GEOG 203 –

Environmental
Systems
SECTION 1 - EARTH SURFACE CLIMATOLOGY AND
DRAINAGE BASIN HYDROLOGY

Lecture 4
Date Content Reading Materials/Important Dates
Th, Sep. 5 Introduction to environmental systems: structure Christopherson et al., p. 11-18
and function
Tu, Sep. 10 The atmosphere and solar radiation Christopherson et al., p. 47-57, 66-72, 92-111
Th, Sep. 12 Energy balance at the Earth’s surface Christopherson et al., p. 47-57, 66-72, 92-111
Tu, Sep. 17 Atmospheric and ocean circulation patterns and Christopherson et al., p. 130-134, 148-171
resulting patterns of temperature and Assignment 1 distributed
precipitation
Th, Sep. 19 Global hydrology, world’s water resources; Christopherson et al., p. 244-266; Hornbeck
Catchment hydrology and streamflow et al. (1997)
Tu, Sep. 24 Ecohydrology and the effects of land-use change Hornbeck et al. (1997); Christopherson et al.,
on climate and hydrology p. 109-111
Th, Sep. 26 Synthesis and review class
Tu, Oct. 1 Test 1 Assignment 1 submitted (on myCourses)
Assignment 1

• Posted on myCourses (under ‘Content’>

’Section 1’> ’Assignment 1’
• Make sure to review the tutorial if you are
unfamiliar with Excel
• Office hours
• TAs (in Burnside 512):
• Thursday September 26th, 2-4 pm
• Monday September 30th, 3-5 pm
• Prof: by appointment
Learning objectives
• Describe what drives wind and ocean currents
• Explain the atmospheric cells, including
dominant pressure belts and prevailing wind
patterns
• Understand surface ocean currents & the
thermohaline circulation
• Explain other natural oscillations in global
circulation (e.g., ENSO, PDO, NAO, AO)
• Define the terms temperature and heat
• Describe the controls on temperature and be
able to understand and explain temperature
patterns across the globe
Wind
• What is it?
• How does wind behave (move) ?
• What drives this motion ?
 Wind speed and direction
• There are three forces that control wind speed and
direction near Earth’s surface:
• Pressure-gradient force
• Coriolis force
• Friction force
Wind direction

• Direction: winds are named from whence they come

• Westerly wind comes from the West and flows toward the East
Pressure Gradient Force

Pressure gradient force: the force

resulting from changes in barometric
pressure across Earth’s surface
• This is the most important factor in
determining wind speed and
direction.
• Air flows from areas of high
pressure to areas of low pressure.
• The greater the pressure difference
between regions, the faster the air
will flow between them.
Visualizing the pressure gradient: Isobars
Standard unit: Pascal (Pa);
US: millibars (mb);
Canada: Kilopascals (kPa)
1 mb =100 Pa ;
1 kPa = 1000 Pa (or 10 mb)
Coriolis force
• Due to Earth’s eastward
rotation
• Deflects objects traveling in
the atmosphere
Coriolis force
• Produces an apparent
deflection to flying objects,
regardless of their direction of
motion
• Northern Hemisphere,
deflection is to the right of
the wind flow
• Southern Hemisphere,
deflection is to the left
A few more details - Coriolis force
• It alters only the direction of a moving object, not its speed
• Increases with object’s speed
• Deflection is zero at the equator; increases with increasing
latitude
• Hurricanes only develop “spin” once they move a little away from the
equator (but if they move too far, they lose their energy source and
dissipate)
• Is not large compared to other commonly encountered forces.
Upper-level
winds
Friction force
• Important near the surface
where friction is strongest
• Diminishes at about 1,000-
1,500 m – so winds higher
up are unimpeded by
friction
• Causes wind to slow down and
move in irregular ways
Wind - Pressure • Pressure gradient force drives winds across isobars
from H to L. However, instead of crossing isobars at
Gradient + Coriolis right angles, surface winds are deflected by Coriolis
+ Friction as they exit high or enter low pressure cells.
 The effect is that winds:
Spiral out of High Pressure cells
(anticyclones)
Spiral in to Low Pressure cells (cyclones)
Pressure Thus, the swirling motion we associate with
Gradient + Cyclones is due to Coriolis + friction forces!
Coriolis +
Friction

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada Inc.

