Wave phenomenon

Types of Waves in Physics

A wave is a transfer of energy from one point to another without the transfer of material
between the two points. A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space.

Different types of waves have different set of characteristics. Based on the orientation of
particle motion and direction of energy, there are three categories:

Mechanical Wave

 A wave that is an oscillation of matter and is responsible for the transfer of energy
through a medium.
 The distance of the wave’s propagation is limited by the medium of transmission. The
oscillating material moves about a fixed point, and there is very little translational
motion. One property is the way they are measured, which is given by displacement
divided by wavelength. When this dimensionless factor is 1, it results in the generation
of harmonic effects; for example, waves break on the beach when this factor exceeds 1,
resulting in turbulence.

There are two types of mechanical waves:

Transverse waves – The movement of the particles is at right angles or perpendicular to the
motion of the energy. Light is an example of a transverse wave.

Water waves are an example of a combination of both longitudinal and transverse motions.

 Longitudinal waves The movement of the particle are parallel to the motion of the
energy i.e. the displacement of the medium is in the same direction to which the wave is
moving. Example – Sound Waves, Pressure Waves.

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  Surface waves The particles travel in a circular motion. These waves usually occur at
interfaces. Waves in the ocean and ripples in a cup of water are examples of such
waves.

Electromagnetic Wave

 Are created by a fusion of electric and magnetic fields. They enable one to see light and
colours. .
 Do not need a medium to travel. They travel through a vacuum at the same speed,
299,792,458 ms-1.

Following are the different types of electromagnetic waves:

 Microwaves
 X-ray

 Radio waves

 Ultraviolet waves

Difference Between Mechanical Wave and Non-Mechanical Wave

Mechanical Waves vs Non-Mechanical Waves

Mechanical Wave Non-Mechanical Wave

-Need a medium for propagation. Do not need a medium for propagation.

Sound waves, water waves and seismic waves are The electromagnetic wave is the only non-
some examples. mechanical wave.

Cannot travel through vacuum Non-mechanical waves can travel through

vacuum

(Progressive Wave
-The onward transmission of the vibratory motion of a body in an elastic medium from one
particle to the successive particle. or

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- Plane-progressive wave;- A wave propagating from one point to another in a medium
without being subjected to any boundary condition.

Equation of a plane progressive wave

An equation can be formed to represent generally the displacement of a vibrating particle in a
medium through which a wave passes. Thus each particle of a progressive wave executes
simple harmonic motion of the same period and amplitude differing in phase from each other.
Let us assume that a progressive wave travels from the origin O along the positive direction of
X axis, from left to right. The displacement of a particle at a given instant is
y = a sin ωt …... (1)
where a is the amplitude of the vibration of the particle and ω = 2πf.
The displacement of the particle P at a distance x from O at a given instant is given by,
y = a sin (ωt - φ) …... (2)
If the two particles are separated by a distance λ, they will differ by a phase of 2π. Therefore,
the phase φ of the particle P at a distance
x is φ = (2π/λ) x
y = a sin (ωt - 2πx/λ) …... (3)
Since ω = 2πf = 2π (v/λ), the equation is given by,
y = a sin [(2πvt/λ) - (2πx/λ)]
y = a sin 2π/λ (vt – x) …... (4)
Since, ω = 2π/T, the equation (3) can also be written as,
y = a sin 2π (t/T – x/λ) …... (5)
If the wave travels in the opposite direction, the equation becomes,
y = a sin 2π (t/T + x/λ) …... (6)
(i) Variation of phase with time

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The phase changes continuously with time at a constant distance.
At a given distance x from O let φ1 and φ2 be the phase of a particle at
time t1 and t2 respectively.
φ1 = 2π (t1/T - x/λ)
φ2 = 2π (t2/T - x/λ)
φ2 – φ1 = 2π (t2/T – t1/T) = 2π/T (t2 – t1)
φ = (2π/T) t
This is the phase change φ of a particle in time interval t. If t = T, φ = 2π. This shows that after a
time period T, the phase of a particle becomes the same.
(ii) Variation of phase with distance
At a given time t phase changes periodically with distance x. Let φ1 and φ 2 be the phase of two
particles at distance x1 and x2 respectively from the origin at a time t.
Then, φ1 = 2π (t/T - x1/λ)
φ2 = 2π (t/T - x2/λ)
So, φ2 – φ1 = – 2π/λ (x2 – x1)
Thus, φ = – 2π/λ (x)
The negative sign indicates that the forward points lag in phase when the wave travels from left
to right.
When x = λ, φ = 2π, the phase difference between two particles having a path difference λ is 2π.

