On Relationships between Tonal and Rhythmic

Structures in Western Multipart Music

BY I N G M A RB E N G T S S O N

In spite of the impressive progress which has been made in mu-

sicology during the present century, our field can still scarcely be
said to possess as well-founded and effective conceptual systems for
descriptive and explanatory purposes, that is, for the analysis of
musical structures and styles as one might wish.
One reason for this seems to be that a great many concepts and
terms of so-called music theory are still bound to traditions and
conceptions of a primarily practical-pedagogical, almost “handicraft”
nature. Most of the systems constructed for scientific purposes are
encumbered by inconsistency, vagueness, and ambiguities which re-
veal this origin.
Some of the shortcomings which are most serious from a methodo-
logical point of view can obviously be traced to the confusion of
such essentially different phenomena as sign-relationships within the
notation, successions of physical sound events, and the perception
or “experience” of such events. To these must be added a number
of more special shortcomings which are inherent in music theory
as a heritage from certain specific musical and pedagogical traditions.
Within the framework of these traditions, major/minor tonality
and “functional harmony’’ (Funktionsharmonik) play a prominent
role. Musicologists are certainly agreed that these phenomena have
a limited historical and geographical validity. Western multipart
music from about 1720 to about 1850 might be set as a center,
preceded by a period with modal “remains” and succeded by a
period of tendencies towards dissolution (through chromaticism,
expanded tonality, and so on). Beyond these periods one might add
both “forerunners” (if we adopt an evolutionary point of view) at
least as far back as the end of the 15th century, and, later, different
kinds of “epigonic” trends down to the present day.
However, we must take into account the fact that many other
types of musical reference systems and tonal relationships existed
during these five centuries - approximately from Dufay to Boulez.
Considerable efforts have also been made in order to find adequate (as well as the attempts at physical explanations) have hindered the
ways of describing some of these structures (for instance in terms unbiased analysis of these functions ?
which were used at the time the music was written). Nevertheless, 2. Our terminology - if not our conception of music as well -
major/minor tonality and functional harmony occupy a privileged is marked to a very great extent by the fact that the concepts of
position not only in present-day elementary teaching of so-called major/minor tonality and harmonic function are defined and used
music theory (which might be justified from a pedagogical point of as undifferentiated entities. This is or is not major/minor tonality;
view) and within the majority of comprehensive systems for har- that is or is not, for example, a subdominant or a dominant seventh
monic analysis (which is understandable historically) but also in our chord, and so on. We might even imagine that these entities have
musicological habits of thinking and in our basic “theoretical” ter- a definite historical existence, despite the fact that we become em-
minology. barrassed if we are forced to take a position on whether this existence
This situation - combined with the fact that we use a set of con- can be localized, for example, in Handel’s, Mozart’s, Schubert’s or
cepts which are modeled in part on physical explanations and which perhaps some later composer’s work. One sensible answer is, of
have been assembled mainly for pedagogical purposes (with simple course, that we use such concepts to refer to something which is
numerical operations with interval fractions, scale degrees, piling of a common denominator for the music of all these and many other
thirds, and the like) - has had some pecurliar consequences which composers, and that our conceptualizations must be of a sufficiently
are clearly disadvantageous from a theoretical standpoint. Three of general nature to be of practical use in comparative research. To
these will be mentioned here very briefly. this we must nevertheless reply that such a broad common denomi-
I . Widespread beliefs have come to prevail to the effect that cer- nator is a rather clumsy dissecting instrument. Let us assume that
tain musically relevant structural relationships between tones are the tonality-conditioning harmonic structures of composer X can be
“given by nature”. There have been efforts to support such beliefs described completely with the symbols T, S, and D, that of com-
in a very elaborate manner by referring to numerical relationships poser Y with the symbols T, S, and D plus A-D, and that of com-
based on physical findings. (Consonant intervals can be defined in poser Z with the symbols T, S, and D plus A-Q. What right d o we
terms of simple fractions, and so forth.) Moreover, such beliefs have have to maintain that “tonality’’ - except as a very rough generali-
been associated with value judgements, often in combination with zation - is the same in the three cases? What right could we have
evolutionary viewpoints. According to one such view, there has been even to maintain that the symbols “T”, “S”, and “D” represent
a development towards an “ideal” state, succeeded by a period of exactly the same things or functions in these three different com-
dissolution and decline. With the “ideal state” as a point of de- plexes of relationships?
parture, possibly elevated to an estethic norm, a closed descriptive The difficulties which the “system-builder” meets here can be illustrated
system has been constructed. On the basis of such a system a number by the following two dissimilar examples. (a) If we take a chord out of its
of sufficiently closely related structures can be described as devia- musical context, simple descriptions of it are available. Let us say that,
tions from the norm, yet others cannot be described at all in the for instance, we have (starting from the bottom) “a major third plus two
minor thirds”. This is a description in terms of a conventional diatonic
terminology of the system. scale system. Its agreement with traditional notation is obviously fairly
Ethno-musicology should have taught us, if nothing else has, that good, since certain notation-symbols are derived from the same scale system;
musical structures which are considered to be “natural” are essen- from the physical standpoint it of course can be regarded only as a very
tially products of specific, local traditions of musical upbringing and rough approximation. Now, if we use the symbol “V7”, based on the scale
learning. The things to which we are most accustomed or which degrees, for this tone-combination (German: Zusammenklang), we have given
are most strongly “ingrained” are most “natural” for us. The factor it a relatively neutral designation - that is to say, we have taken refuge in
the mere mechanics of a basic scale. In a large number of contexts, how-
of tradition or habit has without any doubt functioned in a decisive
ever, the tone-combination can be said to have what we call a dominant
and very complicated way in the development of Western music. function; in our terminological embarrassment we make this functional
Could it be that the conceptions of what is “given by nature” interpretation precise by adding a mechanical thorough-bass numeral.
(There does exist a “minor seventh”, that is, “D7” - a queer sign-combina- successions of varying pitches do exist, each tone does have a definite
tion indeed.) relative duration, and the texture can often be regarded as a succes-
However, when the same tone-combination appears in Debussy, for
sion of chords. All this is true, at any rate, if we use the notation as
example, both symbolic devices (V7 and D7) are often unsuitable if not
misleading. Neither the scale structure nor the functional relationships a starting point - and indeed our conceptual tools are largely bound
which they imply need be relevant in this connection. Most of us would to our notation conventions.
agree that this is an entirely different situation. But the problem which But even when the concept of melody alone is involved, this
arises is not only how we should describe the entirely different functions trichotomy reveals itself t o be questionable. A melodic Gestalt does
of this “chord” in Debussy’s work. The problem extends further: which not lend itself to description exclusively in terms of tone qualities
different types of functions of this tone-combination do we have reason
or frequencies; the slightest attempt to change details shows that
- from the standpoint of analysis of structure and style - to attempt to
keep separate and to describe within a given historical period (let us say, many melodic structures are considerably more sensitive to changes
for instance, between Mozart and Debussy)? Even if it could be demon- in duration than to changes in pitch.
strated here that the problem is incorrectly formulated and that the dif- The distinction between two “elements” which we cannot fully
ferentiation we seek can never be achieved, there still remains the fact that accept in connection with melody, we nevertheless approve to a
the descriptions which are derived from an “ideal state” (for example, the surprisingly large extent in connection with successions of tone-
one so to say summarized in the symbol D’) are obviously both rougher combinations, which we usually call “harmony”, for better or for
and more mechanical than we usually wish to admit.
(b) Harmonic relations which at one time were considered to be daring, worse. Certainly it does occasionally happen that musicologists men-
perhaps shocking, have sometimes later become communebonum. This well- tion and even stress the existence of “harmonic rhythm”. But in
known fact implies that changes have taken place in perception, changes many of the ordinary systems for harmonic analysis little attention
which, by the way, we have all experienced to some extent. (Consider, for is paid to the time factor except for the use of the simple relations
example, Paul Hindemith’s change in position in the listeners’ current “before - after”. The exceptions rather prove the rule and at the
perspective from “radical” to “traditional”.) Here the factor of tradition same time show how problematic these distinctions are. As examples
enters the picture in a decisive way, yet at the present time it has seldom
one might cite most of the traditional conventions for resolving dis-
been adequately taken into account in the deliberations and descriptive
systems of “music theory”. The difficulty of setting up reasonable points sonances, which cannot be described as harmonic or as melodic or
of reference or base-lines for comparison which are relevant from a given as rhythmic phenomena.
viewpoint are without doubt very great. (And, of course, the “change
factor” to which we have referred cannot be taken into account in any The question as to whether proper attention has always been paid to
comprehensive system of analytic formulae either.) Nevertheless, it seems what might be called the positional function of the chords may also be
clear that as important a factor on the perception or phenomenal side as, raised. If we notice, for example, the variability of chords in cadences of
for instance, the forming of hypotheses in the psychological sense of the the type “S D T” (“IV V I”), it appears that this is determined to a large
word (for instance of the expectation type) and their confirmation or non- extent by the positions “antepenultimate”, “penultimate”, and so on. In
confirmation (in the form of “surprises”, for instance) certainly might be the case of the “antepenultima” the positional function often dominates so
