Geotechnical Engineering – II - Prof. D. N.

Singh, IIT Bombay

Geotechnical Engineering-II, a follow up course of GE-I and broadly designed to help students
getting a better picture of practice of geotechnical Engineering to solve the real-life problem.
Also this course is highly recommended for practicing consultants and engineers.

Prof. Devendra Narain Singh is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at Indian
Institute of Technology Bombay. He obtained his bachelors, masters and Ph. D degrees from
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. His research focuses on geomaterial characterization,
contaminant- geomaterial interaction, sensors for soil moisture measurement, modelling of heat
migration through soils, utilization of industrial by-products, municipal solid waste
management, carbon capture utilization and storage and other fields associated with
Environmental Geotechnics since 1994. He has guided 42 PhDs and 35 Master students and 8
PhDs are in progress. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Environmental Geotechnics, ICE
(UK). Also he is a fellow of Indian National Academy of Engineering, INAE, American Society
for Civil Engineering, ASCE, and Institution of Civil Engineers, ICE

PREREQUISITES: Geotechnical Engineering-I.

COURSE LAYOUT
Week 1: Introduction; Shear Strength of soils
Week 2: Direct Shear Box Test; Interpretation of Direct Shear Test Results; Kf line
Week 3: Selection of Parameter (SS); Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils
Week 4: Triaxial Test; Interpretation of Triaxial test Results
Week 5: Interpretation of Triaxial test Results(contd.); Pore Pressure Parameters
Week 6: Stress Paths; Plastic Equilibrium in Soils; Mechanisms of Development of Plastic
Equilibrium in Soils
Week 7: Earth Pressure Analysis (Trial Wedge) Analysis of Completely Submerged Retaining
wall
Week 8: Gravity Walls Supporting Cohesive Soil Mass (Backfill); Sloping Backfill; Earth
Pressure Analysis
Week 9: Sheet Pile Wall Introduction; Analysis of Sheet Piles
Week 10: Anchored Bulkheads; Cantilever Sheet Piles; Lateral Earth Pressure Braced Sheet
Pile Walls
Week 11: slope stability; Slope Instability
Week 12: Analysis of Finite Slopes; Finite Slopes Friction Circle Method; Slip Circle Method

BOOKS AND REFERENCES

1. Craig’s Soil Mechanics by J. A. Knappett and R. F. Craig
2. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering by Robert T. Holtz, William D. Kovacs,
and Thomas C. Sheahan
3. Soil Mechanics by T. William Lambe and Robert V. Whitman
4. Fundamentals of Soil Behavior by James K. Mitchell and Kenichi Soga
5. Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics by Gopal Ranjan and A. S. R. Rao
6. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice by Karl Terzaghi, Ralph B. Peck and
Gholamreza Mesri
7. A Guide to Soil Mechanics by Malcolm Boltan
8. Advanced Soil Mechanics by Braja M. Das
9. Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering: Geotechnical Engineering
Series by V. N. S. Murthy
10. Theoretical soil mechanics by Karl Terzaghi
11. Soil strength and slope stability by J. M. Duncan and S. G. Wright.
12. Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated soils by D.G. Fredlund and H. Rahartjo.
13. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering by B. M. Das
14. Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundation: Basic Geotechnics by D. F. McCarthy.
15. Introductory Soil Mechanics and foundation by G. B. Sowers and G.F. Sowers.
16. Soil Mechanics and Foundation by Muni Budhu.
17. Mohr circle, stress paths and Geotechnics by R. H. Parry
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLOzRYVm0a65exThlViXrMaHWwFby8JWDN
July 2022 - Geotechnical Engineering-II, by NPTEL IIT Bombay

