian Renaissance, an artist like Raphael could only thrive if there was demand, which
depended on the division of labor and cultural conditions. Engels saw the Renaissance as a major
turning point in Western history, viewing the 16th century as a time of new culture, religion,
economics, exploration, and science( formation of a new culture, new religion, economic
formations, the New World and the new Science). He called it the greatest "progressive revolution"
humanity had experienced.
Alfred Von Martin highlighted individualism and modernity in the Renaissance, emphasising its
economic foundation by calling it a "bourgeois revolution," where capitalists replaced nobles and
clerics as societal leaders. However, many scholars do not fully agree with this view.
Some scholars challenge the significance of the Renaissance or argue that it never truly existed:
Etienne Gilson: Asserted that the modern world was founded on physical science, which humanists
ignored, making the belief in the Renaissance's role in creating a modern world untenable.
Lynn Thorndike: Claimed that the true Renaissance occurred in the twelfth century, emphasising the
merits of medieval Latin and scholasticism. He argued that Gothic art, like architecture and sculpture,
was overlooked and that democracy and popular education declined during early modern times.
M.O. Taylor and Helen Waddell: Suggested that both classical and Christian traditions coexisted from
the twelfth century, influencing medieval poets equally.
Johan Huizinga: Described the Renaissance as the "autumn of the Middle Ages," emphasizing
continuity rather than a break.
W.K. Ferguson: Located the origins of the Renaissance within the Middle Ages.
Recent Writers assert that medieval individuals were just as concerned with discovering the world as
their Renaissance successors.
Important writers who provided a social interpretation of the Renaissance include:
E. Garin: Contributed to understanding the social aspects of the Renaissance.
Michael Baxandall: Proposed that painting reflected the social relationship between patrons and
artists, with patrons playing a crucial role.
Hans Baron: Offered insights into the social and political contexts of the Renaissance.
Paul Oscar Kristeller: Focused on the cultural and intellectual dimensions of the period.
Friedrich Antal: Argued that industry and international trade created a developed bourgeoisie in
Florence, suggesting a direct relationship between the elite's fortunes and Renaissance art.
Several other writers also contextualize the Renaissance within socio-economic frameworks.
The meaning and significance of the Renaissance are subject to various interpretations. It is no
longer viewed as a distinct historical period separating the Middle Ages from the modern era. A
deeper examination of the medieval period reveals it as a transitional phase containing elements of
both eras. The Renaissance is seen as the fulfillment of medieval promise rather than a mere return
to classical antiquity. Socio-economic forces contributed to the collapse of medieval society, the
feudal system, and the universal church, as these were interrelated. The revival of commerce and
industry led to the growth of towns and a money economy, making the land-based medieval society
unsustainable. The cumulative social, economic, and political changes fostered new ideas that
elevated standards, renewed interest in arts and literature, and transformed the attitudes of the
ruling elite, significantly shaping European culture and vision for society.

SOCIAL BASIS
The Renaissance emerged from an urban environment, thriving in regions with significant cities or
towns. Italian city-states were among the most urbanized centers in Europe, and their unique culture
fueled the revival of the ancient world. This revival addressed the civic needs of the time, raising the
common question: why did the Renaissance flourish in Italy? Several factors contributed to this.
The Renaissance in Italy arose from the urban environment of northern and central cities, where
urban life was more dynamic than elsewhere in Europe. The social structure was hierarchical(far
from egalitarian), especially in Florence, with the richest men, known by various titles such as nobili
or principali,grandi or 'the first citizens' monopolizing political power and holding key official
positions.
Members of this group were well-educated, well-traveled, and lived in grand homes in the city
center.
Below the nobili were the mezzani or populari, men of moderate means such as shopkeepers,
artisans, and professionals like lawyers and teachers. They operated within guilds, which were
hierarchically organized. The top guilds, including cloth merchants(the Calimala), wool
manufacturers(Arte della land), silk manufacturers(Arte della seta), and bankers(the cambio), were
dominated/monopolized by the grandi.
The mezzani were a propertied class with limited participation in government. Though their
intellectual interests were narrow, they could read, write, and use arithmetic for managing accounts.
The lowest class, the poveri or masses, included domestic servants, manual workers, and cloth
manufacturers. They had little political power. The upper class drove the Renaissance, often funded
by the middle class.
The concentration of wealth and civic autonomy in Italian cities fostered a worldly outlook, fueling
the Renaissance. The peace treaty of Lodi (1454) prevented any single ruler from dominating,
encouraging political and cultural competition among self-governing city-states. At the same time no
individual could fall prey to an aggressor. This competition, as Denys Hay noted, stimulated cultural
changes and led to a diversity of intellectual activities, with cities vying to attract/hire the most
talented individuals to work for the development of their own cities.