used as a legitimate - and perhaps very effective - link in a system for strongly that the symbol “S” becomes fictitious.
describing musical structure and style, regardless of all the well-established The problems discussed above constitute the background for the
symbol-systems of functional harmony. main theme of the following little essay. The purpose is neither to
3 . Included in the habits of thinking within ‘‘music theory” is the set forth a new analytic system, nor even to lay some cornerstones
belief that one can a priori distinguish three basic elements in or of such a system, but only to attempt to present briefly the outlines
aspects of musical textures: melody, rhythm, and harmony. This of a “synthetic” approach to tonal and rhythmic phenomena which
division is certainly often useful as a systematic device for practical might possibly prove worthy of further development in a more
and pedagogical purposes. It is at any rate of relevance when de- systematic direction. Both the conceptual analysis on which the
scribing the kinds of multipart music in which these three categories reasoning is based and the musical material which will be discussed
have influenced the composers’ musical thinking. In such music, must be presented summarily for reasons of space; however, this
may result in a clearer presentation. Concerning the use of terms, “belong together with” is intentionally vague: it is not safe to pre-
we shall wherever possible keep to what might be called “mu- dict a given causal relationship in such a way that certain rhythmic
sicological common-sense language”, where no other meanings have structures “cause” certain types of tonality or vice versa. Might it
been specified. not be, rather, that they in some ways influence or condition each
other?
Since any sampling of the great mass of musicological, “theoretical”, The thesis which I want to present and attempt to support in the
philosophical and psychological literature which is relevant to what follows following pages is that the class of superordinate or “whole”-deter-
might seem to have been chosen arbitrarily, I have refrained from all such
references, just as I have refrained from entering into polemics against mining structural relationships which we call major/minor-tonality
particular writers or doctrines. does not imply merely certain types of “tonal” and harmonic-func-
The music examples have been abstracted in such a way as to make them tional reference systems, but also specific types of integration between
as complete yet as condensed as possible. “tonal” and rhythmic reference systems, and that structures which
Should the choice of English terms seem unsatisfactory to English- occur within these systems - and which are very stable from the
speaking readers, this should be blamed to a large extent on the fact that point of view of the listener - should be considered in this “syn-
the translation of the text presented great difficulties, aggravated by the
fact that musicological terminology in the English language does not seem to
thetic” way. It may seem, in the following pages, as though only
be highly developed in every respect, at any rate not if we compare it with the a double aspect (the harmonic-rhythmic) were being presented. This
well-developed sets of terms developed within philosophy and psychology is an unavoidable consequence of the present state of our theoretical
in English.1 terminology (for which the separation into three “elements” has cer-
tainly been decisive). With its help, the phenomenon of covariation
According to current music theory, every musical process can be between tonal and rhythmic structures however can be illustrated,
viewed either from an harmonic-tonal or from a rhythmic point of at least roughly. Still another reservation should be made at the out-
view. But the perspective changes radically if one maintains instead set: for the sake of simplicity the expression major/minor-tonality is
that tonality (including “harmony”) and rhythm present certain used in this text on the customary assumption that “major” and
symptoms of covariation, that is to say, that specific kinds of tonality “minor” are really equivalent as tonal reference systems.
and harmonic relationships “belong together” with specific kinds of In order to indicate the direction of the discussion, its outlines
rhythmic structures, and that changes in one of these factors often can be sketched in the following way. In certain types of 16th cen-
are connected with specifiable changes in the other. The expression tury multipart music, there are clear tendencies towards a major/
1 I regret that the recently-published book The Rhythmic Structure of Music (Chicago minor tonality. These tendencies appear, as is well known, most
1960) by G . W. Cooper and L. B. Meyer did not reach me before this article had been obviously in homophonic textures, particularly in music influenced
written and translated. In this pedagogically outstanding textbook the authors propose
and use consistently some of the terms I had been searching for or had been in doubt by dance or dance-derived rhythms, that is, rhythms which are con-
about in connection with the translation into English. I wish to record here my indebted- ditioned by more or less overt motor reactions. Both the motor
ness to these authors for the expression “superior rhythmic levels” which I adopted and
aspect and major/minor tonality become more firmly established
in connection with which I have chosen the term “super-group(s)”. I had already adopted
the distinction between “accent” and “stress” which several writers, among them L. B. during the Baroque era, and a clearly defined major/minor tonality
Meyer in his Emotion and Meaning in Music (Chicago 1956), have used. as well as distinctly accent-differentiated and multi-level rhythmic
In some respects, I feel, Cooper’s and Meyer’s use of the concept of “rhythmic struc-
ture” is somewhat unwarranted (for example, when it is expanded to include whole com- patterns combined with regular meters are finally achieved in the
positions in sonata-form). At the same time, several basic theoretical aspects of the con- “Viennese classicism” in the latter half of the 18th century. In the
cept of rhythm are never taken up in their book, which is mainly of a pedagogical nature. course of the 19th century a dissolution of this closed type of tonality
Nevertheless, I should emphasize the fact that in this work are to be found several of
the basic points of view which I have attempted to use. In general, Cooper and Meyer as well as of rhythmic-metric regularity takes place; and with De-
discuss the significance of the perceptual aspect, the occurrence of superior levels, and the bussy, for instance, we arrive at a situation in which “non-func-
significance of melody and harmony for the structuring of rhythm in such a way that the
critical attitude I have occasionally expressed may no longer apply to the extent that it tional” chords (i.e., tone-combinations lacking the traditional har-
did previously. monic functions) occur in combination with conspicuous weakening
of the regular meters or pulse-groupings. The comparison can be 2. We can talk of perceived or experienced rhythm, i. e. phenomenal
extended even further to radical tendencies in present-day composi- rhythm (rhythm).3 Its occurrence in conjunction with acoustical
tion, for example to applications of “serial integration”, where tradi- stimuli is probably the result of intersensory and in particular sen-
tional “tonal” relationships as well as traditional “pulse-grouping” sory-motor conditioning - that is, it is not purely auditory. We
are eliminated. assume that the perception of “regularity” (not identical with physi-
In an historical bird’s eye view such as this, it is apparent that cal or chronometric regularity) is among the necessary conditions
what we are accustomed to calling regular meters and what we usu- for the perception of rhythm. Furthermore, the perceived qualities
ally call major/minor tonality belong together in a way which cannot of accent(p) and tension(p) are assumed to be two of its basic com-
be altogether accidental and which should attract our particular in- ponents.
terest.2 Furthermore, we may well wonder whether the existence of 3 . The term metric in general refers t o the measurement of any
certain types of deviations from such a covariation (for instance, the variable. But in accordance with the special meanings of the term
appearance of novel harmonic details in combination with more established in poetics and musicology, it will be used here only for
tradition-bound rhythmic-metric patterns) could not be used to ad- measurement of durations and durative relationships. Metric, can be
vantage for the purpose of describing and classifying style. exemplified by any sequence of notes, such as metricf, let us
Even a brief review of these relationships between tonal and say, by the values 720, 330, and 370 milliseconds for the same se-
rhythmic structures presupposes certain conceptual and terminologi- d
quence in a certain rendering. The notation = M. M. 108 represents
cal distinctions, some of which must be introduced here, or at least a relationship between metric, and metricf. We are even justified in
intimated. including metricp which is not to be confused neither with the per-
ception of “meter” (which is part of rhythm,) or with rhythmq. Space
The concept of rhythm is among the vaguest and most contro- prevents further comment on these distinctions.
versial within music theory. The definitions which have been put 4. An important part of the perception of rhythm in connection
forward can be counted in the hundreds, and new definitions are with “meter-bound” music can be described by the terms pulse and
continually being presented. (An indirect demonstration, by the way, pulse-group. The term pulse-group allows us to distinguish between
of the fact that music theory still has not become cumulative in the a perceived phenomenon on one hand and the bars in the notation
natural scientists’ meaning of the term, but is often burdened by an on the other. If we indicate the written bar by tn (t for German and
inordinate stress on the history of ideas.) The search for “the only Swedish Takt), it can be distinguished from the phenomenal pulse-
correct” definition of rhythm might be regarded methodologically group, which might be indicated by another symbol (let us say,
as an unrealistic manifestation of “term absolutism”; we are proba- by g,p). In the notation, then, we can let the pulse-group (gp) be
bly fully justified in taking into account and using more than one represented by a suitable symbol for the concept or, for the sake
concept of rhythm (for example, for different purposes and within of simplicity, tp (preferably by means of some sort of bar-line -
different descriptive systems). As a background for the present dis- dotted, for instance - which can coincide with all, some, or, in the
cussion, however, the following provisional distinctions must be exceptional case, none of the bar-lines of the original notation). Thus
specified. we can express relations between tp and tn, for example, ty = 2 tn.
I. Wherever necessary in the following discussion, we shall in- We must also consider groupings on different levels, especially
dicate the physical and the phenomenal (i. e. perceptual) aspects of sound doublings and redoublings of pulse-groups; for such phenomena we
phenomena and the notation symbols with the index letters f, p and n, shall choose to use the prefix super- (corresponding to the expression
respectively. “übergeordnet”in German). These super-groups can be affected by a
2It need hardly be pointed out that the role that vocal texts have played in the develop-
ment of particular rhythmic structures certainly is significant. But it does not add any 3 The term perception is of course used here in its modern and wide sense (as defined,