Week 1
Lecture 1 : Introduction
Lecture 2 : Shear Strength of soils I
Lecture 3 : Shear Strength of soils II
Lecture 4 : Shear Strength of soils III
Lecture 5 : Shear Strength of soils IV
Week 2
Lecture 6 : Testing for shear strength parameters: Introduction
Lecture 7 : Direct shear box test
Lecture 8 : Direct Shear Interpretation of Test Results I
Lecture 9 : Direct Shear Interpretation of Test Results II
Lecture 10 : Kf line
Week 3
Lecture 11 : Selection of Parameter (Shear Strength ,SS) I
Lecture 12 : Selection of Parameter (Shear Strength ,SS) II
Lecture 13 : Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils
Lecture 14 : Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils II
Week 4
Lecture 15 : Triaxial Test
Lecture 16 : Triaxial Test II
Lecture 17 : Triaxial Test III
Lecture 18 : Interpretation of Triaxial test Results
Week 5
Lecture 19 : Interpretation of Triaxial test Results II
Lecture 20 : Interpretation of Triaxial test Results III
Lecture 21 : Pore Pressure Parameters
Lecture 22 : Pore Pressure Parameters II
Week 6
Lecture 23 : Stress Paths
Lecture 24 : Stress Paths II
Lecture 25 : Plastic Equilibrium in Soils
Lecture 26 : Mechanisms of Development of Plastic Equilibrium in Soils
Week 7
Lecture 27 : Mechanisms of Development of Plastic Equilibrium in Soils II
Lecture 28 : Earth Pressure Analysis (Trial Wedge) I
Lecture 29 : Earth Pressure Analysis (Trial Wedge) II
Lecture 30 : Earth Pressure Analysis (Trial Wedge) III
Week 8
Lecture 31 : Analysis of Completely Submerged Retaining wall
Lecture 32 : Gravity Walls Supporting Cohesive Soil Mass (Backfill)
Lecture 33 : Sloping Backfill
Lecture 34 : Earth pressure analysis I
Lecture 35 : Earth Pressure Analysis - II
Week 9
Lecture 36 : Sheet Pile Wall Introduction - I
Lecture 37 : Sheet Pile Wall Introduction - II
Lecture 38 : Sheet pile wall Introduction III
Lecture 39 : Analysis of sheet piles I
Lecture 40 : Analysis of sheet piles II
Week 10
Lecture 41 : Anchored Bulkheads
Lecture 42 : Cantilever sheet piles
Lecture 43 : Lateral Earth Pressure Braced Sheet Pile Walls
Week 11
Lecture 44 : slope stability - I
Lecture 45 : slope stability - II
Lecture 46 : slope Instability - I
Lecture 47 : slope Instability - II
Week 12
Lecture 48 : slope Instability - III
Lecture 49 : Analysis of Finite Slopes - I Planar Failure Surface
Lecture 50 : Analysis of Finite Slopes - II Circular Failure Surface
Lecture 51 : Finite Slopes Friction Circle Method
Lecture 52 : Slip Circle Method
Secant Modulus of Soil Es
In the literature, it appears double marking of soil modulus Es. According to Poulos et.
Davis (1980) this parameter is referred to as the modulus elasticity of soil (Young's modulus),
while Briaud (2001) and Gopal Ranjan (2000) named this parameter as the secant modulus of
soil. Both titles of this modulus Es has the same meaning. However, the soil behaves elastically
only in the field of small strains (generally it is a heterogeneous material), and thus is more
appropriate to speak rather about the secant modulus of soil Es.
Modulus of elasticity of soil E is obtained from the deviator stress-axial strain curve.
The undrained modulus, Eu is obtained from the undrained triaxial test data while the drained
modulus Ed is obtained from the drained test conditions.
At the initial stage of the stress-strain curve is nearly linear dependence, but the elastic
strain of soils is very small, due to the overall value of the strain. There are defined several
types of modules - tangent modulus of soil, secant modulus of soil, and initial tangent modulus.
The introduction of this simplifying assumption is possible to use the theory of elasticity for
detecting of stress-strain state in soils.

Lambe et. Whitman (1969) says that the elastic modulus for soil is usually the secant
modulus from zero deviators of normal stress to a deviator stress equal to one-half or one-third
of the peak deviator stress.
The secant modulus Es decreases as the strain level increases because the stress-strain
curve has a downward curvature. There are three means of obtaining this parameter:
 • laboratory triaxial tests (from a calculation based on the tangent modulus of soil)
• pile-load test
• empirical correlations based on previous experience
The typical range of values for the static stress-strain (secant) modulus Es for selected soils -
field values depend on stress history, water content, density (Gopal Ranjan et. Rao, 2000):

Modulus
Type of soil Consistency or Density of soil
Es [MPa]

Silt Very soft 0.2 - 2

Clay Very soft 2 - 15

Soft 5 - 25

Firm, medium 15 - 50

Hard 50 - 100

Sandy 25 - 250

Loess sand Silty 7 - 21

Loose 10 - 24

Dense 48 - 80

Sand and gravel Loose 50 - 145

Dense 100 - 190

Literature:
Briaud, J.-L.: Introduction to Soil Moduli. Geotechnical News, June 2001, BiTech Publishers
Ltd, Richmond, B.C., Canada.
Gopal Ranjan et. A. S. R. Rao: Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics. New Age International,
2000, chapter 10.11, pp. 328 - 330. ISBN: 8122412238, 9788122412239.
Lambe, T. W. et. Whitman, V. R.: Soil Mechanics. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1969, 576
p. ISBN: 978-0-471-51192-2.
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York: John Wiley
and Sons, 1980, chapter 5.5, pp. 101 - 104.
 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MODULI

By

Jean-Louis BRIAUD1

The modulus of a soil is one of the most difficult soil parameters to estimate because it
depends on so many factors. Therefore when one says for example:”The modulus of this
soil is 10,000 kPa”, one should immediately ask: “What are the conditions associated
with this number?” The following is a background on some of the important influencing
factors for soil moduli. It is not meant to be a thorough academic discourse but rather a
first step in understanding the complex world of soil moduli. In a first part, the modulus
is defined. In a second part, the factors influencing the modulus and related to the state of
the soil are described. In a third part, the factors related to the loading process are
discussed. Fourth, some applications of soil moduli are presented. In a fifth and sixth
part, the soil modulus is compared to the soil stiffness and to the soil coefficient of
subgrade reaction respectively.

1. DEFINITION

How does one obtain a modulus from a stress strain curve? In order to answer this
question, the example of the stress strain curve obtained in a triaxial test is used. The
sample is a cylinder; it is wrapped in an impermeable membrane and confined by an all
around (hydrostatic) pressure. Then the vertical stress is increased gradually and the non
linear stress strain curve shown on Fig. 1 is obtained. Elasticity assumes that the strains
experienced by the soil are linearly related to the stresses applied. In reality this is not
true for soils and there lies one complexity. The equations of elasticity for this axi-
symmetric loading relate the stresses and the strains in the three directions as shown in
Fig. 1. Because of the axi-symmetry, equations 1 and 2 in Fig. 1 are identical. In
equations 1 and 3 there are two unknowns: the soil modulus E and the Poisson’s ratio ν.
In the triaxial test, it is necessary to measure the stresses applied in both directions as
well as the strains induced in both directions in order to calculate the modulus of the soil.
Indeed one needs two simultaneous equation to solve for E and ν. Note that the modulus
is not the slope of the stress strain curve. An exception to this statement is the case
where the confining stress is zero as it is for a typical concrete cylinder test or an
unconfined compression test on a clay. In order to calculate the Poisson’s ratio, it is also
necessary to measure the stresses applied in both directions as well as the strains induced
in both directions. Note also that the Poisson’s ratio is not the ratio of the strains in
both directions (equation 5 on Fig. 1). An exception to this statement is again the case
where the confining stress is zero.

