ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

MODULE II

BJT Amplifiers: RC coupled amplifier (CE configuration) – need of various components and design,
Concept of AC load lines, voltage gain and frequency response.

Small signal analysis of CE configuration using small signal hybrid-pi model for mid frequency and
low frequency. (gain, input and output impedance).

High frequency equivalent circuits of BJT, Miller effect, Analysis of high frequency response of CE
amplifier.

AMPLIFIER

The process of increasing the signal strength is called as Amplification. An amplifier is an electronic
device that can increase the power of a signal. Amplification in practical applications is done using
Multi-stage amplifiers. A number of single-stage amplifiers are cascaded to form a Multi-stage
amplifier. A Single stage transistor amplifier has one transistor, bias circuit and other auxiliary
components.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS

Based on number of stages

Depending upon the number of stages of Amplification, there are Single-stage amplifiers and Multi-
stage amplifiers.

• Single-stage Amplifiers − This has only one transistor circuit, which is a single stage
amplification.
• Multi-stage Amplifiers − This has multiple transistor circuit, which provides multi-stage
amplification.

Based on its output

Depending upon the parameter that is amplified at the output, there are voltage and power amplifiers.

• Voltage Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the voltage level of the input signal,
is called as Voltage amplifier.
• Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the power level of the input signal, is
called as Power amplifier.

Based on the input signals

Depending upon the magnitude of the input signal applied, they can be categorized as Small signal and
large signal amplifiers.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

• Small signal Amplifiers − When the input signal is so weak so as to produce small fluctuations
in the collector current compared to its quiescent value, the amplifier is known as Small signal
amplifier.
• Large signal amplifiers − When the fluctuations in collector current are large i.e. beyond the
linear portion of the characteristics, the amplifier is known as large signal amplifier.

Based on the frequency range

Depending upon the frequency range of the signals being used, there are audio and radio amplifiers.

• Audio Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie in the audio
frequency range i.e. from 20Hz to 20 KHz frequency range, is called as audio amplifier.
• Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie in a very high
frequency range, is called as Power amplifier.

Based on Biasing Conditions

Depending upon their mode of operation, there are class A, class B and class C amplifiers.

• Class A amplifier − The biasing conditions in class A power amplifier are such that the
collector current flows for the entire AC signal applied.
• Class B amplifier − The biasing conditions in class B power amplifier are such that the collector
current flows for half-cycle of input AC signal applied.
• Class C amplifier − The biasing conditions in class C power amplifier are such that the collector
current flows for less than half cycle of input AC signal applied.
• Class AB amplifier − The class AB power amplifier is one which is created by combining both
class A and class B in order to have all the advantages of both the classes and to minimize the
problems they have.

Based on the Coupling method

Depending upon the method of coupling one stage to the other, there are RC coupled, Transformer
coupled and direct coupled amplifier.

• RC Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage using
resistor and capacitor (RC) combination can be called as a RC coupled amplifier.
• Transformer Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next
stage, with the help of a transformer, can be called as a Transformer coupled amplifier.
• Direct Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage
directly, can be called as a direct coupled amplifier.

Based on the Transistor Configuration

Depending upon the type of transistor configuration, there are CE CB and CC amplifiers.

• CE amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CE configured transistor

combination is called as CE amplifier.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

• CB amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CB configured transistor

combination is called as CB amplifier.
• CC amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CC configured transistor
combination is called as CC amplifier.

Linear amplifier

A linear amplifier magnifies an input signal and produces an output signal whose magnitude is larger
and directly proportional to the input signal.

Two types of analyses of the amplifier.

DC analysis can be performed with the ac source set to zero. This analysis, called a large signal
analysis, establishes the Q-point of the transistors in the amplifier.

AC analysis, called a small-signal analysis, can be performed with the dc source set to zero.

The total response of the amplifier circuit is the sum of the two individual responses.