serious theoretical complications in so far as fundamental sensory-motor conditions must for instance, in S. H.Bartley: Principles of Perception, New York 1958, pp. 20 ff.) which
be considered as common to verbal as well as to “musical” rhythmic utterances. differsgreatly from the use of “perception” and “sensation” in older psychology.
number of different factors, one of which is tempo. (In the interest of complicated relationships between variables which are incom-
of simplicity, tempo is defined here provisionally as phenomenal pletely symbolized in the notation and which can interact or work
pulse-rate.) against each other in their capacity as accent- and/or tension-condi-
5. The rhythmp-components accentp and tensionp can be affected tioning factors.
by several different physical variables. Phenomenal accent, for ex- 7. At a given point in history there usually exists, within a given
ample, is by no means exclusively (nor even mainly) conditioned by type of major/minor tonal and rhythmic-metric reference system, a
changes in amplitude, but by a number of interacting factors with relatively limited number of typical harmonic successions and pat-
varying significance in different types of music - whether we con- terns of pulse-grouping. The formulary functions of the chord suc-
sider durational relationships, changes in intonation, or melodic and cessions are determined at this point not only by theirinternal “har-
harmonic factors. (The role of the latter can strikingly be demon- monic’, relations and their relationships to a center of tonality, but
strated in examples where ambiguity exists as regards rhythmic- also by the way in which they are distributed within and co-deter-
metric grouping - for instance, at the beginning of many organ mining for specific rhythmic-metric schemes. (Conformity to formula
compositions - and in examples of “rhythmic dialects” with strong can apply to both cadential successions and themes, as well as to
and typical durational deviations from the rational metricn scheme, many other kinds of sequences. A characteristic example from the
for example, in the Viennese waltz.) I 8th century offers developments of the Fortspinnung-type based on
6 . From point 5 it follows that among other possible concepts of descending fifths, i. e. subdominant sequences progressing down the
rhythm we have good reason to work with one which represents cycle of fifths.) A thorough investigation of such harmonic-rhythmic
phenomenal rythm as a totality affected by all or most of the physical formulae should certainly yield results which would be of benefit
variables in interaction with one another. for style-analytical methods of description.4
It is this concept of “total rhythm” which writers like G. Becking,
W. Danckert, and, before them, the Sievert-Saran school, and others, Now let us proceed to the historical review. In the history of
were trying to characterize, and whose existence we must accept multipart music, “Dufay’s period” stands out as something of a
regardless of possible objections to these writers’ descriptive methods. revolution. Regardless of what the final conclusions turn out to be
We are aware that there exist both “basic attitudes” or “behavioral with regard to the roles of England and the continent in the “fabur-
types” with regard to rhythm which are characteristic of different den-fauxbourdon”-problem, it is clear that the first half of the I 5 th
historical periods, and also individual rhythmic “behavior patterns” century signifies a radical stylistic change in relation to the ars nova/
which differ for Mozart and Beethoven, for Mendelssohn and Schu- trecento, concerning not only the treatment of harmony but also the
mann, for Stravinsky and Schoenberg, and so on. The relevant dis- basic rhythmic character.5 As early as this the question arises as to
tinguishing features of these patterns, which are time-bound and whether the harmonic and rhythmic changes do not constitute two
often personality-linked must be assumed to be somehow “hidden aspects of a single change of style.
in the notation” because of the fact that one can, with the notation During the century following (from about 1430 to about 1530)
as a point of departure (complemented by conventions for reading a more and more imitative, “flowing” polyphony is developed, in
and performing which cannot be discussed here), deliver interpreta- which the simultaneous conception of the parts (explicitly pointed
tions which give the listeners “spontaneous” impressions of these out in Josquin by contemporaries) is accompanied by a light tactus-
stylistic patterns and differences. pulsation and a technique of composition still circumscribed by the
The total rhythm can be characterized phenomenally as (to use church modes. This type of texture we consider to be characteristic
the phrase of the Gestalt psychologists) a complex quality which in- 4 Of course taking proper account of (but preferably without dogmatic belief in) systems