________________________________________________________________________
1. Professor and Holder of the Buchanan Chair, Department of Civil Engineering, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843-3136, USA. ([email protected])

1
Which modulus? Secant, tangent, unload, reload, or cyclic modulus? Because soils
do not exhibit a linear stress strain curve, many moduli can be defined from the triaxial
test results for example. In the previous paragraph, it was pointed out that the slope of the
stress strain curve is not the modulus of the soil. However the slope of the curve is related
to the modulus and it is convenient to associate the slope of the stress strain curve to a
modulus. Indeed this gives a simple image tied to the modulus value; note however that
in the figures the slope is never labeled as modulus E but rather as slope S. Referring to
Fig. 2, if the slope is drawn from the origin to a point on the curve (O to A on Fig. 2),

Fig. 1 – Calculating a Modulus

the secant slope Ss is obtained and the secant modulus Es is calculated from it. One would
use such a modulus for predicting the movement due to the first application of a load as
in the case of a spread footing. If the slope is drawn as the tangent to the point considered
on the stress strain curve then the tangent slope St is obtained and the tangent modulus Et
is calculated from it. One would use such a modulus to calculate the incremental
movement due to an incremental load as in the case of the movement due to one more
story in a high-rise building. If the slope is drawn as the line which joins points A and B

2
on Fig. 2, then the unloading slope Su is obtained and the unloading modulus Eu is
calculated from it. One would use such a modulus when calculating the heave at the
bottom of an excavation or the rebound of a pavement after the loading by a truck tire
(resilient modulus). If the slope is drawn from point B to point D on Fig. 2, then the
reloading slope Sr is obtained and the reload modulus Er is calculated from it. One would
use this modulus to calculate the movement at the bottom of an excavation if the
excavated soil or

Fig. 2 – Definition of Soil Modulus

a building of equal weight was placed back in the excavation or to calculate the
movement of the pavement under reloading by the same truck tire. If the slope is drawn
from point B to point C on Fig. 2, then the cyclic slope Sc is obtained and the cyclic
modulus Ec is calculated from it. One would use such a modulus and its evolution as a
function of the number of cycles for the movement of a pile foundation subjected to
repeated wave loading.

Which ever one of these moduli is defined and considered, the state in which the soil is at
a given time will affect that modulus. The next section describes some of the main state
parameters influencing soil moduli.

2. STATE FACTORS

The state factors include the following.

How closely packed are the particles? If they are closely packed, the modulus
tends to be high. This is measured by the dry density (ratio of the weight of solids over
the total volume of the wet sample) of the soil for example; it can also be measured by
the porosity (ratio of the volume of voids over the total volume of the wet sample).

3
 How are the particles organized? This refers to the structure of the soil. For
example a coarse grain soil can have a loose or dense structure and a fine grain soil can
have a dispersed or flocculated structure. Note that two soil samples can have the same
dry density yet different structures and therefore different soil moduli. This is why taking
a disturbed sample of a coarse grain soil in the field and reconstituting it to the same dry
density and water content in the laboratory can lead to laboratory and field moduli which
are different.
What is the water content? This parameter has a major impact because at low
water contents the water binds the particles (especially for fine grained soils) and
increases the effective stress between the particles through the suction and tensile skin of
water phenomenon. Therefore in this case low water contents lead to high soil moduli.
This is why a clay shrinks and becomes very stiff when it dries. At the same time at very
low water contents the compaction of coarse grain soils is not as efficient as it is at higher
water contents because the lubrication effect of water is not there. Therefore in this case
very low water contents lead to low moduli. As the water content increases, water
lubrication increases the effect of compaction and the modulus increases as well.
However if the water content rises beyond an optimum value, the water occupies more
and more room and gets to the point where it pushes the particles apart thereby increasing
compressibility and reducing the modulus.
What has the soil been subjected to in the past? This is referred to as the stress
history factor. If the soil has been prestressed in the past it is called overconsolidated.
This prestressing can come from a glacier which may have been 100 meters thick 10,000
years ago and has now totally melted. This prestressing can also come from the drying
and wetting cycles of the seasons in arid parts of the world. If the soil has not been
prestressed in the past, in other words if today’s stress is the highest stress experienced by
the soil and if the soil is at equilibrium under this stress, the soil is normally consolidated.
An over-consolidated (OC) soil will generally have higher moduli than the same
normally consolidated (NC) soil because the OC soil is on the reload part of the stress
strain curve while the NC soil is on the first loading part. Some soils are still in the
process of consolidating under their own weight. These are called underconsolidated soils
such as the clays deposited offshore the Mississippi Delta where the deposition rate is
more rapid than the rate which would allow the pore water pressures induced by
deposition to dissipate. These clays have very low moduli.
What about cementation? This refers to the “glue” which can exist at the
contacts between particles. As discussed above, low water contents in fine grained soils
can generate suction in the water strong enough to simulate a significant “glue effect”
between particles. This effect is temporary as an increase in water content will destroy it.
Another glue effect is due to the chemical cementation which can develop at the contacts.
This cementation can be due to the deposition of calcium at the particle to particle
contacts for example. Such cementation leads to a significant increase in modulus.
These are some of the most important factors related to the state of the soil and
influencing its modulus. In the following part the factors associated with the loading
process are discussed.