COMMON EMITTER RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

A single stage RC coupled amplifier using NPN transistor is shown.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

Different components used in the circuit and its functions

i) Input Capacitor (CC1)

The input Capacitor couples ac signal voltage to the base of transistor Q1.In the absence of CC1, input
signal will be in parallel with resistor R2 and bias voltage of the base will be affected.

Thus the function of CC1 is to allow only the ac from the signal source to flow into the input circuit
but isolates the signal source from R2.

ii) Emitter bypass capacitor, CE

It is used in parallel with RE. It provides a low reactance path to the amplified ac signal. If it is
absent, amplified ac signal flowing through RE will cause voltage drop across it which will feedback
to the input side and reduce the output voltage.

iii) Coupling or blocking capacitor, Cc2

Because of its presence, the output is free from collector dc voltage. If it is absent, RC will come
in parallel with the resistor R1 of the next stage and changes the biasing conditions of the next stage.

iv) Biasing & Stabilization network (R1,R2& RE)

R1, R2& RE forms the biasing & stabilization network. Voltage divider formed by the resistor R1
& R2 across VCC provides necessary biasing for the transistor.

RE (Emitter Resistor) provides stabilization. For forward biasing the emitter base junction, R1 & R2 are
so adjusted that the base terminal becomes more positive than the emitter.

Working

The input to the amplifier is a sine wave that varies a few millivolts above and below zero. It is applied
between the base and emitter.

Positive Half Cycle of Input Signal

As the input signal goes positive, the voltage across the emitter-base junction becomes more positive.
This in effect increases forward bias, which causes base current to increase at the same rate as that of
the input sine wave. Emitter and collector currents also increase but much more than the base current
(Since IC=β IB). This large IC flows through RC, producing a large voltage drop across it.(ICRC).Hence
the output voltage reduces, as VCC is constant.

i.e., VCC = VCE + ICRC.

VCE or Vout = VCC - ICRC.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

Therefore, the output voltage from the amplifier, taken at the collector of Q1 with respect to the emitter,
is a negative alternation of voltage that is larger than the input, but has the same sine wave
characteristics.

Negative Half Cycle of Input Signal

During the negative alternation of the input, the input signal reduces the forward bias. This action
decreases base current, which results in a decrease in both emitter and collector currents. The decrease
in collector current through RC decreases its voltage drop i.e., ICRC and causes the voltage across the
transistor to rise since VCE or Vout = VCC - ICRC.

Therefore, the output for the negative alternation of the input is a positive alternation of voltage that is
larger than the input but has the same sine wave characteristics. Thus a phase difference of 180° occurs
between input voltage Vin and output voltage Vo.

By examining both input and output signals for one complete alternation of the input, we can see that
the output of the amplifier is an exact reproduction of the input except for the reversal in polarity and
the increased amplitude (a few millivolts as compared to a few volts).

Frequency Response Curve

Three regions Low frequency range, Mid-frequency range& High frequency range.

1) Low frequency range (<50 Hz)

In low frequency range, higher capacitive reactance of CC (XC=1/2πfC) allows a very small part of
signal to pass from one stage to the next stage & also because of higher reactance of C E, the resistor
RE is not effectively shunted. Thus the voltage gain falls off at low frequencies.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

2) Mid-frequency range.(50 Hz-20 KHz)

In this range, voltage gain of the amplifier is constant. Reason is that with increase in frequency in
this range, the reactance of coupling capacitor CC reduces & large part of signal is coupled to the next
stage. Therefore gain increases. But at the same time lower capacitive reactance causes higher loading
resulting in lower voltage gain. Thus 2 effects cancel & uniform gain is obtained in mid frequency
range.

3) High Frequency Range(>20 KHz)

The amplifier gain decreases with increase in frequency. At high frequencies, the reactance of
coupling capacitor is very small & CC behaves as short circuit. The net reactance of that stage is not
equal to the next stage, due to this poor impedance matching the power of this stage is not transferred
fully to next stage & hence gain falls. Also transistor capacitances (inter electrode and wiring
capacitances) come into existence which provides feedback & thus it lower gain.