cludes different kinds of movement perception; these have still not been like that of Schenker.
5 Cf., on this point, H. Besseler: Bourdon und Fauxbourdon, Leipzig 1950: “Entscheidend
sufficiently recognized and analyzed. Actually, total rhythm results war nicht so sehr das zahlenmässige Vordringen des Tempus perfectum, als die darin sich
- even if “unconsciously” in a non-cognitive sense - as a product kundgebende Erneuerung der Melodik.” (P.I 23.)
 The “Generalbasszeitalter” brings with it not only thinking in
terms of chords but also a more widespread use of dance-derived
rhythmic patterns. Reservations must be made, however, about both
developments as far as the 17th century is concerned. Just as we still
have modal remains with respect to tonality, so we find that the
bar-line notation functions mainly as a mechanical device to orien-
Ex. ra. G. P. da Palestrina : Missa Papae Marcelli (Gloria) tate visually. The pulse-groups are often short and the super-groups
irregular or ambiguous. (In general, the bar-line symbol is used from
this time on with a great many varying meanings and functions.
This may be a well-known fact, but so far as I know, no exhaustive
analysis of these functions has yet been presented.)
Stated simply, the outstanding types of total rhythm in high and
late Baroque music can be illustrated with three typical cases: a) re-
Ex. 1bG. Gastoldi: Balletto citative without very pronounced accent-differentiation and with
more or less irregular sequences of pulse-groups; b) polyphonic or
of the late Middle Ages and a great part of Renaissance polyphony.6 pseudo-polyphonic texture, with rather marked accent-differentiation
In contrast to this tendency we can set the impulses, emanating within simple pulse-groups (often with more than one such group
mainly from Italy, which, during the late I 5 th century and the I 6th to the written bar), but in which supergroups are non-existent, un-
century, spring from such genres as the canti carnascialeschi, frottole, clear or ambiguous; c) patterns which bear the stamp of dance
villanelle, balletti, and so on. (Of course, a great deal of dance music rhythms, sometimes with clear tendencies toward set forms of ac-
and the post- Josquin French chanson also belong to the picture.) cent-differentiation within the pulse-groups and toward regular
I n all these genres of composition we can note a homophonizing super-groups (particularly in so-called periodic formations of, for
tendency which is accompanied by tendencies towards major/minor instance, 8 tp). On the harmonic side we have as parallels: a) a non-
tonality as well as tendencies in the direction of regular, physical- centered progression of different tonality levels, in spite of the fre-
motor rhythmic patterns. quent stereotype cadences often marked by modulatory “openness”;
In Palestrina - long held up as an ideal but actually not repre- b) relatively rapid harmonic rhythm marked by frequent transitions
sentative of the 16th century as a whole - we find a discernible to related keys (German: Zwischenkadenzen), suspension effects or
differentiation between “accented” and “unaccented” beats, without other melodic-harmonically conditioned changes of tensiony, and
which his consistent treatment of dissonance could not be explained. c) comparatively calm “harmonic rhythm’’ with an emphasis on the
That Palestrina appears to be representative in this respect of a chief chord functions which establish an unambiguous tonality and
“Spätstil” which is individual and unique in several respects but is also appear with definite “positional functions” within the rhythmic -
also influenced by some kinds of sonority which dominated secular metric schemes.
music at the time, seems to be beyond doubt. Nevertheless, Palestri- This sketchy review could be elaborated in a great many direc-
na’s polyphony, with its remains of modality, stands out in sharp tions, and a number of interesting stylistic details could be suggested
contrast to G. Gastoldi’s balletti or Th. Morley’s “fa-las”,for exam- as possible indicators of harmonic and rhythmic covariation. (Take,
ple, in which the rhythm, with a marked dance-like, motor charac- for instance, the transformation of hemiolia from a grouping func-
ter, so manifestly “goes together with” a harmonic style which is tion on the basis of a low degree of accent-differentiation to a syn-
just as clearly marked by major/minor tendencies. (Ex. I a-b.) copated tension function on the basis of a marked accent-differentia-
6 Cf., for example, B. Meier’s analyses of Josquin’s and Petit-Coclico’s motets, in Musica
tion.) Here our illustrations must be limited to three examples from
Disciplina X (1956), p. 67 ff. J. S . Bach, in whose work all three types mentioned above appear
 Ex. 3. G. B. Pergolesi: La serva Padrona (Serpina’s aria)