4
3. LOADING FACTORS

In this section it is assumed that the state factors for the soil considered are fixed.
In other words the discussion of each of the factors below can be prefaced by saying “all
other factors being equal”. Also in this section the secant modulus is used.
What is the mean stress level in the soil? The loading process induces stresses
in the soil. These stresses can be shear stresses or normal stresses or a combination of
both. At one point and at any given time in a soil mass there is a set of three principal
normal stresses. The mean of these three stresses has a significant influence on the soil
modulus. This is also called the confinement effect. Fig. 3(a) shows an example of two
stress strain curves at two different confinement levels. As common sense would indicate,
the higher the confinement is, the higher the soil modulus will be. A common model for
quantifying the influence of the confinement on the soil modulus is given on Fig. 3(a) and
is usually attributed to the work of Kondner. According to this model, the modulus is
proportional to a power law of the confinement stress. The modulus E0 is the modulus
obtained when the confinement stress is equal to the atmospheric pressure pa. A common
value for the power exponent a in Fig. 3(a) is 0.5.
What is the strain level in the soil? The loading process induces strains in the
soil mass. Because soils are nonlinear materials, the secant modulus depends on the mean
strain level in the zone of influence. In most cases the secant modulus will decrease as the
strain level increases because the stress strain curve has a downward curvature. Note that
an exception to this downward curvature occurs when the results of a consolidation test is
plotted as a stress strain curve on arithmetic scales for both axes. Indeed in this case the
stress strain curve exhibits an upward curvature because the increase in confinement
brought about by the steel ring is more influential than the decrease in modulus due to the
increase in strain in the soil. In the triaxial test, the stress strain curve can be fitted with a
hyperbola and the associated model for the modulus is shown on Fig. 3(b). This
hyperbolic model is usually attributed to the work of Duncan. In this model (Fig. 3(b)),
E0 is the initial tangent modulus also equal to the secant modulus for a strain of zero. The
parameter s is the asymptotic value of the stress for a strain equal to infinity. In that sense
it is related to the strength of the soil.
What is the strain rate in the soil? Soils like many other materials are viscous.
This means that the faster a soil is loaded, the stiffer it is and therefore the higher the
modulus is. In some instances the reverse behavior is observed. Fig. 3(c) shows an
example of two stress strain curves obtained by loading the soil at two drastically
different strain rates. The strain rate is defined as the strain accumulated per unit of time.
The modulus usually varies as a straight line on a log-log plot of modulus versus strain
rate. The slope of that line is the exponent b in Fig. 3(c). In clays, common values of this
exponent vary from 0.02 for stiff clays to 0.1 for very soft clays. In sands common values
of b vary from 0.01 to 0.03. The modulus E0 is the modulus obtained at a reference strain
rate. Much of the work on this model has been done at Texas A&M University.
What is the number of cycles experienced by the soil? If the loading process is
repeated a number of times, the number of cycles applied will influence the soil modulus.
Again referring to the secant modulus, the larger the number of cycles the smaller the
modulus becomes. This is consistent with the accumulation of movement with an
increasing number of cycles. The model used to describe this phenomenon is shown on

5
Fig. 3(d). The exponent c in the model is negative and varies significantly. The most
common values are of the order of -0.1 to -0.3. Much of the work on this model has been
done at Texas A&M University.
Is there time for the water to drain during the loading process? Two extreme
cases can occur: drained or undrained loading. The undrained case may occur if the
drainage valve is closed during a laboratory test or if the test is run sufficiently fast in the
field. The time required to maintain an undrained behavior or to ensure that complete

Fig. 3 – Loading Factors for Soil Moduli

drainage takes place depends mainly on the soil type. For example a 10 minute test in a
highly plastic clay is probably undrained while a 10 minute test in a clean sand is
probably a drained test. The Poisson’s ratio is sensitive to whether or not drainage takes
place. For example if no drainage takes place during loading in a clay it is common to
assume a Poisson’s ratio equal to 0.5. On the other hand if complete drainage takes place

6
(excess pore pressures are kept equal to zero), then a Poisson’s ratio value of 0.35 may be
reasonable. The difference between the two calculated moduli is the difference between
the undrained modulus and the drained modulus. Note that the shear modulus remains
theoretically constant when the drainage varies. Note also that the Poisson’s ratio can be
larger than 0.5 if the soil dilates during shear associated with compression.