Competition in Italian cities raised standards, attracting renowned personalities. Economic growth
provided the foundation for the Renaissance. Italy, especially Florence(possessed a large reservoir of
liquid capital for investment), had long been a hub for business and manufacturing. The rise in
commerce, finance, and production led to pre-capitalist developments, with merchants investing in
real estate, trade, manufacturing, military campaigns, and even art projects.
From the late 13th century, Florentine merchants and bankers gained control of Papal banking and
became tax collectors, soon dominating European banking and making significant profits. Their
expertise in capital investment helped maximise gains. Three centuries of international trade,
banking, and industry fostered a "mercantile" or "bourgeois mentality," emphasising mathematical
accuracy in accounts, measurement, and time management. Continuous warfare among Italian
states created demand for military and hydraulic engineers, while civic education became essential
for officials. Wealth accumulation also spurred large-scale construction, boosting demand for skilled
architects and painters, creating a favourable environment for the Renaissance.
Italian aristocrats, unlike those in feudal Europe, preferred living in urban centres, involving
themselves in civic affairs and building city palaces. Unlike the segregation between nobles and
merchants in northern Europe, Italian landed classes integrated with merchants and industrialists.
This blending of rural society with urban life set Italy apart, with little distinction between the
aristocracy and the upper bourgeoisie. The merging of the Italian nobility with leading commercial
and industrial groups formed a relatively integrated civil society, shifting the balance away from the
knightly class and medieval chivalry. An aristocratic ethos emerged, reflecting the elite's tendency to
spend lavishly for private purposes. Their social and economic dominance was reinforced by control
over government in states like Florence. This association with merchants brought civility, making
Italian social life increasingly aristocratic, particularly in Milan, where a courtly society developed,
while in republican states, the elite began to adopt behaviours of the court aristocracy.
By the early 16th century, Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier (1528) illustrated the
expected attributes of a noble or aristocrat. Key traits included noble birth, grace, and talent,
considered fundamental to their character. Courtiers were expected to cultivate refinement through
humanist education, knowledge of the arts, and physical fitness. They also needed to follow a code
of conduct, emphasizing tactfulness and diplomacy in civic affairs. Castiglione's work reflects the
ideals pursued by Renaissance patrons and highlights the merging of the upper and middle classes
living together in cities, as noted by Burckhardt.

Wealth in Italian towns was a key factor in the emergence of the Renaissance. By the 13th century,
Italy's economy, driven by large-scale commerce, had become the most prosperous in Europe.
Significant investment in culture from the late medieval period likely stemmed from urban pride and
high per capita wealth. Many historians believe that public support for culture emerged in Italy by
the mid-13th century.
Scholars like Robert Lopez and Carlo M. Cipolla challenge the connection between economic
prosperity and cultural progress, arguing that the period from 1330 to 1530 was marked by economic
depression. They note a decline in land values, demographic loss from the Black Death, reduced
profits for feudal lords, and lower interest rates. However, they suggest an inverse relationship
between economic conditions and cultural development, as political elites and businessmen
competed for patronage and prestige, transforming culture into an economic venture. It appears that
they agreed to an inverse relationship between economic condition and cultural development. This
perspective has not gained widespread support among historians.
Another explanation for the Renaissance's emergence highlights the presence of numerous princes
ruling Italian cities, which created ample opportunities for patronage and employment. Prominent
figures like the Visconti and Sforza in Milan, the Medici in Florence, the Este in Ferrara, and the
Gonzaga in Mantua significantly contributed to the Renaissance by supporting art and literature in
their courts. Even lesser aristocratic families and popes in Rome, such as Alexander VI, Julius II, and
Leo X—known as the "Renaissance Popes"—made notable contributions to art and architecture.
From the mid-14th century, there was a conscious reaction against chivalrous poetry and the
scholastic learning of the Middle Ages, leading to changing reader tastes that promoted classicism
and assertive poetry. Cicero’s writings provided new standards and meaning to ancient ideals. The
concept of humanitas became a guiding principle for education, aiming to liberate individuals from
social conventions and narrow-mindedness. Throughout the Middle Ages, there was an ongoing
reverence for the ancient Roman world, with Italians nostalgically looking back to the classical
cultures of Rome and Greece
Before the humanist movement of the Renaissance, several attempts were made to recover the past.
Historians argue that the ruins of the Roman Empire, especially near Rome, inspired Italians to
recreate their glorious history. Brunelleschi, the foremost architect of the Renaissance, often traveled
to Rome to measure the ruins of temples and palaces, making sketches of their forms and
ornamental details for new designs. Intellectual and cultural activities in Italy were significantly
influenced by antiquity, transmitted from the Byzantine Empire through scholars, theologians, and
merchants of Venice and Genoa, resulting in a grand union of Greek and Roman cultures.