Ex. 2a

Ex. 4. W. A. Mozart. Piano sonata G major K. 2 8 3 , !st movement

feature of mature Viennese classicism. (Ex. 3.) Domenico Scarlatti,

by the way, constitutes an interesting border-line case in this con-
nection; R. Kirkpatrick has pointed out certain peculiarities in Scar-
Ex. 2c. latti’s style which could easily be translated into the terminology
Joh. Seb. Bach: St. John’s Passion, no. 64 (ex. 2a); Wohltemperiertes Klavier II, Fugue employed here and used as the basis of a special investigation of
VIII (ex. 2b); French Suite no. 5 , Gavotte (ex. 2c) harmonic-rhythmic relationships.
With Haydn and Mozart the adjustment between major/minor
tonality, clear and stable yet flexible, and the subtly accent-differen-
rather clearly, although the middle type (b) must be said to be most tiated pulse-grouping reaches a high point. In addition, both interact
characteristic of Bach‘s personal total rhythm with its strong motoric to create a multi-level system of rhythmic-metric structures, in which
qualities. (Ex. 2 a-c.) the frequent doubling and redoubling of subordinated pulse-groups
In the homophonically-conceived I 8th century music which, for is an outstanding feature. This architectonically important device, by
lack of a better term, we often label style galant, there is a clear affinity the way, should not be confused with the so-called periodic closure
between “additive” seriation of paired pulse-groups and limitation which is also a characteristic of the style of that time. (Ex. 4.)
in the range of harmonic combinations, with emphasis on the (con- The super-grouping in several levels is clearly among the distin-
sonant) main chord-functions. Neither the differentiation of the har- guishing features of Beethoven’s symphonic architectonics. These
monic relationships nor any stabilized superior rhythmic structures super-structures are constructed essentially with harmonic relations
makes it possible to construct, other than under exceptional circum- as a base and occasionally assume dimensions unknown up to that
stances, the more comprehensive designs which are a distinguishing time (Ex. 5 a), just as they can, with tremendous effect, break away
 Its central theme (Ex.6 a) has a time-signature and a bar-line nota-
tion, which can in no way give an adequate picture of the intended
- and perceived - pulse-grouping. Here the structural relations
can form the basis of several phenomenal levels of super-grouping.
We can immediately perceive the grouping as tp = 2 tn, but also as
tp = 4 tn. In addition, the infrequent harmonic changes support a
grouping on a still higher level of 8 tn (which, however, within ade-
quate tempo ranges, could hardly be perceived as a single “gp”),
If we assume that the grouping tp = 4 tn is both phenomenally and
“musically” relevant (that is, intended by the composer), it becomes
evident that the whole process on this superior level in Schubert is
dominated by regular 8 tp-periods (comprising 3 2 tn), which are
broken only at certain points of critical importance from a modu-
latory and dramatic point of view (for example, through “compres-
sion” to 6p à 4 tn).
Ex. 5a.
It is tempting to experiment here with an alteration in the bar-line nota-
tion: for example, the one suggested in Ex. 6 b. However, we are inclined
to consider this altered notation as inadequate. Why? Because we are used
to interpreting such a 4/4-meter notation in this special stylistic context as
indicating (or, more correctly, implying) an accent-differentiation which is
not relevant in this special case. The example thus seems to reveal a great
deal both about the shortcomings of conventional bar-line notation and
about our habits of reading.