4. MODULI FOR VARIOUS FIELDS OF APPLICATION

The modulus is useful in many fields of geotechnical engineering. It is clear by

now that the modulus required for one field may be significantly different from the
modulus for another field.
In the case of shallow foundations, the mean stress level applied under the
foundation is often between 100 and 200 kPa. The normal strain level in the vertical
direction is about 0.01 or less and is typically associated with a movement of about 25
mm. The rate of loading is extremely slow because that strain occurs first at the
construction rate and then the load is sustained over many years. The number of cycles is
one unless cycles due to seasonal variations or other cyclic loading (such as compressor
foundations) are included. Example values of the modulus in this case are 10,000 to
20,000 kPa.
In the case of deep foundations, the mean stress level varies because the side
friction on the piles occurs over a range of depth, while the point resistance occurs at a
relatively large depth. The strain level at the pile point is usually smaller than in shallow
foundations because a percentage of the load dissipates in friction before getting to the
pile point. The strain rate is similar to the case of shallow foundations with rates
associated with months of construction and years of sustained loads. High strain rates do
occur however in the case of earthquake or wave loading. Cycles can be a major issue for
earthquake loading of buildings and bridges or for wave loading of offshore structures.
Because deep foundations are used in very different types of soils and for very different
types of loading, the moduli vary over a much wider range of values than for shallow
foundations.
In the case of slope stability and retaining structures, movements are
associated with the deformation of the soil mass essentially under its own weight.
Therefore the stress level corresponds to gravity induced stresses. The strains are usually
very small and the strain rate is again associated with the rate of construction at first and
the long term deformation rate during the life of the slope or of the retaining structure.
Cycles may occur due to earthquakes or other cyclic phenomena. For properly designed
slopes and retaining structures, the moduli tend to be higher than in foundation
engineering because the strain levels tend to be smaller.
In the case of pavements, the mean stress level in the subgrade is relatively low.
The pressure applied to the pavement is of the order of 200 kPa for car tires, 500 kPa for
truck tires, and 1700 kPa for airplane tires. However, the vertical stress at the top of the
subgrade under a properly designed pavement may be only one tenth of the tire pressure
applied at the surface of the pavement. The strain level is very low because the purpose
of the pavement is to limit long term deformations to movements measured in millimeters
if not in tenths of millimeters. Typical strain levels are 0.001 or less at the top of the
subgrade. The rate of loading is very high and associated with the passing of a traveling

7
vehicle. The loading time is of the order of milliseconds for a car at 100 km/h but is
measured in hours for an airplane parked at the gate. The number of cycles is tied to the
number of vehicles traveling on the pavement during the life of the pavement. This
number varies drastically from less than a million of vehicle cycles for small roads to tens
of millions for busy interstates. Typical modulus values range from 20,000 kPa to
150,000 kPa.

5. MODULUS OR STIFFNESS?

The modulus E has been defined in Fig. 1. It has units of force per unit area
2
(kN/m ). The stiffness K is defined here as the ratio of the force applied on a boundary
through a loading area divided by the displacement experienced by the loaded area. It has
units of force per unit length (kN/m). The loaded area is typically a plate which can be
square or circular or in the shape of a ring. There is a relationship between the modulus
and the stiffness. For the case of a circular plate having a diameter B, the relationship is
of the form:

E = f(K/B) (6)

This relationship shows that, if the modulus is a soil property, the stiffness is not a soil
property and depends on the size of the loaded area. Therefore, for an elastic material,
the stiffness measured with one test will be different from the stiffness measured with
another test if the loading areas are different. Yet, for the same elastic material, the
modulus obtained from both tests would be the same. In that sense the use of the stiffness
is not as convenient as the modulus and the use of the modulus is preferred.

6. MODULUS OR COEFFICIENT OF SUBGRADE REACTION?

The modulus E has been defined in Fig. 1. It has units of force per unit area
(kN/m2). The coefficient of subgrade reaction k is defined here as the ratio of the pressure
applied to the boundary through a loading area divided by the displacement experienced
by the loaded area. It has units of force per unit volume (kN/m3). The loaded area can be
a footing (coefficient of vertical subgrade reaction) or a horizontally loaded pile
(coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction). There is a relationship between the modulus
and the coefficient of subgrade reaction. For a footing or a pile, that relationship is of the
form:
E = g(k x B) (7)

where B is the footing width or the pile width or diameter. This relationship shows that, if
the modulus is a soil property, the coefficient of subgrade reaction is not a soil
property and depends on the size of the loaded area. Therefore, if a coefficient of
subgrade reaction k is derived from load tests on a footing or a pile of a certain
dimension, the value of k cannot be used directly for other footing or pile sizes. Indeed in
this case, careful considerations of size and scale must be addressed. The modulus is not
affected by this problem. In that sense the use of the coefficient of subgrade reaction is
not as convenient as the modulus and the use of the modulus is preferred.

8
 Triaxial test
triaxial test

The three main types of triaxial tests are consolidated-drained (CD), consolidated-undrained
(CU), and unconsolidated-undrained (UU). The main differences between these tests are the
time it takes to perform them, and the parameters they provide:
• Unconsolidated-undrained (UU)
The simplest and fastest test, usually taking less than 30 minutes. It's often performed on
cohesive soil, but can also be used on remolded sand. The UU test only involves a shear stage,
and only total stresses are controlled and recorded. It's used to determine undrained shear
strength, which can be used to assess short-term soil stability.
• Consolidated-drained (CD)
The longest test, often taking weeks or months to complete. The CD test involves a saturation
and consolidation stage, and then a shear stage where pore pressure is not allowed to build up.
This results in very low strain rates, and the test provides strength parameters determined under
effective stress control.
• Consolidated-undrained (CU)
The most common triaxial test. It's quicker than the CD test because it allows excess pore
pressure to increase and be measured during the shear stage. The CU test provides strength
parameters based on effective stresses.
Other parameters that can be determined from a triaxial test include: Angle of shearing
resistance ϕ΄, Cohesion c΄, Shear stiffness G, Compression index Cc, and Permeability k

A typical triaxial test involves confining a cylindrical soil or rock specimen in a

pressurised cell to simulate a stress condition and then shearing to failure, in order to determine
the shear strength properties of the sample. Most triaxial tests are performed on high quality
undisturbed specimens. The samples normally range from 38 mm to 100 mm samples, although
samples considerably larger can be tested with the correct equipment. The test specimen most
commonly has a height to diameter ratio of 2:1.
The sample will usually be saturated, then consolidated and finally sheared, most
commonly only in compression – but extension tests may be undertaken with the correct
equipment.
During the test the sample is subjected to stress conditions that attempt to simulate the
in-situ stresses. Figure 1 shows the stress conditions applied to a sample during a typical test;
Figure 2 shows the basic principles on effective stresses.