Lower cut-off frequency fc1 :

The lower cut-off frequency may be defined as the frequency at which the magnitude of the voltage
gain in the low-frequency range falls off to or 0.707 times the maximum gain in the mid-frequency
range.

Upper cut-off frequency fc2

The upper cut-off frequency may be defined as the frequency at which the magnitude of the voltage
gain in the high frequency range falls off to or 0.707 times the maximum gain in the mid-frequency
range.

Bandwidth :

The difference of the upper cut-off frequency and lower cut-off frequency is called the bandwidth.

BW=fc2 - fc1

Voltage Gain

Voltage gain of AC amplifier is given by

𝐴𝑉𝑚
𝐴𝑉 =
2 2
√1 + (𝑓𝐿 ) √1 + ( 𝑓 )
𝑓 𝑓𝐻

𝑓𝐿 𝑓
In mid band region = 0 and = 0 then Av = Avm
𝑓 𝑓𝐻

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

𝑓
In low frequency region =0;
𝑓𝐻

𝐴𝑉𝑚
𝐴𝑉 =
2
√1 + (𝑓𝐿 )
𝑓

𝑓𝐿
In high frequency region = 0;
𝑓

𝐴𝑉𝑚
𝐴𝑉 =
2
√1 + ( 𝑓 )
𝑓𝐻

Advantages

➢ Excellent frequency response (constant gain over the audio frequency range)

➢ Cheaper in cost (resistors and capacitors used are very cheap)

➢ Very compact circuit (resistors and capacitors used being small and extremely light)

Disadvantages

➢ low voltage and power gain .

➢ Tendency of becoming noisy with age.

➢ Poor impedance matching.

Applications

The R-C coupled transistor amplifiers are widely used as voltage amplifier because of their
excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency. However because of poor impedance matching,
this type of coupling is rarely used in the final stages.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

Design

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

CONCEPT OF AC LOAD LINE

The DC load line analyzes the variation of collector currents and voltages, when no AC voltage is
applied. Whereas the AC load line gives the peak-to-peak voltage, or the maximum possible output
swing for a given amplifier.

When an ac signal is applied, the transistor voltage VCE and collector current IC vary above and below
the quiescent point Q. So, point Q is common to both dc and ac load lines. The ac load line gives the
values of VCE and IC when an ac signal is applied. AC load line takes into account the ac load resistance
while the dc load line considers only the dc load resistance.

When AC signal is applied, capacitor acts as short circuits. Also dc voltages need not be considered.

Consider an AC equivalent circuit of a RC coupled amplifier.

From the figure,

Output load impedance 𝑅𝑎𝑐 = 𝑅𝐶 II𝑅𝐿

Output loop equation is given by

Vce + icRac =0 --- (1)

Total output voltage = DC equiv.voltage + AC equivalent

voltage

VCE = VCEq + Vce

Total output current IC = ICq + ic

Eqn (1) becomes : (VCE - VCEq ) + (IC - ICq) Rac =0

𝑉 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑞
To draw load line : 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑞 − 𝑅𝐶𝐸 + This is known as AC load line equation.
𝑎𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑐

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

At saturation : VCE = 0
𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑞
ICsat = 𝐼𝐶𝑞 + 𝑅𝑎𝑐

At cut-off : IC = 0

𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑞 + 𝐼𝐶𝑞 𝑅𝑎𝑐

AC load lines are steeper than DC load

lines.

Both of these lines intersect at the Q-

point or quiescent point.

SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF BJT

In addition to dc signal, a low amplitude of ac signal is added. Study of small signal operation may be
done either graphically or by using small signal equivalent circuits for BJT operating in the active
region.

Small signal model – variation of signal from Q-point is small

Large signal model – variation of signal from Q-point is large

For study of small signal operation, the transistor may be replaced by its equivalent circuit and then
the usual method of network analysis may be used to obtain expression for operating characteristics
like input impedance, output impedance, voltage gain, current gain etc.