Ex. 5b.
L. van Beethoven: Symphony 3 E flat major, 1st movement

from conventional patterns of harmony and rhythm at the same time. Ex.Ga-b. F. Schubert: Symphony C major (D. 944). Last movement. a) original, b) re-
(Ex. 5 b.) notation

In Schubert’s work we encounter more often what might be called

a “lyrical”, progressive doubling of pulse-groups or periodic for- In this connection, it should be borne in mind that alternations
mations, here again determined primarly by the distribution of the between different levels of pulse-grouping within one and the same
harmonic functions. An example which is instructive in several composition or movement constitute an important creative tool in
respects is offered in this connection by the finale of his C-major music from the latter half of the 18th century and from the 17th
symphony, D. 944. century, in particular within symphonic music from Viennese clas-
5-613139
sicism to, say, Mahler and Sibelius. Such alternations between
grouping-levels (which are clearly recognized in, for example, Sibe-
lius by Ilmari Krohn and his Finnish pupils) are obviously affected
by - and interpreted via - the distribution of melodic and har-
monic events and corresponding phases of phenomenal movement.
Ex. 7a. R. Schumann: Faschingschwank aus Wien
This confirms both the statement that the total rhythm is a product
of the integration of the “elements”, and the statement that this total
rhythm does not correlate very well with the distribution of nota-
tion symbols into bars. The role played by these alternations in the
development of the so-called “dynamic” form principles of I 9th
century symphonic music is an important and interesting question.
The matter has been discussed now and then,7 but has hardly led to

-
the development of adequate methodological distinctions. 8 (It is
naturally of the greatest importance also for performing artists - in-
cluding orchestra conductors - to take this phenomenon into ac-
count.) PP
Ex. 7b. R. Schumann : Manfred-Overture (beginning)