1
 Triaxial test

σ1 – Vertical (axial) Stress (think of this as the vertical load applied to the sample), the Major
Principle Stress, Can also be call σv
σ3 – Confining Pressure (think of this as cell pressure), the Minor Principle Stress, σh
U – Pore Pressure, Also known as Uw (Pore Water Pressure (P.W.P))
σ1 – σ3 – Deviator Stress (the stress due to the axial load applied to the specimen in excess of
the confining pressure)

σ1’ – Effective Vertical (axial) Stress

σ3’ – Effective Confining Pressure
U – Pore Pressure
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 Triaxial test
Why We Use Triaxial Testing
Triaxial tests are one of the most widely performed tests in a geotechnical laboratory.
The advantages of the test over other test methods used in the geotechnical laboratory used to
determine shear strength (such as direct shear) is that specimen drainage can be controlled and
pore pressure can be measured. The triaxial test enables parameters such as cohesion (c’),
internal angle of friction (φ’) and shear strength to be determined.
The triaxial test can also be used to determine other variables such as stiffness and
permeability with the correct equipment.
A list of some of the common engineering issues that triaxial tests can be used for can
be seen in table 1, with the type of test described in the next section.
Field Problem Type of Analysis Type of Test

CU or CD Triaxial, UU – Quick
First Time Slope Failure Effective Stress
triaxial, CU -CD Effective stress

Cut Slope Failure Effective Stress CU Triaxial Effective stress

UU Triaxial
Total Stress
Earth Dams CU Triaxial
Effective Stress
Triaxial Permeability

UU Triaxial
Total Stress
Tunnel Linings CU Triaxial, CU – CD Effective
Effective Stress
stress

UU – Quick triaxial
Foundation design
CU -CD Effective stress

It is common for UU triaxial tests to be used for short term engineering problems and CU and
CD triaxials to look at long term engineering problems.

Different Types of Triaxial Testing

There are 3 common types of triaxial test:
• UU Triaxial – Unconsolidated Undrained (this can also be termed QU for Quick
Undrained)
• CU Triaxial – Consolidated Undrained triaxial
• CD Triaxial – Consolidated Drained triaxial
UU triaxial tests are termed total stress tests and CU/CD triaxial tests are termed effective
stress tests. Figure 1 shows the stresses involved with a total stress test and Figure 2 summaries
the stresses in an effective stress test.
CU and CD Triaxial tests normally start with a saturation stage, which then leads onto a
consolidation stage. The consolidated stage can be either;
a) isotropic; the stress surrounding the sample is equal in all directions or
b) anisotropic; the stress surrounding the sample is not equal in all directions.
The tests are commonly abbreviated to CIU (Consolidated Isotropic Undrained) or CAU
(Consolidated Anisotropic Undrained). In the last stage the sample is sheared to failure.
UU triaxial tests commonly do not have a saturation or consolidation stage performed; the test
normally only consists of a shear stage. UU triaxial tests are quick tests, taking under 30
minutes to perform. The CU and CD triaxial tests take significantly longer to perform and can
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 Triaxial test
take weeks or even months to complete. The CD Triaxial commonly has the longest test
duration, as during the shear stage of the test, pore pressure is not allowed to build up, resulting
in very low strain rates. CU triaixals are quicker to perform as PWP is allowed to increase and
the excess PWP is measured throughout the shear stage.
An additional test called unconfined compressive strength (UCS) can also be undertaken with
a triaxial system. This shears a specimen under axial load with no confining pressure.

Typical Triaxial System and Cell

A typical triaxial cell is shown in Figure 3 of this document showing a sample setup for testing.
The setup shown is used for CU and CD triaxial tests. UU triaxial test can also be undertaken
with this system or a simpler cheaper system can be purchased if only UU triaxial tests are
required.
The sample is sealed inside a rubber membrane and then surround with water (cell pressure).
The cell pressure is then used to apply a stress to the sample (σ3) Back pressure can be added
to saturate the sample if required. The sample is axially loaded during shearing with the force
measured by the load cell, the deformation measured by the displacement transducer and if
required the pore pressure in the sample can be measured. Volume change of the sample is
measure from the back pressure line using a volume change unit or an automatic pressure
controller.

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 Triaxial test
Compressed Air
A typical triaxial system for triaxials that uses compressed air can be seen in figure 4. This
system consists of the following components that used for the following:
Pressure Panel – This enables water and compressed air to be correctly distributed to the right
equipment to undertake a triaxial test. Cell Pressure (σ3 – Confining Pressure) and Back
pressure are controlled from here. A pressure gauge is included so that known pressures can be
applied to the test specimen using the pressure regulators fitted to the panel.
Load Frame – The load frame is used to apply deformation to the triaxial specimen. The load
frame can be controlled to a high level of accuracy (these tests normally require a slow speed).
Load frames come in a range of capacities, VJ Tech can supply frames from 10kN to 250kN
capacity. The one in Figure 4 is a 50kN load frame and can apply loads of up to 50kN to a
specimen.

