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 Princeton University Library

32101 044544268

S
SM

8179
-174

Library of

Princeton University.

VET NOV
TVMM
EN TA
TES

Dei, Viget
SubRumine

Mathematical

Seminary.

Presented by
CONIC SECTIONS

TREATED GEOMETRICALLY

BY
am
li 28
il y 13
nr
W. H. BESANT, Sc. D. F.R.S.
FELLOW OF ST JOHN'S COLLEGE CAMBRIDGE

LONDON
GEORGE BELL AND SONS
1907
 (S(1)

QASSZ

Bf

1907

First published (Fcap 8vo. ) April 1869

Second Edition 1875.
Reprinted with corrections 1878, 1881 , 1884 , 1886, 1885, 1890.
New Edition, revised and enlarged (Crown 8vo.) 1895.
Reprinted 1900, 1907,
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

N the present Treatise the Conic Sections are defined

IN
with reference to a focus and directrix, and I have en-
deavoured to place before the student the most important
properties of those curves, deduced, as closely as possible,
from the definition .

The construction which is given in the first Chapter

for the determination of points in a conic section possesses
several advantages ; in particular, it leads at once to the
constancy of the ratio of the square on the ordinate to
the rectangle under its distances from the vertices ; and,
again, in the case of the hyperbola, the directions of the
asymptotes follow immediately from the construction. In

several cases the methods employed are the same as those

of Wallace, in the Treatise on Conic Sections, published
in the Encyclopædia Metropolitana.
The deduction of the properties of these curves from
their definition as the sections of a cone, seems à priori to
be the natural method of dealing with the subject, but
experience appears to have shewn that the discussion of

conics as defined by their plane properties is the most

suitable method of commencing an elementary treatise, and

х JUN 131917 337216

iv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

accordingly I follow the fashion of the time in taking that

order for the treatment of the subject. In Hamilton's book
on Conic Sections, published in the middle of the last
century, the properties of the cone are first considered, and
the advantage of this method of commencing the subject,
if the use of solid figures be not objected to , is especially
shewn in the very general theorem of Art. ( 156 ). I have
made much use of this treatise, and, in fact, it contains
most of the theorems and problems which are now re-
garded as classical propositions in the theory of Conic
Sections.

I have considered first, in Chapter I., a few simple

properties of conics, and have then proceeded to the par-
ticular properties of each curve, commencing with the para-
bola as, in some respects, the simplest form of a conic
section.

It is then shewn, in Chapter VI., that the sections of

a cone by a plane produce the several curves in question ,
and lead at once to their definition as loci, and to several
of their most important properties.
A chapter is devoted to the method of orthogonal pro-
jection, and another to the harmonic properties of curves,
and to the relations of poles and polars, including the
theory of reciprocal polars for the particular case in which
the circle is employed as the auxiliary curve.
For the more general methods of projections, of reci-
procation, and of anharmonic properties, the student will
consult the treatises of Chasles, Poncelet, Salmon, Townsend,

Ferrers, Whitworth, and others, who have recently deve-

 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

loped, with so much fulness, the methods of modern Geo-

metry.

I have to express my thanks to Mr R. B. Worthington,

of St John's College, and of the Indian Civil Service, for
valuable assistance in the constructions of Chapter XI., and

also to Mr E. Hill , Fellow of St John's College, for his

kindness in looking over the latter half of the proof- sheets.
I venture to hope that the methods adopted in this
treatise will give a clear view of the properties of Conic
Sections, and that the numerous Examples appended to
the various Chapters will be useful as an exercise to the
student for the further extension of his conceptions of these
curves.

W. H. BESANT.

CAMBRIDGE,
March, 1869.
 PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION.

N the preparation of this edition I have made many

IN
alterations and many additions. In particular, I have
placed the articles on Reciprocal Polars in a separate
chapter, with considerable expansions . I have also in-
serted a new chapter, on Conical Projections, dealing how-
ever only with real projections.
The first nine chapters, with the first set of miscel-
laneous problems, now constitute the elementary portions
of the subject. The subsequent chapters may be regarded
as belonging to higher regions of thought.
I venture to hope that this re-arrangement will make
it easier for the beginner to master the elements of the
subject, and to obtain clear views of the methods of
geometry as applied to the conic sections.
A new edition, the fourth, of the book of solutions of

the examples and problems has been prepared , and is being

issued with this new edition of the treatise, with which it
is in exact accordance.

W. H. BESANT.

December 14, 1894.

 CONTENTS .