Characteristics of progressive wave

(a) Each particle of the medium executes vibration about its mean position. The disturbance
progresses onward from one particle to another.
(b) The particles of the medium vibrate with same amplitude about their mean positions.
(c) Each successive particle of the medium performs a motion similar to that of its predecessor
along the propagation of the wave, but later in time.
(d) The phase of every particle changes from 0 to 2π.
(e) No particle remains permanently at rest. Twice during each vibration, the particles are
momentarily at rest at extreme positions, different particles attain the position at different
time.

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(f) Transverse progressive waves are characterised by crests and troughs. Longitudinal waves
are characterised by compressions and rarefactions.
(g) There is a transfer of energy across the medium in the direction of propagation of
progressive wave.
(h) All the particles have the same maximum velocity when they pass through the mean
position.
(i) The displacement, velocity and acceleration of the particle separated by mλ are the same,
where m is an integer.
Intensity and sound level
Sound produced by violin, flute or harmonium, are pleasing sensation in the ear, whereas the
sound produced by a gun, horn of a motor car etc. produce unpleasant sensation in the ear.
The loudness of a sound depends on intensity of sound wave and sensitivity of the ear.
The intensity is the amount of energy crossing per unit area per unit time perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
Intensity is measured in W m–2.
The intensity of sound depends on (i) the Amplitude of the source (I α a 2), (ii) the Surface area
of the source (I α A), (iii) the Density of the medium (I α ρ), (iv) Frequency of the source (I α f 2)
and (v) Distance of the observer from the source (I α 1/r2 ).
The lowest intensity of sound that can be perceived by the human ear is the threshold of
hearing. It is denoted by Io.
For the sound of frequency 1 kHz, Io =10–12 W m–2. The level of sound intensity is measured in
decibels. According to Weber-Fechner law,
decibel level (β) = 10 log10 [I/I0]
where Io is taken as 10–12 W m–2 which corresponds to the lowest sound intensity that can be
heard. Its level is 0 dB. I is the maximum intensity that an ear can tolerate which is 1W m–
2
equal to 120 dB.
β = 10 log10 (1/10-12)
β = 10 log10 (1012)
β = 120 dB
Progressive waves Stationary waves
The disturbance produced in the medium There is no onward motion of the disturbance as
travels onward, it is handed over from one no particle transfers its motion to the next. Each
particle to the next. Each particle executes particle has its own characteristic vibration.
the same type of vibration as the preceding
one, though not at the same time.
The amplitude of each particle is the same The amplitudes of the different particles are

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but the phase changes continuously, different, ranging from zero at the nodes to
maximum at the antinodes. All the particles in a
given segment vibrate in phase but in opposite
phases relative to the particles in the adjacent
segment.
No particle is permanently at rest. Different The particles at the nodes are permanently at
particles attain the state of momentary rest rest but other particles attain their position of
at different instants, momentary rest simultaneously.
All the particles attain the same maximum All the particles attain their own maximum
velocity when they pass through their mean velocity at the same time when they pass
positions. through their mean positions.
In the case of a longitudinal progressive In the case of a longitudinal stationary wave the
wave all the parts of the medium undergo variation of density is different at different points
similar variation of density one after the being maximum at the nodes and zero at the
other. At every point there will be a density antinodes.
variation.
There is a flow of energy across every plane Energy is not transported across any plane.
in the direction of propagation.

Velocity of Waves
The velocity v of waves of various types,
1. Transverse wave on string
V=√T/m , .... where T is the tension and m is the mass per unit length.
2. Sound waves in gas
V = √p/P
where p i sthe pressure, P is the density and  is the ratio of the principal specific heat
capacities o fthe gas.
3. Longitudinal waves in solid
V= √E/P Where E is Young's modulus and p is the density
4. Electromagneticwaves
V=√1/µ
where µ is the permeability and e is the permittivity of the medium.

Sound waves are longitudinal disturbances that travel in a solid, liquid, or gas.

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The speed of sound in air is approximately given by c = 331.3 + 0.6 t (meters / second), where t
is the temperature of the air in degrees Celsius. A value of 345 meters / second is a good
estimate at room temperature.

Properties of waves

Amplitude: the height of the wave, measured in meters.

Wavelength: the distance between adjacent crests, measured in meters.

Period: the time it takes for one complete wave to pass a given point, measured in seconds.