Air/Water Cylinders – These provide an interface between compressed air and water in your
triaxial system. They contain a rubber bladder which is filled with compressed air to pressurise
the water inside the cylinder, this in turn provides the pressure used in the cell and back pressure
for our triaxial test. The pressure the system can apply to samples is limited by the compressor.
Load Cell – The load cell or other load measuring device such as a load ring, provide the loads
required to shear a triaxial specimen.
Displacement transducer – This could be a mechanical dial gauge, digital dial gauge or LSCT
type transducer and is used to accurately measure the deformation applied to the triaxial
specimen as it is sheared.
Triaxial Cell – The Triaxial cell comes in a range of sizes and pressure ratings. The cell contains
the triaxial specimen and is pressurised throughout the test.

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 Triaxial test
Pore Pressure Transducer – In CU and CD triaxial tests, the pressures inside the sample are
measured (U – Pore Pressure). This is done using a pressure transducer attached to the base of
the triaxial cell.
Automatic Volume Change unit – The automatic volume change unit is used in some triaxial
tests to measure the volume of water going into the specimen and also the volume change of
the specimen through the test.
With a system like this the pressures are set manually by the technician undertaking the test. It
is common for the outputs from load cell, displacement transducers and pressure transducers
to be data logged in some way and data analysed using VJ Tech’s Clisp Studio software.
Hydraulic Pressure Controller
A Pro Triaxial system for Triaxial testing using hydraulic pressure can be seen in Figure 5. The
system consists of the following components:

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 Triaxial test
Distribution Panel – The distribution panel is used to connect the Dual pressure controller to
the triaxial cell. It also has the de-aired water system connected to it. It allows for the easy
movement of water to the required location in the system without the need to disconnect lines.
The pressure gauge on the panel is used for calibration, but is not used during testing.
Automatic Pressure/Volume Controller – The Dual automatic pressure controller (DAPC) is
used to generate pressure for the triaxial test. It uses stepper motors to pressurise each cylinder
of water to generate cell pressure (σ3 – Confining Pressure) and back pressure. No compressed
air supply is required. The DAPC is also able to measure volume change during the test. VJ
Tech APCs come in a range of pressure capacities and Volumes, the DAPC pictured has a
maximum pressure of 3500 kPa and Volume 250 cc for each Channel
Load Frame – The Pro load frame is used to apply deformation to the triaxial specimen. The
load frame can be controlled to a high level of accuracy. Load frames come in a range of
capacities, VJ Tech can supply frames from 10kN to 250kN capacity. The one in Figure 5 is a
Pro 50 kN load frame and can apply loads of up to 50 kN to a specimen. The load frame has a
built-in data logger to log transducer data during the test and can also be used in standalone
mode using the touchscreen.
Load Cell – The load cell or other load measuring device such as a load ring, provide the loads
required to shear a triaxial specimen.
Displacement transducer – This could be a mechanical dial gauge, digital dial gauge or LSCT
type transducer and is used to accurately measure the deformation applied to the triaxial
specimen as it is sheared
Triaxial Cell – The Triaxial cell comes in a range of sizes and pressure rating. The cell contains
the triaxial specimen and is pressurised throughout the test.
Pore Pressure Transducer – In CU and CD triaxial tests the pressures inside the sample are
measured (U – Pore Pressure), this is done using a pressure transducer attached to the base of
the triaxial cell.
Additional Equipment Required
For both CU/CD triaxial systems a de-aired water supply is also required for testing. The UU
system can use a mains water supply if required.
Automatic systems require a computer and software package such as VJ Tech’s Clisp Studio,
to control the test and record transducer outputs.
A data logger (either inbuilt or external) will be used to store transducer readings taken during
the test.
Sample preparation equipment will also be required, such as: sample extruder, sample moulds,
membranes, ‘o’ rings, porous discs, ruler, balance and filter papers.
Test Procedure – Standards for Triaxial Tests
Triaxial tests are document in a range of international standards. These include:
British Standard 1377 part 7 and 8
ASTM D2850, D4767 and D2166
Australian standard AS1289 6.4.1 and 6.4.2
Hong Kong Geospec 3
German DIN 18137
Russian GOST 12248-96
Additional tests can also be performed with triaxial systems such as Stress Path analysis and
anisotropic consolidation. Although the test procedures are not detailed in the standards above
the procedures are fairly common and details can be found in either academic papers or in the
Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing Vol. 2 and vol. 3.
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 Triaxial test
With additional equipment, a standard triaxial system can be upgraded to undertake the
following tests:
Bender Element analysis (to determine the Gmax of a sample)
Cyclic/Dynamic triaxial testing (to determine the cyclic shear strength of a sample and also
used for modulus and damping properties)
Small Strain analysis (used for stiffness analysis) using on-sample transducers measuring axial
and radial deformation can also be performed.
Test Procedure – System Preparation
Before any triaxial test is undertaken it is very important that checks are undertaken to verify
the performance of the system. Failure to do this may mean either an extended test period or a
sample being destroyed and no results obtained.
The following list is a suggested check list of the system before any test takes place. It is
assumed the system has already been installed. Additional checks may be required depending
on your local testing standard.
• Create enough de-aired water for the preparation and test (this can take a few hours to
do)
• Clean the triaxial cell, paying special attention to the base and groove holding the ‘o’
ring.
• Clean ‘o’ ring in cell base and ensure it is free from defects
• Flush the de-airing block that the pore pressure transducer is connected to. Pressurise
and check the block for leaks
• Check the pore pressure transducer calibration and recalibrate if necessary
• Flush the back pressure line
• Check the back pressure line for leaks (following the procedure in most standards will
take at least 24 hours)
• Check load cell and displacement transducers are accurate.
Test Procedure – Sample Setup
Most triaxial tests are performed on high quality undisturbed samples; local standards such as
Eurocode 7 give details on what is considered to be a high quality undisturbed sample; it is
important to realise that sample disturbance (from collection, transport to lab and storage) will
affect the results obtained from a triaxial test. Remoulded specimens can be tested and
preparation procedures can be found in relevant standards and texts on this subject.
Samples are normally prepared to give a sample height to diameter ratio of 2:1. The sample
ends are trimmed to ensure they are level and flat. This is commonly and most easily done
using a sample mould or former for the diameter of sample that is being tested and a straight
edge.