Winds spiral out of Spiral into

anti-cyclones cyclones
Cyclones and anticyclones
Cyclone: a region of low pressure with
counterclockwise circulation in the Northern
Hemisphere
• Storm systems like hurricanes are cyclones.
• Cyclones rotate clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Anticyclone: a region of high pressure with

clockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere
• Anticyclones rotate counterclockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
 Visualizing
cyclones and
anticyclones
Recall

• Global radiation is balanced over the long term and globally at the
top of the atmosphere.

• HOWEVER:
Radiation is NOT
balanced by Latitude

• Net radiation surplus at low-

latitudes
• Radiation deficit toward the
poles
• Why don’t temperatures
plummet at poles, skyrocket
at equator?
• Heat is constantly
redistributed by heat
transfers in …

Arbogast et al.
Global Circulation! Wind
and Ocean Currents
Simple model
of atmospheric
circulation
from Equator to
Poles
Global
Pressure
Belts
Global
Pressure
Belts
 The ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)

ITCZ (or equatorial trough): a discontinuous band of thermal low

pressure and thunderstorms that encircles the planet in the tropics
Creates heavy thunderstorm precipitation near the equator.

▪ Strong solar heating creates unstable

air parcels that rise through convective
uplift and regional convergence.
▪ The latent heat released through
condensation within the thunderstorms
enhances instability.
 Seasonal
shift in ITCZ
Global
Pressure
Belts
 The Subtropical High
Subtropical high: a discontinuous belt of dynamic
high pressure and aridity made up of anticyclones
• Roughly centered on 30° north and south
latitude.
• Formed as some of the air moving poleward
within the ITCZ is redirected downward at about
30° latitude N/S.

• It is compressed and warmed adiabatically . . .

creates the subtropical high.
Sub-Topical High
Pressure
Areas/Cells
• Major Deserts: centered
around 30° N, S Latitude
• dry air cells sinks, is
compressed (warms)
• Eats up any available
water; prevents lifting
Global
Pressure
Belts
The Subpolar Low
and Polar High
Subpolar low: a discontinuous belt of
dynamic low pressure
• Roughly centered on 60° N/S.
• Made up of cyclonic systems
that bring frequent precipitation
due to frontal lifting.

Polar high: an area of cold, dense air

at each pole that forms a zone of
thermal high pressure
• Creates polar deserts.
Atmospheric Pressure and ITCZ location: January
Atmospheric Pressure and ITCZ location: July
 Prevailing
global wind
patterns
 Prevailing
global wind
patterns
Some Important Surface Winds:
Trade Winds, Westerlies

• Trade winds: surface winds exiting the

subtropical high pressure cells and
blowing toward equator
• Recall: winds converge and air lifts
(rises) at the ITCZ producing cloud
and rain (“doldrums”)
• Rising air is caused by both
convergent and convective lift
• Westerlies: surface winds exiting the
subtropical high pressure cells heading
North toward the Polar Front
 Prevailing
global wind
patterns
Upper atmospheric circulation

Ridges: Winds slow and Troughs: Winds accelerate

converge (pile up) and diverge
 Prevailing
global wind
patterns
 Global atmospheric circulation:
Circulatory cells and surface winds
Profile of the atmosphere from the equator to the pole
 [Link]

The jet stream

 [Link]

Climate change impacts on the jet stream

Ocean circulation • Surface water movements driven by
atmospheric circulation.
patterns • Circular gyres created in major oceans,
moving warm and cold waters.
Surface ocean currents
Surface ocean
currents
Thermohaline circulation: The deep currents

• Slow movement of water

between Pacific & Atlantic
Oceans, at surface and at
depth
• Transfers warm water from
Equatorial Atlantic to North
Atlantic, where cools,
becomes denser with salt and
sinks
• Important transfer mechanism
for heat from Equator to
Northern Hemisphere
[Link]
Natural oscillations in global circulation: El
Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

[Link]
Natural oscillations in global circulation:
Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)
Natural oscillations in global circulation:
North Atlantic and Arctic Oscillations

North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) Arctic Oscillation (AO)

Test your knowledge
The world’s hottest, rainiest climates occur:
A: where the NE, SE Trade winds meet, converge
B: 30 degrees Latitude, beneath the Subtropical
highs
C: 60 degrees Lat., at the Polar Front
(can you explain why?)
Test your knowledge
Major deserts like the Sahara, Sonoran, and
Australian Outback occur:
A: 30 degrees N and S latitude, beneath the
Subtropical highs
B: 60 degrees N latitude, at the Polar Front
Test your knowledge

• Where is the ITCZ? Label it.