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER I.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC SECTION, AND GENERAL

PROPERTIES 3

CHAPTER II.
20
THE PARABOLA .

CHAPTER III.
39
50
THE ELLIPSE

CHAPTER IV.

THE HYPERBOLA 87

CHAPTER V.

THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA 126

CHAPTER VI.

THE CYLINDER AND THE CONE 137

CHAPTER VII.
THE SIMILARITY OF CONICS, THE AREAS OF CONICS, AND
154
CURVATURE
viii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII.
PAGE
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION . 168

CHAPTER IX.

OF CONICS IN GENERAL 177

CHAPTER X.

ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES 184

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. I. 192

CHAPTER XI.

HARMONIC PROPERTIES, POLES AND POLARS 201

CHAPTER XII.

RECIPROCAL POLARS . 220

CHAPTER XIII.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS 234

CHAPTER XIV.

THE OBLIQUE CYLINDER, THE OBLIQUE CONE, AND THE CONOIDS 250

CHAPTER XV.

CONICAL PROJECTION 264

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II. 278

 CONIC SECTIONS .

INTRODUCTION.

DEFINITION.

Ir a straight line and a point be given in position in a

plane, and if a point move in a plane in such a manner that
its distance from the given point always bears the same
ratio to its distance from the given line, the curve traced out
by the moving point is called a Conic Section.
The fixed point is called the Focus, and the fixed line
the Directrix of the conic section.
When the ratio is one of equality, the curve is called a
Parabola.
When the ratio is one of less inequality, the curve is
called an Ellipse.
When the ratio is one of greater inequality, the curve is
called an Hyperbola .
These curves are called Conic Sections, because they
can all be obtained from the intersections of a Cone by
planes in different directions, a fact which will be proved
.
Irereafter.

It may be mentioned that a circle is a particular case of

an ellipse, that two straight lines constitute a particular
case of an hyperbola, and that a parabola may be looked
upon as the limiting form of an ellipse or an hyperbola,
under certain conditions of variation in the lines and
magnitudes upon which those curves depend for their form.
B. C. S. 1
2 INTRODUCTION.

The object of the following pages is to discuss the general

forms and characters of these curves, and to determine their
most important properties by help of the methods and
relations developed in the first six books, and in the eleventh
book of Euclid, and it will be found that, for this purpose, a
knowledge of Euclid's Geometry is all that is necessary.
The series of demonstrations will shew the characters and
properties which the curves possess in common, and also the
special characteristics wherein they differ from each other ;
and the continuity with which the curves pass into each
other will appear from the definition of a conic section as a
Locus, or curve traced out by a moving point, as well as from
the fact that they are deducible from the intersections of a
cone by a succession of planes.
 CHAPTER I.

PROPOSITION I.

The Construction of a Conic Section.

1. TAKE S as the focus, and from S draw SX at right

angles to the directrix, and intersecting it in the point X.
DEFINITION. This line SX, produced both ways, is called
the Axis ofthe Conic Section.
In SX take a point A such that the ratio of SA to AX
is equal to the given ratio ; then A is a point in the curve.
DEF. The point A is called the Vertex of the curve.
In the directrix EX take any point E, join EA, and ES,
produce these lines, and through S draw the straight line

P
K L

A
X
SAN

F
#

SQ making with ES produced the same angle which ES

produced makes with the axis SN.
1-2
.
4 CONIC SECTIONS .

Let P be the point of intersection of SQ and EA pro-

duced, and through P draw LPK parallel to NX, and inter-
secting ES produced in L, and the directrix in K.

P
K L

A
X
SIN

Then the angle PLS is equal to the angle LSN and

therefore to PSL;

Hence SP = PL.

Also PL : AS : EP : EA
:: PK : AX ;
:. PL : PK :: AS : AX ;
and :. SP : PK :: AS : AX.

The point P is therefore a point in the curve required,

and by taking for E successive positions along the directrix
we shall, by this construction , obtain a succession of points
in the curve .
If E be taken on the upper side of the axis at the same
distance from X, it is easy to see that a point P will be
obtained below the axis, which will be similarly situated
with regard to the focus and directrix. Hence it follows
that the axis divides the curve into two similar and equal
portions.
 CONIC SECTIONS. 5

Another point of the curve, lying in the straight line

KP, can be found in the following manner.
Through S draw the
straight line FS making the
P P
angle FSK equal to KSP, K
and let FS produced meet
KP produced in P'.
Then, since KS bisects
the angle PSF, S

SP' : SP :: P'K : PK ; F
.. SP : PK :: SP : PK,
and P' is a point in the curve.