In the music of a romantic composer like Mendelssohn we ordi-

narily encounter a light-flowing, regular and even rhythm which is
relatively low in tensionp combined with a restrained, almost classi-
cistic harmonic idiom. Schumann, on the other hand, offers many
striking examples of deviation from traditional patterns. (The latter P
patterns are at this point inherited and their role could by now be Ex. 8a. R. Wagner: Tristan und Isolde, Prelude
characterized - not merely metaphorically - by the expression “the
law of least resistance”.) The deviations in Schumann’s music are
very often simultaneously harmonic and rhythmic in nature. How century, is a remarkable actual time span, which in this case is cer-
intimately the two components can work together here perhaps can tainly a significant factor on the perception side. Some interpreta-
be better demonstrated with some examples than with attempts at tions give values of over 20 seconds for the melody and about 5
verbal description. (Ex. 7 a-b.) The peculiar and impressive union seconds for the following rest, at least part of which belongs to the
of rhythmic and harmonic tension at the beginning of the Manfred preceding theme. Compared with the values which experimental
Overture seems to present the new situation in a nutshell. psychologists usually state as maxima for the “conscious present” or
In spite of the fact that in many people’s eyes the example may span of perceptual present-time, this value is surprisingly high. Even
seem to have been worn out by use in many pedagogical contexts, if we object, in this connection, that the concept of “conscious
I cannot refrain from drawing attention as a next step to the opening present” is not clearly defined, we are nevertheless faced with a
bars of the prelude to Tristan und Isolde. (Ex. 8 a.) Its tonal and har- phenomenal Gestalt of unusual length.
monic characteristics are often described and easily perceived. Among What holds it together, apparently, is the continuous dynamic
the outstanding qualities of this thematic Gestalt, which has come changes and growth (i. e., amplitude,, conditioning, among other
to symbolize the “crisis” in the tonally centered harmony of the 19th things, loudness9 and part of intensitycp) combined with the con-
7 For instance, by Lorenz, Schenker, Kurth and von Tobel. sistent use of a leading-tone motif which produces a strong tensionp;
8 Note, however, the contributions in Cooper & Meyer, op. cit. the three presentations of this motif, furthermore, hook into one
another as parts of a closed progression curve. Its effect, however,
emerges as early as in the first monodic phase and is affected even
here by an (in the listener) ingrained tonal reference system and the
expectations derived from it. The very first “up-beat” relation suc-
ceeds in stabilizing this tonal relationship by emphasizing that quality
of the second tone f1, which we usually describe as a suspension
effect. The strong expressive quality in this tone (whose musically
relevant qualities certainly are not very well symbolized by the nota- Ex. 8b. R. Wagner: Die Meistersänger, Prelude
tion) seems to be strongly affected by the difficulty of immediately
constructing some definite rhythmic reference system. This difficulty stylistically relevant deviations from this main tendency could be
in its turn is due both to the absolute length of the tone and to the pointed out. Nothing could be more erroneous than to imagine that
fact that the relation between the durational values of the first two the phenomenon of covariation which we have been emphasizing is
tones does not give sufficient support for any definitive hypothesis- some sort of “natural law”. Such a way of thinking would lead back
formation about such a reference system. What is established in this again to a narrow dogmatism, according to which a number of out-
respect seems mainly to be an experienced regularity in the events standing creative solutions would have to be classified as anomalies.
which occur “on the one-beats” (to use notation-language). This An interesting question to raise instead is to what extent one can
regularityq - with infrequent supporting points because of the talk about and locate, in the last I 50 years, certain divergencies, that
tempo - is the result of harmonic-melodic tension phenomena; the is, non-covariations, which result from the fact that tradition has
degree of their phenomenal intensity certainly permits us to ex- functioned more strongly or more effectively in relation to one
perience accents, but hardly allows any rhythmq of a motor type to “element” than to another (that is, during a time when these “ele-
develop. (To a certain extent, the subjective degree of this vague ments” were definitely part of the composers’ conceptual equipment
motoric rhythmp can be measured by the extent to which we per- and habits of thought).
ceive that the established regularity goes onward to a moment of Much can be said for the argument that the tradition-bound
accent (and relaxation) at the rest on beat “one” in the fourth bar.) rhythmic-metric schemes have, in many cases, been maintained
I have discussed this example in some detail because it seems well- parallel with a more and more unconventional treatment of disso-
suited to illustrate the connection between the weakening and dis- nance and more and more marked trends toward “free” tonality. But
solution of the major/minor tonal reference system on one hand and here too it must be emphasized that the bar-lines are not always
of traditionally regular rhythmic-metric patterns on the other. Once reliable and unambiguous symbols of the rhythmic-metric refer-
again it can be maintained that what we can still describe only clum- ence system used. New problems arise in the interpretation of the
sily in harmonic and rhythmic terms seems to be a single phenomenon total rhythm when new harmonic relations are taken into con-
in which both these components continually affect one another. sideration, since a new set of tone-combinations can certainly very
Wagner’s “infinite melody” is not constructed solely on the basis well be imagined to imply in principle similar kinds of phenomenal
of extended tonality with a great deal of chromaticism, many “false accent and tension relations as those which were implied earlier by
cadences”, and so on; it constitutes the melodic aspect of a specific more strongly convention-bound (and perhaps simpler) harmonic
type of over-all texture with its own peculiar total rhythm. In order means.
to bring this example and our reasoning into sharper relief we may Questions as intricate as these cannot be dealt with further in this
cite still another well-known passage in which, instead, an energeti- discussion, however, and strictly speaking we lack the methodologi-
cally asserted, muscular, almost martial rhythm appears together with cal apparatus which would be required for such an investigation.
harmonic relations of a significantly more sturdy type. (Ex. 8 b.) In the remainder of this paper we shall merely carry forward up to
In 19th and also 20th century music numerous interesting and our own time the main trends which have been sketched above.
 Andantino con moto
ment of stylistic tendencies, whether prompted by schools, deter-
mined by fads, or of an individual nature, that a survey of the leading
trends and decisive changes would be extremely difficult and cannot
even be tentatively suggested here. But what can definitely be stated
about the present situation is that a great many of the conventions
which held sway during the 19th century have been nullified in a
number of significant works by significant composers. Secondly, we
can state that in many cases these changes hold true for what, in
accordance with conventional terminology, we call “melodic” as well
Ex. 9a. as “harmonic” and “rhythmic” relations; nevertheless these changes
do not always seem to have taken place in a similar degree in these
three areas. This latter assumption holds true with reference to the
scores of a great many contemporary composers.
But here there is a trap, perhaps not only for the musicologist but
also for the composer. There is no rule that prescribes that the tradi-
Ex. 9b.
tional notation system must always and consistently be suitable for
all new stylistic purposes. For practical reasons, the very use of this
system, even when it has become inadequate in several respects (for
instance, for recording dodecaphony on a five-line stave, the proper-
ties of which are defined by a basic diatonic scale, and with he help
of accidentals also derived from a diatonic system), can lead to both
Ex. 9c. real and apparent errors which are often difficult to detect. It goes
C. Debussy: Arabesque no. I (ex. 9a); “Minstrels” from Préludes I (ex. 9b); “Voiles” from
Préludes I (ex. 9 c)
without saying that the traditional notation may still function effec-
tively enough as a conventional signal system for the performers’
In the history of tonality Debussy obviously occupies a key posi- actions, their movements on keyboards, and so on, even if short-
tion; this fact seems to become more and more clearly established comings can be pointed out in that connection too (for example,
as our historical perspective on his contributions grows. It is well with regard to the relationship between written accidentals and actual
known that in many of his works one finds the traditional centering intonation).
of tonality weakened or even almost eliminated and also finds exam- It is perhaps important, moreover, to state specifically that the
ples of marked weakening of motor-conditioned pulse-grouping. evoking of motor-conditioned rhythmp of course does not neces-
Both these facts, however, are expressed as negations; a description sarily imply certain specific kinds of tonal relations. No matter how
in positive terms of the extraordinarily consistent and fastidious the tonal relations may be constituted, there always remains the
principles of selection which guided Debussy in each separate work possibility of creating satisfactory stimuli for such types of rhythmp
would certainly be more relevant. Within the framework of a de- through suitable organizations of the sound events with respect to
scription of that sort the phenomenon of covariation between har- metric, dynamic, “articulatory” and other relations. This, however,
mony and rhythm would probably become highly relevant again, does not mean to say that the kinds of total rhythm which have
as the brief examples appended here can perhaps intimate. (Ex. thus arisen are identical with those that existed previously.
9 a-c.) Concerning the 20th century I shall merely mention some typical
During the time between the world wars and during the last cases, mainly by raising certain questions about them, which should
fifteen years, we have been faced with such a kaleidoscopic assort- under any circumstances be included in a more detailed investigation.
 Ex. 10a.