• Where is the Subtropical
High Pressure zone?
• Explain why have
rainy/cloudy weather at the
ITCZ.
• Explain why we have dry,
deserts at the ST High
Pressure zone.
Patterns of Temperature & Precipitation
Temperature - definition
• Definition: Measure of kinetic energy
(motion) of molecules
• Experienced as sensible heat transfer
Temperature – scales of measurement

• Celsius scale:
• 0° C: melting point of ice
• 100° C: boiling point of water
• -273° C: Absolute Zero
o molecular motion ceases

• Kelvin scale W. Thomson

(Lord Kelvin)
• 0°C = __ Kelvins?
Temperature vs. heat

Heat: the energy transferred between

materials or systems due to their
temperature differences

• With a temperature increase, objects

feel hotter because heat flows from
objects of high temperature to objects
of low temperature.
Daily Temperature
• Related to insolation,
energy balance

When are you most likely

to get heat-stroke?
A: Noon
B: 4 pm
C: 4 am
 1. Altitude
2. Latitude
Controls on 3. Presence of water (maritime vs. continental)
temperature 4. Cloud cover
5. Prevailing winds
Elevation:
colder in the
mountains
• In the troposphere,
temperature decreases
with altitude.

• Mountains are always

cooler than surrounding
lowland regions.
Altitude (cont.)
• normal environmental T lapse rate: 6.4ºC/km
• atmosphere thins with altitude (elevation) so decrease in
atmospheric ability to absorb and re-radiate heat with elevation
• Higher altitude:
• Insolation is more intense: less atmospheric gases to travel through
• Surfaces both gain and lose energy rapidly to a thin atmosphere (less
greenhouse ‘blanket’ overhead)
• This produces lower mean T and greater day/night contrast
• (T average is lower, night-time cooling is greater; larger T range between
night and day)
• Near sea level: higher mean T and less day/night contrast
Latitude: colder near the poles
 • Proximity to large water bodies
has additional, moderating
Water Bodies effect on climates
oWhy?
Water bodies cool nearby areas due to

1. Evaporation: Latent heat of evaporation

• Sensible heat converted to “hidden” Latent heat
2. Transparency: Insolation penetrates water so the surface heats
less than land
Water bodies cool nearby areas due to:

3. High Specific Heat * (4.18 J/g/K) of water

• Water gains and loses heat slowly; holds more heat than soil or rock
- a heat ‘sink’

4. Movement/Mixing: warm with cool; surface with deep

waters
• energy surpluses can flow to regions of lower temp

* Specific Heat = the amount of energy needed to produce a given

temperature change per unit mass; Water’s is 5x that of Land (0.80 J/g/K) !!
Seasonality by latitude and ocean influence
Test your knowledge

Two places located at the same latitude (49º N). Which is a

Maritime location?
A.
B.

A B
Ocean currents and
seasonality

• Heat from the ocean surface is

transferred to the atmosphere.

• Warm ocean currents raise average

annual temperature and reduce annual
temperature range.

• Cold currents influence temperatures

less.
 Visualizing
ocean
currents and
seasonality
Prevailing wind
and seasonality
• Prevailing wind is from the west,
so west coasts (generally) have
maritime climates and east
coasts have continental
climates.
• Pattern is strongest at
midlatitudes, and weakened in
the Southern Hemisphere, polar
regions, and tropics.
Clouds: moderate
temperature

• Reflect insolation (Solar

Shortwave) back into
space
• Cloudy days cooler
 CLOUDS also:

• Reflect incoming solar shortwave (cloudy days cooler) ➢cloudy nights

• Absorb and re-radiate longwave (cloudy nights warmer) feel warmer.

• Prevent thermal infrared (LW ) from leaving; a blanket
Clouds: moderate temperature
• Reflect insolation (Solar Shortwave) back into space
• Cloudy days cooler

• Trap longwave (Earth Longwave or thermal infrared); Less LW

energy escapes to space
• Cloudy nights warmer

• Cloudy areas less seasonally variable than clear areas

Global temperature patterns
• Combined effect of all factors
• Isotherm map for a given month: contours of temperature on a
map -connecting points of equal temperature
• Thermal equator: isotherm connecting all points of highest mean
temperature ~ 27ºC.
January global mean
temperatures
July global mean
temperatures
Annual range of global temperatures
Learning objectives
• Explain what happens to radiation as it goes
through Earth’s atmosphere
• Define the term albedo and know the controls
on surface albedo
• Understand the Earth-atmosphere radiation
balance (at the top of the atmosphere &
surface)
• Be able to interpret radiation and energy
balances over various ground surfaces
• Explain spatial patterns of net radiation, latent
heat, and sensible heat