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 Triaxial test

The sample is then weighed so the bulk density can be determined and measured (both length
and diameter) so the volume and area can be calculated. It is critical that the sample dimensions
are accurate so that stress and strain being applied to the specimen during testing can be
calculated accurately.
A number of critical checks should be made during this process:
1. Use a new membrane and make sure there are no holes in the membrane.
2. Ensure the porous discs are clean and not clogged with soil particles.
3. Place the ‘o’ rings using an ‘o’ ring tool, this will minimise sample disturbance.
4. Clean any loose material from the sample as you go. This loose material can cause
leaks.
5. Take care not to hit the sample when placing the top of the cell over the sample.
During this preparation process care must be taken to limit sample disturbance. Sample
disturbance can significantly affect the results obtained from the test.

Test Procedure – Saturation

Effective stress triaxials (CU and CD tests) require that the sample is saturated for testing. The
reason for this is so that reliable measurements of pore pressure can be made. This is made
possible by removing the air from the voids inside the sample.
The saturation process can be performed in a number of ways details of which can be found in
the available Standards and text books. The most common though is incremental increase of
cell and back pressure into the sample.

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 Triaxial test

This process gradually increases both the cell and back pressure so to dissolve any air that is in
the voids of the soil sample. During this process the pore pressure coefficient B is calculated
to determine the degree of saturation.
Figure 7 shows the process that happens during a B check to determine the level of saturation.
Most standards state that a B value greater than 0.95 indicates that a sample is sufficiently
saturated.
The B value is calculated using the equation in Figure 9.

∆U = Change in pore pressure

∆σ3 = Change in Confining Pressure
Figure 8 shows the process that happens during a back pressure step. This step pushes water
into the sample to try and saturate it if the B check shows the sample isn’t saturated. These
steps are repeated until the sample is saturated
Test Procedure – Consolidation
After saturation, the specimen is normally consolidated to a stress condition representative of
its in-situ condition. The consolidation is normally isotropic (the stresses applied vertically and
horizontally to the sample are the same).
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 Triaxial test
In effective stress tests the sample will be consolidated to an effective pressure. This is the
difference between the confining (cell) pressure and the back pressure. If this is compared to
the equation in Figure 2 defining effective stress you will see this is incorrect.

At this point in the test pore pressure is replaced by back pressure to define our effective stress,
to help simplify setup of this phase of the test. When the confining pressure and back pressure
have been set to the correct values, there will be an excess of pore pressure in the sample (the
pore pressure will be higher than the back pressure).
Once the consolidation is started the excess pore pressure in the sample will start to dissipate
as the consolidation process drains of water from the sample decreasing its volume. Once this
process is complete (the sample has stopped changing in volume) the pore pressure will be at
or very near the back pressure level and pore pressure will be used to calculate the effective
stress conditions the sample is under.
100% dissipation of excess pore pressure is not always possible so most standards suggest a
minimum dissipation of 95% is achieved before the consolidation process is stopped.
Note during consolidation σ3 is the same as σ1.
Test Procedure – Shear
In the shear stage the axial force (σ1) is gradually increased whilst the confining pressure (σ3)
is maintained until failure happens. This is the maximum shear force the soil can take.
This stage of the test is also commonly referred to as load stage, compression stage or shearing
to failure stage.
During the shear stage the drainage conditions that are applied to the sample will determine if
a drained or undrained test is performed. If the sample is not allowed to drain this is an
undrained test, the sample will not change in volume during this test but will change in shape.
If drainage is allowed, water will drain from the sample during the test, allowing the volume
and the shape of the sample to change. In a CU (undrained) test, pore pressure changes (U) are
allowed to take place and are measured. In a CD (Drained) test drainage is allowed to prevent
pore pressure changes happening. In this type of test the volume change of the sample is
measured during the shear stage.
From this stage of the test, as well as the shear strength being determined, the values of
cohesion (c’) and phi (φ’) can be determined using Mohr circle and stress path plots.

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 Triaxial test

Further Reading on Triaxial Tests

The following text books helped put this document together.
Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing Vol. II: Permeability, Shear Strength and Compressibility
Tests 3rd Edition by K H Head and R L Epps
Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing Vol. III: Effective Stress Tests 3rd Edition by K H Head and
R J Epps

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