Frequency: the number of complete waves that pass a point in one second, measured in inverse
seconds, or Hertz (Hz).

Speed: the horizontal speed of a point on a wave as it propagates, measured in meters /

second.

These properties are related as below

Period = 1 / frequency

Speed = wavelength / period = wavelength x frequency

Refraction is when light wave slows down as it enters a denser medium. Refraction is the
phenomenon of a wave changing its speed. Mathematically, this means that the size of the
phase velocity changes. The amount by which a wave is refracted by a material is given by the
refractive index of the material. The directions of incidence and refraction are related to the
refractive indices of the two materials by Snell's law.

Dispersion. All colors of light travel at the same speed in a vacuum, but they travel at different
speeds inside matter. Blue light travels a bit faster, than red light. This in turn makes the blue
light bend more, and the colors go their separate ways to form the prism.

Interference: Waves that encounter each other combine through superposition to create a
new wave (interference pattern). Important interference patterns occur for waves that are in
phase. Consider two waves meeting, For constructive interference, the waves meet in phase,
i.e. so that the crests of each wave coincide. In destructive interference, the waves meet out of
phase, so that the crest of one wave coincides with a trough of the other wave, and they cancel
each other out(double slit interference pattern). The two light rays start off in phase since they
come from the same source. By the time they reach the screen after having been diffracted
through the slits, they have traveled different distances, so that the crests of the ray that travels

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further a crest will still meet a crest at the screen, and a bright spot will appear due to
constructive interference.

Diffraction: A wave exhibits diffraction when it encounters an obstacle that bends the wave or
when it spreads after emerging from an opening. Diffraction effects are more pronounced when
the size of the obstacle or opening is comparable to the wavelength of the wave.

Waves exhibit common behaviors under a number of standard situations, e. g. Transmission

and media.

Media classified into one or more categories:

A bounded medium if it is finite in extent, otherwise an unbounded medium

A linear medium if the amplitudes of different waves at any particular point in the medium can
be added

A uniform medium or homogeneous medium if its physical properties are unchanged at

different locations in space

An anisotropic medium if one or more of its physical properties differ in one or more directions

An isotropic medium if its physical properties are the same in all directions

Absorption of waves means, if a kind of wave strikes a matter, it will be absorbed by the
matter. When a wave with that same natural frequency impinges upon an atom, then the
electrons of that atom will be set into vibrational motion. If a wave of a given frequency strikes
a material with electrons having the same vibrational frequencies, then those electrons will
absorb the energy of the wave and transform it into vibrational motion.

Reflection: When a wave strikes a reflective surface, it changes direction, such that the angle
made by the incident wave and line normal to the surface equals the angle made by the
reflected wave and the same normal line.

Polarization: This phenomenon arises when wave motion can occur simultaneously in two
orthogonal directions. Transverse waves can be polarized, A transverse wave is linearly
polarized if it oscillates in only one direction or plane. Linear polarization adds the relative
orientation of that plane, perpendicular to the direction of travel, in which the oscillation
occurs, such as "horizontal" for instance, if the plane of polarization is parallel to the ground.
Electromagnetic waves propagating in free space, for instance, are transverse; they can be
polarized by the use of a polarizing filter.

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Longitudinal waves, such as sound waves, do not exhibit polarization. For these waves there is
only one direction of oscillation, that is, along the direction of travel.

Standing wave does not appear to travel. Each point on the standing wave will oscillate about a
point on the axis of the wave. Adjacent points are in phase with each other (sections of the
wave flap up and down together), so that points of a particular phase remain at a fixed location
as time progresses. Adjacent points each oscillate with a different amplitude. (In a traveling
wave, adjacent points all have the same amplitude, but the phase changes along the wave
instead). Since adjacent points are in phase, no energy is transferred from one point to the
next, unlike a traveling wave.

Standing waves are formed by the superposition of two traveling waves of the same frequency
(with the same polarisation and the same amplitude) traveling in opposite directions. Achieved
by using a traveling wave and its reflection, which will ensure that the frequency is exactly the
same.

Antinodes are points on a stationary wave that oscillates with maximum amplitude. Nodes are
points of zero amplitude and appear to be fixed.

- The figure shows a sinusoidal standing wave. The different dashed lines show the standing
wave at different moments in time.
Adjacent nodes and antinodes are always a distance start fraction, lambda, divided by, 4, end
fraction,4λ apart, where lambda,λ is the wavelength.