HYBRID π MODEL

It is a widely used model developed for BJT in CE configuration. It is also known as Giacoletto model.
In order to develop small signal model, transistor is treated as a two-port network as shown in figure.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

The simplified small-signal hybrid-π equivalent circuit for the npn transistor is shown below.

rπ - diffusion resistance (input resistance of CE configuration)

β – current gain of CE configuration, gm – transconductance

ic = βib ; rπ gm =β ;vbe = vπ voltage drop across rπ

The parameters gm, rπ in this model depends upon the value of dc quiescent current ICQ and hence
provide more accurate analysis.

HYBRID PI MODEL OF BJT CONSIDERING EARLY EFFECT

The Early effect, named after its discoverer James M. Early, is the variation in the effective width of
the base in a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) due to a variation in the applied base-to-collector
voltage.

𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑒
Considering early effect, 𝑣𝑏𝑒 = 𝑟𝜋 𝑖𝑏 ; 𝑖𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝑏 + = 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 +
𝑟0 𝑟0

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

ro is called the small-signal transistor output resistance. VA is the Early voltage and is
a positive quantity.

SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF BJT AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT USING HYBRID Π MODEL

MID FREQUENCY ANALYSIS (With Emitter Bypass Capacitor)

Steps to draw small signal AC equivalent circuit:

i) All the DC supply and DC sources are short circuited

ii) All the capacitors are short circuits
iii) The method of drawing ac equivalent circuit is to start from left and work to right.
iv) Both the resistors R1 and R2 are connected to ground and they appear in parallel.
v) Then insert hybrid π model of transistor.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

Input resistance Rin

To find Rin

i) short circuit independent voltage sources if any

ii) open circuit independent current sources if any

From figure 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ||𝑟𝜋

Output resistance Ro

To find R0

i) short circuit independent voltage sources if any

ii) open circuit independent current sources if any

VS = 0, then Vπ = 0 and gm Vπ =0

From figure 𝑅0 = 𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐶

Voltage Gain

The output voltage is Vo = -gmVπ (r0||RC || RL)

control voltage Vπ is found to be

small-signal voltage gain considering source voltage Vs is

𝑉𝑜 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ||𝑟𝜋 𝑅𝑖
𝐴𝑣𝑠 = = −𝑔𝑚 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ) = −𝑔𝑚 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝑠 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ||𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑖 +𝑅𝑠

If source voltage is not considered

𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑉𝑖
Where Vi =Vπ

then 𝐴𝑣 = −𝑔𝑚 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 )

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

Current Gain
𝑖𝑜
𝑨𝒊 =
𝑖𝑖

𝑉0
Output current 𝑖0 =
𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑖
Input current 𝑖𝑖 =
𝑅𝑖𝑛

𝑅𝑖𝑛
Then 𝑨𝒊 = 𝐴𝑣
𝑅𝐿

MID FREQUENCY ANALYSIS (Without Emitter Bypass Capacitor)

The figure shows circuit diagram of CE

amplifier without emitter bypass capacitor.

When we replace the transistor by its small

signal model, since emitter is not bypassed, the
resistor RE appears from emitter to ground.

Input impedance: Since, r0 is very high compared to RE, r0 is neglected in the analysis. The resistance
𝑅𝑖′ is the input resistance looking into the base of the transistor.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

Input resistance 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ||𝑅𝑖′

′ 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝜋 +𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝐸 +𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 𝑅𝐸 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝜋 +𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝐸 +𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝜋 𝑅𝐸

Where 𝑅𝑖 = = =
𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏

= 𝑟𝜋 + 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝑖′ = 𝑟𝜋 + 𝑅𝐸 +β𝑅𝐸 = 𝑟𝜋 + 𝑅𝐸 (1 + 𝛽)

In the common-emitter configuration that includes an emitter resistance, the small-signal input
resistance looking into the base of the transistor is rπ plus the emitter resistance multiplied by the
factor (1 + β). This effect is called the resistance reflection rule.