2. DEF. The Eccentricity. The constant ratio of the

distance from the focus of any point in a conic section to
its distance from the directrix is called the eccentricity of
the conic section.
The Latus Rectum. If E be so taken that EX is equal
to SX, the angle PSN,
which is double the angle
LSN, and therefore double
the angle ESX, is a right L
angle.
A
For, since EX = SX, the X
S N
angle ESX = SEX, and , the
angle SXE being a right
angle, the sum of the two R
angles SEX, ESX, which is E
equal to twice ESX, is also
equal to a right angle.
Calling R the position of P in this case, produce RS to
R' , so that R'S = RS ; then R' is also a point in the curve.

DEF. The straight line RSR' drawn through the focus

at right angles to the axis, and intersecting the curve in R
and R', is called the Latus Rectum.
It is hence evident that the form of a conic section is
determined by its eccentricity, and that its magnitude is
6 CONICS.

determined by the magnitude of the Latus Rectum , which

is given by the relation
SR : SX : SA : AX.

3. DEF. The straight line PN (Fig. Art. 1 ), drawn

from any point P of the curve at right angles to the axis,
and intersecting the axis in N, is called the Ordinate of
the point P.
If the line PN be produced to P' so that NP ′ = NP,
the line PNP' is a double ordinate of the curve.
The latus rectum is therefore the double ordinate passing
through the focus.
DEF. The distance AN of the foot of the ordinate from
the vertex is called the Abscissa of the point P.
DEF. The distance SP is called the focal distance of
the point P.
It is also described as the radius vector drawn from the
focus.

4. We have now given a general method of constructing

a conic section, and we have explained the nomenclature
which is usually employed. We proceed to demonstrate a
few of the properties which are common to all the conic
sections.
For the future the word conic will be employed as an
abbreviation for conic section.

PROP. II. If the straight line joining two points P, P'

of a conic meet the directrix in F, the straight line FS will
bisect the angle between PS and P'S produced.

P
K
D

P
K

F
S
 CONICS. 7

Draw the perpendiculars PK, P'K' on the directrix.

Then SP : SP' :: PK : P'K'
:: PF : P'F.
Therefore FS bisects the outer angle, at S, of the triangle
PSP'. (Euclid vI., A.)
COR. If SQ bisect the angle PSP', it follows that FSQ
is a right angle.

5. PROP. III. No straight line can meet a conic in more

than two points.
Employing the figure of Art. 4, let P be a point of the
curve, and draw any straight line FP.
Join SF, draw SQ at right angles to SF, and SP' making
the angle QSP' equal to QSP; then P' is a point of the curve.
For, since SF bisects the outer angle at S,
SP' : SP :: P′F : PF,
:: P'K' : PK
or SP' P'K' :: SP : PK,
and therefore, P' is a point of the curve, also, there is no
other point of the curve in the straight line FPP'.
For suppose if possible P" to be another point ; then, as
in Article (4), SQ bisects the angle PSP" ; but SQ bisects
the angle PSP' ; therefore P" and P' are coincident.

6. PROP. IV. If QSQ' be a focal chord of a conic, and

P any point of the conic, and if
QP, Q'P meet the directrix in Ě
and F, the angle ESF is a right
angle.
For, by Prop. II., SE bisects
the angle PSQ', and SF bisects
the angle PSQ;
+ hence it follows that ESF
is a right angle. P
X
This theorem will be subse-
quently utilised in the case in
which the focal chord Q'SQ is
E
coincident with the axis of the
conic.
 FOCAL CHORDS.

7. PROP. V. The straight lines joining the extremities

oftwo focal chords intersect in the directrix.

If PSP, P'Sp' be the

two chords, the point in
which PP' meets the
directrix is obtained by
bisecting the angle
P
PSP' and drawing SF
at right angles to the F
bisecting line SQ. But
this line also bisects the
S
angle pSp' ; therefore
pp also passes through
F

The line SF bisects

the angle PSp', and
similarly, if QS pro-
duced, bisecting the
angle pSp' , meet the
directrix in F ", the two
lines Pp' , P'p will meet
in F. It is obvious that
F
the angle FSF' is a right
angle.