Ex. 10b.
Paul Hindemith: Ludus Tonalis, Fuga Prima in C (ex. 10a); Interludium [No. 9] (ex. rob)

In Hindemith’s work, the publication of his pedagogical treatise

“Unterweisung im Tonsatz” (I 937/39) marks somewhat of a dividing-
line (in the latter half of the 1930s) around and after which his own
artistic consideration for the well-planned “Gefälle” and “Stufengang”
according to “Reihe I” and “Reihe II” produces increased stylistic
consistency - with the accompanying limitations. It seems fairly
obvious that these trends converge with a rather pronounced reten-
tion of regular rhythmic-metric or total rhythm patterns which quite Ex. II. I. Stravinsky: Concerto E flat, 3rd movement
clearly have their roots in central European (in particular German-
Austrian) 19th century traditions, and are often distinguished by a structurally and esthetically decisive. In Schoenberg’s work, how-
vital or heavy motoric character. (Ex. I O a-b.) ever, the factors which are not pre-determined (and they are clearly
In the works of composers approximately contemporary with in the majority) should reveal a great deal more about his style and
Hindemith, such as Stravinsky and Bartók, completely different technique. If we consider, for instance, the beginning of the last
rhythmic and tonal conditions prevail, and even this simple state- movement of his third string quartet (Ex. 12), these other factors
ment seems to suggest that using the concept of covariation can are strongly in the foreground and can very well be studied inde-
still be fruitful. About Stravinsky, for example, we can ask whether pendently of whether the twelve-tone technique is used or not. In
it would not be possible to find unequivocal relationships between this example, a marked motor quality is established by patently
his highly personal rhythmic-metric “mosaic technique” and his equally traditional means: not only through the distribution of different
personal types of tonality, which seem mainly to be constructed kinds of movement and the details of articulations, but also through
on a “pan-diatonic” basis in many of his works. (Ex. II.) the occurrence of repetition (tn 1-2), the regularity of grouping
To what extent can the description of the combinations of “hyper- (tn 1-2, 3-4) and specific tonal relations, which are tentatively sug-
romantic” heritage in gesture and expression, “classicistic” tenden- gested in the accompanying figure.
cies in the use of meter and of over-all form types, and the adoption
of a consistent twelve-tone technique in Schoenberg be improved
if we allow the concept of total rhythm to direct our line of in-
vestigation? Unfortunately, many authors have too often been con-
tent, when analyzing dodecaphonic works, merely to ascertain how
the twelve-tone rows have been used, as if this single aspect were
I
I
 Undoubtedly, they achieved something which, within the framework
of mathematical calculation and on music-paper, could be described
as an example of a conscious striving for covariation; concerning the
existence of any similar integration on the perception side, however,
both the composers’ theoretical writings and their compositions
often leave us in ignorance. In that respect, the technique however can
have guaranteed that certain classes of conventional structures and
associations do not affect or occur to the listeners. And such negative
Ex. 12. A. Schoenberg: String Quartet no. III, op. 30, 4thmovement
esthetic goals have certainly often motivated technical calculations
of this kind. (Ex. 14.)9
That, finally, electronic music - or electrophony - permits the
utilization of completely new sounds and new temporal relationships,
even if they are not actually “unlimited” in number, is a fact which
at the moment does not seem to lead anywhere other than to the
commonplace conclusion that new examples of covariation are both
possible and probable. I shall refrain from taking a position on the
Ex,13, A. Webern: String Quartet op. 28, 2nd movement question of whether such examples can be considered to exist already.

In summary, the following points should be emphasized. The cur-

rent terminology and descriptive systems of music theory need to
be given serious reconsideration at several points. This will probably
have to take the form of liberation from traditional handicraft doc-
trines and of getting a closer link with - or at least active impulses
from - methods developed within the theory of science and in
psychology. This is particularly the case in the handling of concep-
tual distinctions and definitions. It seems to be at this point that most
Muo pir un - 10
remains to be done. Many kinds of illustrations of the lack of clarity
Ex. 14.L. Nono: Il canto sospeso, 2nd movement and the shortcomings which are still inherent in so-called music
theory could be selected. Here we have chosen to suggest how,
About some of Webern’s works we may ask the question: to what among other things, the conventional separation of melody, rhythm
extent is the surprising metric regularity only so to say an artifact and harmony has perhaps hindered the development of a synthetic
of the notation system, in so far as the notation certainly indicates yet unbiassed way of thinking about structural relationships in music,
a particular case of “meterp” (or just regularityp?) but perhaps makes particularly with respect to what we call tonality. It seems impossible
insight into the perceptively relevant rhythmp-structures more dif- to describe tonality effectively - even in its most unequivocal and
ficult? (Ex. 13.) stable manifestations within multipart music - exclusively in “har-
The composers who experimented during the 1950s with so- monic” or “melodic and harmonic” terms, that is, without referring
called serial music, that is to say, with techniques based on the directly also to what, in accordance with the present trichotomy, we
serial ordering of several physical variables, believed that they had
9 Compare in this connection K.-H. Stockhausens concepts Daueroktave, Formantrhythmen,
achieved a perfect “integration” of the different elements or para- and so on, presented in Die Reihe 3 (1957) and used, for example, in his composition
meters and thereby obtained guarantees of “complete structuring”. “Kontakte”.
call rhythm. It may be that a satisfactory description of this kind
will not be possible until the conceptual system has been developed
to the point at which it permits both distinct differentiation between
physical, notational, perceptual and other aspects, and a comprehen-
sive exposition of the structures of musical processes in accordance
with corresponding, descriptive systems.