Then 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ||𝑟𝜋 + 𝑅𝐸 (1 + 𝛽)

Voltage Gain Av

output voltage 𝑉0 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 (𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿 ) Since, r0 is very high, it is neglected in the analysis.

input voltage 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝑖′

𝑉 −𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝜋 (𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿 ) −𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 (𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿 ) −𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 (𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿 )
therefore Gain 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑉0 = = =
𝑖 𝐼𝑏 𝑅′𝑖 𝑅′𝑖 𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝐸 (1+𝛽)

we have 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 = 𝛽 and 𝑟𝜋 + 𝑅𝐸 (1 + 𝛽) ≈ 𝑅𝐸 (1 + 𝛽) ≈ 𝛽𝑅𝐸

−(𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿 )
Then voltage Gain becomes 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑅𝐸

𝑉𝑆 𝑅𝑖
If source resistance is taken into account, 𝑉𝑖 =
𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑅𝑖
Then 𝐴𝑣𝑠 = 𝑉0 = 𝑉0 𝑉 𝑖 = 𝐴𝑉 𝑅 +𝑅
𝑆 𝑖 𝑆 𝑆 𝑖

Output resistance R0

Set Vs = 0 and apply a voltage source at the output side as shown below:

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

𝑽𝒙
𝑹𝟎 = 𝑹𝑪 ||
𝒊𝒙

From the simplified equivalent circuit

𝑟𝜋 +𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝐵
𝑅𝐸′ = 𝑅𝐸 || ( )
1+𝛽

𝑣𝑥 = (𝑖𝑥 − 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 )𝑟0 + 𝑖𝑥 𝑅𝐸′

Since 𝑟𝜋 is small, we can let 𝑉𝜋 = 0

Then 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑖𝑥 𝑟0 + 𝑖𝑥 𝑅𝐸′
𝑣𝑥
∴ = 𝑟0 + 𝑅𝐸′
𝑖𝑥

Output resistance 𝑅0 = 𝑅𝐶 ||(𝑟0 + 𝑅𝐸′ )

Current Gain

𝒊𝟎
𝑨𝒊 =
𝒊𝒊
𝑉0 𝑉𝑖
𝑖0 = & 𝑖𝑖 =
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑖

𝑉0 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖
then 𝑨𝒊 = = 𝐴𝑣
𝑅𝐿 𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝐿

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

LOW FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

Low frequency is governed by

CB,CC and emitter bypass
capacitor CE.

Effect of CB (Input capacitor)

Here we assume that CC and CE

are infinity i.e short circuit.

Let’s draw the equivalent circuit

considering these factors.

The output voltage is given by Vo = -gmVπ (r0||RC || RL)

Input resistance 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ||𝑟𝜋

𝑅𝑖
Input voltage 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝜋 = 𝑉𝑆 1
𝑅𝑖 +𝑅𝑆 +
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐵

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
The gain at low frequency is given by 𝐴𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑉 𝑖
𝑆 𝑖 𝑆

−gmVπ (r0||RC || RL) 𝑅𝑖

=
Vπ 1
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑆 +
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐵
𝑅𝑖
= −gm (r0||RC ||RL)
1
(𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑆 ) (1 + )
𝑗𝜔(𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑆 )𝐶𝐵

1 1
= 𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚
1 𝑗
(1 + ) (1 − )
𝑗2𝜋𝑓(𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑆 )𝐶𝐵 2𝜋𝑓(𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑆 )𝐶𝐵

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

1
𝐴𝐿 (𝑓) = 𝐴𝑚
𝑗𝑓
(1 − 𝐿1 )
𝑓
1
Where 𝑓𝐿1 = (2𝜋(𝑅 ------- (1)
𝑖 +𝑅𝑆 )𝐶𝐵 )

Effect of CC (Output capacitor)

Here we assume that CE and CB are infinity i.e short circuit.

The current source is converted to voltage source. Let 𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶′ .

Voltage source becomes : 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 𝑅𝐶′

The resulting lower cut-off frequency is given by

1
𝑓𝐿1 = ------- (2)
2𝜋(𝑅𝐶′ +𝑅𝐿 )𝐶𝑐

Effect of CE (Emitter Bypass capacitor)

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

Since 𝑟0 is very high, its neglected in analysis. Then the output voltage is given by

𝑉0 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 [𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ] = −𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝜋 [𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ]

Assuming 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 is very high, its neglected here. The source voltage can be written as

1
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝑏 (𝑅𝑆 + 𝑟𝜋 ) + (𝐼𝑏 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 ) (𝑅𝐸 || )
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐸

𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 1 𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝜋 1
= 𝐼𝑏 [(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑟𝜋 ) + (1 + ) (𝑅𝐸 || )] = 𝐼𝑏 [(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑟𝜋 ) + (1 + ) (𝑅𝐸 || )]
𝐼𝑏 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝑏 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐸

1
= 𝐼𝑏 [(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑟𝜋 ) + (1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 ) (𝑅𝐸 || )]
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐸

1
= 𝐼𝑏 [(𝑅𝑆 + 𝑟𝜋 ) + (1 + 𝛽) (𝑅𝐸 || )]
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐸

Then gain

𝑉0 −𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝜋 [𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ] −𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 [𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ]

𝐴𝐿 (𝑓) = = 1
= 𝑅𝐸
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑏 [(𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 )+(1+𝛽)(𝑅𝐸 || )] [(𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 )+(1+𝛽)( )]
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐸 1+𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐸 𝐶𝐸

−𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 [𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ](1+𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐸 𝐶𝐸 ) −𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 [𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ](1+𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐸 𝐶𝐸 )

= [(𝑅 = [(𝑅
𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 )(1+𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐸 𝐶𝐸 )+(1+𝛽)𝑅𝐸 ] 𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 )+(𝑗𝜔(𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 )𝑅𝐸 𝐶𝐸 )+(1+𝛽)𝑅𝐸 ]

Assuming 𝑟𝜋 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑓
−𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑖 [𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ](1+𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐸 𝐶𝐸 ) (1+𝑗 )
𝑓𝑧
𝐴𝐿 (𝑓) = 𝑗𝜔(𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖 )𝑅𝐸 𝐶𝐸
= 𝐴𝑀 𝑓
[[(𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖 )+(1+𝛽)𝑅𝐸 ](1+ )] 1+𝑗
𝑓𝐿3
(𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖 )+(1+𝛽)𝑅𝐸

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

1
1 2𝜋(𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖 )𝑅𝐸𝐶𝐸 1
where 𝑓𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑅 𝐶 and 𝑓𝐿3 = = ′𝐶
𝐸 𝐸 (𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖 )+(1+𝛽)𝑅𝐸 2𝜋𝑅𝐸 𝐸

(𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖 )
where 𝑅𝐸′ = 𝑅𝐸 ||
(1+𝛽)

𝑠 𝑠 𝑠+𝜔𝑧
Over all gain A = 𝐴𝑀
𝑠+𝜔𝐿1 𝑠+𝜔𝐿2 𝑠+𝜔𝐿3

AM – Mid-band Gain

MILLERS THEOREM

Miller’s theorem discusses the effect of a feedback amplifier component on input side and output side
of an amplifier. This is usually used to analyse transistor circuit at high frequencies.

Consider an ideal amplifier with a

component Zf in the feedback path as
shown below.

The input current Ii completely flows

through the feedback component since the
input resistance of the amplifier is very
high. Then input current I1 is written as

𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉0
𝐼𝑖 =
𝑍𝑓

If the amplifier has a gain of A, then 𝑉0 = 𝐴𝑉𝑖

Then
𝑉𝑖 − 𝐴𝑉𝑖 1−𝐴
𝐼𝑖 = = 𝑉𝑖
𝑍𝑓 𝑍𝑓

𝑉𝑖 𝑍𝑓
Then input impedance 𝑍𝑖 = = − − − (1)
𝐼𝑖 1−𝐴

Similarly assume output current I0 from V0

𝑉 1
𝑉0 −𝑉𝑖 𝑉0 − 0 1− 𝐴−1
𝐴 𝐴
Then 𝐼0 = = = 𝑉0 = 𝑉0
𝑍𝑓 𝑍𝑓 𝑍𝑓 𝐴 𝑍𝑓

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑍𝑓
Hence the output impedance 𝑍𝑜 = = − − − (2)
𝐼𝑜 1−𝐴

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

Combining (1) and (2) we get the equivalent circuit of above amplifier.

