Losses in Optical Fiber Cables

1. Absorption Loss
• Cause: Absorption of light energy by the material (impurities) in the fiber.
• Source: Impurities like iron, copper, and transition metal ions absorb light energy.
• Effect: Loss of signal strength as light travels through the fiber.
• Mitigation: Use high-purity silica and remove impurities during manufacturing.

2. Material (or Rayleigh) Scattering Loss

• Cause: Scattering of light due to microscopic variations in the material’s density and
refractive index.
• Source: Density fluctuations at the molecular level in the fiber core.
• Effect: Scattered light energy is lost in directions other than forward propagation.
• Mitigation: Use ultra-pure materials and operate at higher wavelengths (like 1550 nm)
where scattering is lower.

3. Chromatic (or Wavelength) Dispersion

• Cause: Different wavelengths of light travel at different speeds in the fiber core.
• Source: Different wavelengths (colors) of light travel with different velocities, leading
to pulse broadening.
• Effect: Signal distortion and inter-symbol interference (ISI) in digital communication.
• Mitigation: Use dispersion-shifted fibers or wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM) systems.

4. Radiation Losses
• Cause: Loss of light due to bends or curves in the fiber cable.
• Source: Improper cable installation, sharp bends, or stress on the fiber.
• Effect: Light rays leak out of the fiber, reducing signal strength.
• Mitigation: Use bend-insensitive fibers and follow proper cable routing guidelines.

5. Modal Dispersion
• Cause: Different propagation paths (modes) of light take different times to reach the
end of the fiber.
• Source: Occurs in multimode fibers where multiple modes of light travel at different
speeds.
 • Effect: Pulse broadening and signal distortion at the receiver.
• Mitigation: Use single-mode fibers to eliminate modal dispersion.

6. Coupling Losses
• Cause: Misalignment, air gaps, or imperfect connectors at the junctions of two fibers
or fiber-to-device interfaces.
• Source: Poor splicing, dirty connectors, or improper alignment of the core.
• Effect: Signal loss at the connection point, reducing overall transmission efficiency.
• Mitigation: Use high-precision splicing machines, clean connectors, and ensure
proper alignment.

Types of Optical Fibers

1. Based on Mode of Propagation
1. Single-Mode Fiber (SMF)
o Core Size: Small (8-10 microns)
o Light Path: Only one mode of light propagates.
o Dispersion: Low dispersion, suitable for long-distance communication.
o Application: Long-distance telecommunication, high-speed data transmission
(like 5G).
2. Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF)
o Core Size: Larger (50-62.5 microns)
o Light Path: Multiple modes (paths) of light propagate.
o Dispersion: High modal dispersion, limiting its use to short distances.
o Application: Short-distance data transfer in LANs, data centers, and local
networks.

2. Based on Refractive Index Profile

1. Step-Index Fiber
o Refractive Index Profile: Sharp change in refractive index at the core-
cladding boundary.
o Light Path: Light reflects at sharp angles inside the core.
o Dispersion: High modal dispersion (in multimode step-index fibers).
 o Application: Used in low-cost, low-speed, short-distance communication.
2. Graded-Index Fiber
o Refractive Index Profile: Refractive index gradually decreases from the core
center to the cladding.
o Light Path: Light follows a smooth, curved path inside the core.
o Dispersion: Lower modal dispersion than step-index fibers.
o Application: Used in higher-speed, medium-distance data networks and
LANs.

3. Based on Material
1. Glass Fiber
o Material: Made from ultra-pure silica (SiO₂).
o Application: Used in long-distance telecommunication due to low attenuation
and high bandwidth.
2. Plastic Fiber
o Material: Made from plastic (like PMMA - polymethyl methacrylate).
o Application: Used in short-distance applications like home networks, lighting,
and automotive systems.

OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM LINK BUDGET

As with any communications system, optical fiber systems consist of a source and a desti
nation that are separated by numerous components and devices that introduce various
amounts of loss or gain to the signal as it propagates through the system.
Figure 41 shows two typical optical fiber communications system configurations. Figure 41a
shows a re peaterless system where the source and destination are interconnected through one
or more sections of optical cable. With a repeaterless system, there are no amplifiers or
regenerators between the source and destination.
Figure 41b shows an optical fiber system that includes a repeater that either amplifies or
regenerates the signal. Repeatered systems are obviously used when the source and des
tination are separated by great distances. Link budgets are generally calculated between a
light source and a light detector.
Therefore, the link budget consists of a light power source, a light detector, and various cable
and connector losses. Losses typical to optical fiber links include the following:
 1. Cable losses
2. Connector losses
3. Source-to-cable interface loss
4. Cable-to-light detector interface loss.
5. Splicing loss
6. Cable bends