Several channels facilitated Greek influence in Italy. Venice maintained strong commercial ties with
the Byzantine Empire, and Greek knowledge also arrived indirectly through envoys and fugitives,
such as Cardinal Bessarion of Nicaca, who donated his library to humanist scholars. The Florentine
expansion in the East, especially after the conquest of Pisa in 1406, further connected them to Greek
culture. Figures like Manuel Chrysoloras taught Greek to young scholars and intellectuals who were
receptive to humanist ideas.
The political rivalry among Italian cities sparked various intellectual reactions, particularly in
Florence. In 1494, the popular party and republicans, aided by the French army, overthrew the
Medici, who opposed Charles III's advance to Naples. This led to intense conflict between
republicans and princely authority at a time when Florence was a key center of the Renaissance. The
struggles resulted in the Medici's brief return to power with Papal and Spanish support. Against this
backdrop, Machiavelli wrote his famous treatise The Prince, which fostered political dialogue and the
study of Florentine history among local intellectuals.
Many elite individuals met privately in the Oricellari Gardens to analyze the issues facing the
republican city and discuss contemporary politics and literature, with republicanism being the
dominant viewpoint. The intellectual climate of the era encouraged discussions and the development
of new ideas regarding city constitutions and government. During this time, some talented
individuals were employed by the state, including Michelangelo, who supervised fortifications in
1512.
Patronage significantly influenced the origins and development of the Renaissance. Individual artists,
architects, and scholars often lacked the funds needed for large-scale projects and relied on patrons
for financial support. Some scholars argue that the revival of classical art and literature was largely
due to the new sources of patronage offered by towns. While art had traditionally been
commissioned by corporate bodies and the church—a practice that continued throughout the
Renaissance—individual patrons, merchant princes, and various groups also emerged as important
sources of support for artistic endeavours. In recent years, historians have debated the role of
patrons in setting artistic standards and selecting themes.
The desire for social fame and immortality were primary motivations for patronage during the
Renaissance. Many patrons sought to be associated with the artworks they commissioned, as
evidenced by the writings of Cosimo de Medici and Giovanni Rucellai, who built palaces and
churches to enhance the glory of Florence and their own names. Aristocrats and wealthy merchants
competed to become patrons of the arts, driven by three motivations identified by Peter Burke:
piety, prestige, and pleasure. The church and the Medici family were among the greatest patrons of
art, and according to Vasari, even artisans, tailors, and members of craft guilds commissioned works
of art.
This competition led to the employment of artists and architects within the Italian cities on a much
larger scale than ever before
During the Renaissance, many patrons viewed sculptors and painters as mere skilled artisans, but
figures like Cosimo de Medici recognised their genius. Initially, few lower-middle-class artists were
hired for major projects, but individual talent eventually gained recognition, as seen with
Michelangelo, who could set his own terms. Early Renaissance patronage was largely driven by urban
wealth and republican ideals, though religion still played a role in its emergence. It would be wrong
to suggest that religion had no part to play in the emergence of the Renaissance.
Many large buildings of the Renaissance reflected a mix of piety, civic pride, and religious patronage.
The City Council of Siena rebuilt St. Mary’s Cathedral, driven by both religious and civic values. City
governments promoted civic pride by constructing city halls, renovating streets, squares, and public
buildings. Public institutions played a key role in early artistic activities, using art to convey political
ideas. In Florence, guilds often funded public art, with some commissioning sculptures for the
famous shrine in the grain market, Or San Michele.
The guild of cloth merchants funded frescoes of St. John the Baptist, while silk merchants designed
hospital buildings, both wielding political influence in city administration. However, by the fifteenth
century, most Italian city-states fell under the control of princely families, who monopolised
patronage. The Renaissance then flourished primarily in the courts of Italian rulers and the Papal
courts. From the late fifteenth century, Renaissance popes promoted their dual role as spiritual
leaders and temporal lords of central Italy through specific ideological programs.
From the mid-fifteenth century, wealthy individuals became key patrons of the Renaissance in Italy.
Prominent families built palaces and villas, using them as retreats to host officials and peers,
decorating interiors with paintings, portraits, and manuscript collections. The competitive spirit of
Italian city-states was reflected in the ornate construction of chapels and basilicas. However, the
Renaissance remained a cultural movement of the upper classes, with little impact on the poor and
rural population. Its development was rooted in the urban environment, which was crucial for its
scale and success.

Bibliography
01. Europe in Transition : From Feudalism to Industrialisation , Arvind Sinha
02. The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism, Paul Sweezy
03. The Renaissance, Peter Burke