HIGH FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF BJT

Consider the cross section of an NPN bipolar transistor.

The C,B,E terminals are the external connections to the

transistors and C’, B’, E’ points are the internal collector,
base and emitter regions.

EB junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse

biased.

rπ – diffusion resistance at forward biased E-B junction.

Cπ – Capacitance at forward biased E-B junction

rμ – diffusion resistance at reverse biased CB junction

Cμ – Capacitance at reverse biased CB junction

Cμ << Cπ , cannot be neglected due to Miller effect.

rb – series resistance between internal base terminal and actual base terminal

re - series resistance between internal emitter terminal and actual emitter terminal

rc - series resistance between internal collector terminal and actual collector terminal

HIGH FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

Performance of amplifier is limited by junction capacitance of transistor. The equivalent diagram at

high frequency is given below. The reactance of coupling capacitors are so low at these frequencies
that they can be considered as short circuits.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

The feed back capacitor Cμ can be split using Miller’s theorem. The capacitance reflected at input side
is

𝐶1 = 𝐶𝜇 (1 − 𝐴𝑣 )

Where 𝐴𝑣 = −𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟0 )

Therefore 𝐶1 = 𝐶𝜇 (1 + 𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟0 ))

The capacitance reflected at output side is

(𝐴𝑣 − 1)
𝐶2 = 𝐶𝜇 = 𝐶𝜇
𝐴𝑣

Effect of input capacitance

Let 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝐵 ||𝑟𝜋 and 𝐶𝑖 = 𝐶𝜋 + 𝐶1

1
𝑉𝑆 (𝑅𝑖 ||𝑗𝜔𝐶 )
𝑖
Input voltage 𝑉𝑖 = 1
𝑅𝑆+ (𝑅𝑖 ||𝑗𝜔𝐶 )
𝑖

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

1
𝑅𝑖
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖
𝑉𝑆 1 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉𝑆 𝑅𝑖
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑖 = = = 𝑉𝑆
1 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑆 (1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 𝑅𝑖 ) + 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑆 +
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑆 + 1
𝑅𝑖 +
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖

𝑅𝑖
= 𝑉𝑆 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑆
(𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖 )(1+ )
(𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖 )

𝑉0 𝑉 𝑉 𝑅𝑖
High frequency gain 𝐴𝐻 (𝑓) = = 𝑉0 𝑉 𝑖 = −𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟0 ) 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑆
𝑉𝑆 𝑆
𝑖 (𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝑖 )(1+ )
(𝑅 +𝑅 )
𝑆 𝑖

1
𝐴𝐻 (𝑓) = 𝐴𝑀 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑆 = 𝐴𝑀 (1+𝑗2𝜋𝑓1𝐶 = 𝐴𝑀 1
𝑖 𝑅𝑖 ||𝑅𝑆 )
𝑓
(1+ ) (1+𝑗 )
(𝑅 +𝑅 ) 𝑓𝐻1
𝑆 𝑖

fH1 is the upper cut off frequency introduced by C1 .

Effect of output capacitance C2

Let 𝑅 = 𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟0

Upper cut off frequency due to C2 can be

written as

1 1
𝑓𝐻2 = =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶2 2𝜋𝑅𝐶𝜇

Over all gain can written as

1
𝐴𝐻 (𝑓) = 𝐴𝑀
𝑓 𝑓
(1 + 𝑗 ) (1 + 𝑗 )
𝑓𝐻1 𝑓𝐻2
1
where over all cut-off frequency 𝑓𝐻 =
2 2
√( 𝑓 ) + ( 𝑓 )
𝑓𝐻1 𝑓𝐻2

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

Short Circuit gain of BJT at high frequency

Short circuit current gain is used to study the frequency effects on the performance of BJT.