As with any link or system budget, the useful power available in the receiver depends on
transmit power and link losses. Mathematically, receive power is represented as
Pr = Pt - losses
where Pr = power received (dBm)
Pt = power transmitted (dBm)
losses = sum of all losses (dB)

Laser Types
Laser is an acronym for light amplification stimulated by the emission of radiation. Laser
technology deals with the concentration of light into a very small, powerful beam.
Basically, there are four types of lasers: gas, liquid, solid, and semiconductor.
1. Gas lasers. Gas lasers use a mixture of helium and neon enclosed in a glass tube. A flow of
coherent (one frequency) light waves is emitted through the output cou pler when an electric
current is discharged into the gas. The continuous light-wave output is monochromatic (one
color).
2. Liquid lasers. Liquid lasers use organic dyes enclosed in a glass tube for an active medium.
Dye is circulated into the tube with a pump. A powerful pulse of light ex cites the organic dye.
3. Solid lasers. Solid lasers use a solid, cylindrical crystal, such as ruby, for the active medium.
Each end of the ruby is polished and parallel. The ruby is excited by a tung sten lamp tied to
an ac power supply. The output from the laser is a continuous wave.
4. Semiconductor lasers. Semiconductor lasers are made from semiconductor p-n junctions
and are commonly called ILDs. The excitation mechanism is a dc power supply that controls
the amount of current to the active medium. The output light from an ILD is easily modulated,
making it very useful in many electronic communications applications.

LED Types
An LED is a p-n junction diode ,usually made from a semiconductor material such as
aluminium gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs) or gallium-arsenide phosphide (GaAsP). LEDs emit
light by spontaneous emission—light is emitted as a result of the recombination of electrons
and holes.
Types of LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) Used in Optical Communication

1. Homojunction LED
• Structure: p-n junction made from the same semiconductor material (like GaAs or
Si).
• Junction Type: Single material for both p-type and n-type regions.
• Light Emission: Occurs when electrons recombine with holes in the junction,
releasing photons.
• Emission Efficiency: Low efficiency due to high recombination in the bulk material.
• Spectral Width: Broad emission spectrum.
• Application: Used in simple LED indicators and low-cost optical communication
systems.
• Drawback: High power loss and lower efficiency compared to heterojunction LEDs.

2. Heterojunction LED
• Structure: p-n junction made using two different semiconductor materials (like
GaAs/AlGaAs).
 • Junction Type: Different materials for p-type and n-type regions.
• Light Emission: Recombination occurs at the interface of the two materials, resulting
in higher photon emission.
• Emission Efficiency: Higher efficiency compared to homojunction LEDs.
• Spectral Width: Narrower emission spectrum, better for optical communication.
• Application: Used in fiber-optic communication, high-speed optical links, and data
transmission.
• Advantage: Lower power loss, higher brightness, and better control of emission
properties.

3. Burrus Etched-Well Surface-Emitting LED

• Structure: LED where light is emitted from the top surface, and the chip is etched to
form a well-like structure.
• Junction Type: Usually a heterojunction for better efficiency.
• Light Emission: Light is emitted vertically from the surface of the LED.
• Efficiency: High coupling efficiency with optical fibers since light is emitted in the
direction of the fiber.
• Spectral Width: Narrower spectrum than edge-emitting LEDs.
• Application: Used for efficient fiber-optic coupling, especially in surface-emitting
applications.
• Advantage: Better fiber coupling efficiency due to vertical emission of light.

4. Edge-Emitting LED (EE-LED)

• Structure: Light is emitted from the edge of the semiconductor chip.
• Junction Type: Typically a heterojunction for high efficiency.
• Light Emission: Light propagates along the plane of the junction and is emitted from
the edge.
• Efficiency: Higher coupling efficiency with optical fibers compared to surface-
emitting LEDs.
• Spectral Width: Narrower spectrum than surface-emitting LEDs.
• Application: Used in high-speed optical communication and long-distance fiber links.
• Advantage: Better light confinement, higher coupling efficiency, and supports high-
speed data transmission.
Summary of Key Differences

Junction Light
Type Efficiency Application
Type Emission

Homojunction Single Entire Indicators, simple optical

Low
LED material junction systems

Heterojunction Two Optical communication, data

At interface High
LED materials links

Burrus Etched- Etched Fiber-optic coupling, optical

From surface High
Well LED surface links

Edge-Emitting Edge of From edge High-speed optical links, long-

High
LED chip of chip distance communication