For finding out the short circuit gain, the collector is connected to signal ground, so the hybrid π
equivalent circuit of BJT at high frequency is

Applying KCL at Base node,

𝑉𝜋 𝑉𝜋 𝑉𝜋 1
𝐼𝑏 = + + = 𝑉𝜋 ( + 𝑗𝜔(𝐶𝜋 + 𝐶𝜇 )) − − − (1)
𝑟𝜋 1⁄ 1⁄ 𝑟𝜋
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝜋 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝜇

Apply KCL at collector node

𝑉𝜋
𝐼𝐶 + = 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋
1⁄
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝜇

1
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑉𝜋 ( 𝑔𝑚 − ) = 𝑉𝜋 ( 𝑔𝑚 − 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝜇 ) − −(2)
1⁄
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝜇

𝐼𝐶 ( 𝑔𝑚 −𝑗𝜔𝐶𝜇 )
Current gain 𝐴𝐼 = =
𝐼𝑏 1
(𝑟 +𝑗𝜔(𝐶𝜋 +𝐶𝜇 ))
𝜋

𝜔𝐶𝜇 ≪ 𝑔𝑚
( 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 )
∴ 𝐴𝐼 =
(1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑟𝜋 (𝐶𝜋 + 𝐶𝜇 ))

(𝛽)
since 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 = β, 𝐴𝐼 =
(1+𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑟𝜋 (𝐶𝜋 +𝐶𝜇 ))

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

3 -dB frequency (Beta cut off frequency)

𝛽
It is the frequency at which gain becomes . This frequency is denoted by fβ and it is known as beta
√2
cut-off frequency.
𝛽
i.e at f = fβ, AI = .
√2

𝛽 ( 𝛽)
=
√2 2
√1 + (2𝜋𝑓 𝑟𝜋 (𝐶𝜋 + 𝐶𝜇 ))
𝛽

𝛽 (𝛽)
= 2
√1+1 √1+(2𝜋𝑓𝛽 𝑟𝜋 (𝐶𝜋 +𝐶𝜇 ))

i.e 2𝜋𝑓𝛽 𝑟𝜋 (𝐶𝜋 + 𝐶𝜇 ) = 1

1
𝑓𝛽 =
2𝜋𝑟𝜋 (𝐶𝜋 + 𝐶𝜇 )

Cut-off Frequency

It is the frequency at which short circuit current gain becomes unity. It is denoted by fT . hence it is
called unit gain frequency or unit gain bandwidth.

At f = fT, AI = 1.

(𝛽)
𝐴𝐼 =
(1 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑟𝜋 (𝐶𝜋 + 𝐶𝜇 ))

we have

1
𝑓𝛽 =
2𝜋𝑟𝜋 (𝐶𝜋 + 𝐶𝜇 )

( 𝛽)
∴ 𝐴𝐼 =
𝑓
(1 + 𝑗 )
𝑓𝛽

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module II

(𝛽)
|𝐴𝐼 | =
𝑓 2
√(1 + ( ) )
𝑓𝛽

(𝛽)
At f = fT, AI = 1. Then 1 = 2
𝑓
√(1+( 𝑇 ) )
𝑓𝛽

2
𝑓𝑇
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ( ) ≫ 1
𝑓𝛽
(𝛽) 𝛽 𝑔𝑚
1= then 𝑓𝑇 = 𝛽𝑓𝛽 = =
2 2𝜋𝑟𝜋 (𝐶𝜋 +𝐶𝜇 ) 2𝜋(𝐶𝜋 +𝐶𝜇 )
√( 𝑓𝑇 )
𝑓𝛽

-------------------------------------**************-------------------------------------------

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