8. PROP. VI. The semi-latus rectum is the harmonic

mean between the two segments of any focal chord of a conic.
Let PSP' be a focal chord ,
K P
and draw the ordinates PN,
P'N'. R

Then, the triangles SPN, N

SP'N' being similar, X
S
SP : SP' :: SN : SN' K
:: NX - SX : SX - N'X
F
:: SP - SR : SR - SP',

since SP, SR, SP' are proportional to NX, SX, and N'X.
 TANGENT. 9

COR. Since SP : SP - SR :: SP.SP' : SP . SP - SR . SP',

and SP' : SR - SP' :: SP . SP' : SR . SP - SP.SP',
it follows that
SP.SP - SR . SP' = SR . SP - SP.SP' ;
SR . PP
' = 2SP . SP'.

Hence, if PSP', QSQ' are two focal chords,

PP' : QQ
' :: SP . SP' : SQ . SQ.

9. PROP. VII. A focal chord is divided harmonically at

the focus and the point where it meets the directrix.
Let PSP' produced meet the directrix in F, and draw
PK, P'K' perpendicular to the directrix, fig. Art. 8.
Then PF : P'F :: PK : P'K'
:: SP : SP'
:: PF - SF : SF - PF;
that is, PF, SF, and P'F are in harmonic progression , and
' is divided harmonically at S and F.
the line PP

10. Definition ofthe Tangent to a curve.

If a straight line, drawn through a point P of a curve,
meet the curve again in P', and if the straight line be turned
round the point P until the point P' approaches indefinitely
near to P, the ultimate position of the straight line is the
tangent to the curve at P.

P P
A
10 CONICS.

Thus, if the straight line APP' turn round P until the

points P and P' coincide, the line in its ultimate position
PT is the tangent at P.

DEF. The normal at any point of a curve is the straight

line drawn through the point at right angles to the tangent at
that point.

Thus, in the figure, PG is the normal at P.

PROP. VIII. The straight line, drawn from the focus to

the point in which the tangent meets the directrix, is at right
angles to the straight line drawn from the focus to the point of
contact.

K
D

P
K

F
S
༤

It is proved in Art. (4) that, if FPP' is a chord, and if

SQ bisects the angle PSP', FSQ is a right angle.
Let the point P' move along the curve towards P; then, as
P' approaches to coincidence with P, the straight line FPP '
approximates to, and ultimately becomes, the tangent TP
at P.
But when P' coincides with P, the line SQ coincides with
SP, and the angle FSP, which is ultimately TSP, becomes a
right angle.
Or, in other words, the portion of the tangent, intercepted
between the point of contact and the directrix , subtends a
right angle at the focus.
 TANGENTS. 11

11. PROP. IX. The tangent at the vertex is perpendicular

to the axis.
P L
If a chord EAP be drawn through
the vertex, and the point P be near
the vertex, the angle PSA is small, A
X
and LSN, which is half the angle S N
PSN, is nearly a right angle.
Hence it follows that when P
approaches to coincidence with A , the
point E moves off to an infinite
distance and the line EAP, which is
ultimately the tangent at A , becomes
parallel to LSE, and is therefore per-
pendicular to AX. E

12. PROP. X. The tangents at the ends of a focal chord

intersect on the directrix.

For the line SF, perpendicular to SP, meets the directrix

in the same point as the tangent at P ; and , since SF is
also at right angles to SP' , the tangent at P' meets the
directrix in the same point F.

Conversely, if from any point F in the directrix tangents

be drawn, the chord of contact, that is, the straight line
joining the points of contact, will pass through the focus and
will be at right angles to SF.

COR. Hence it follows that the tangents at the ends of

the latus rectum pass through the foot of the directrix.
12 CONICS.

PROP. XI. If a chord P'P meet the directrix in F,

and ifthe line bisecting the PSP' meet the curve in q and q',
Fq and Fq will be the tangents at q and q'.
Taking the figure of Art. 7, the line SQ meets the curve
in q and q', and, since SF is at right angles to SQ, it follows,
from Art. 12, that Fq and Fq' are tangents.
Hence if from a point F in the directrix tangents be
drawn, and also any straight line FPP' cutting the curve in
P and P', the chord of contact will bisect the angle PSP'.

14. PROP. XII . If the tangent at any point P of a conic

intersect the directrix in F, and the latus rectum produced
in D,
SD : SF :: SA : AX.

Join SK ; then, observing that FSP and FKP are right

angles, a circle can be described
about FSPK, and therefore the
K
angles SFD, SKP are equal.
Also the angle FSD D E
= complement of DSP F
= SPK ; X
A S
the triangles DSF, SPK are
similar, and
SD : SF:: SP : PK
:: SA : AX.

COR. (1 ). If the tangent at the other end P' of the focal

chord meet the directrix in D',
SD' : SF:: SA : AX ;
.. SD = SD'.

COR. (2). If DE be the perpendicular from D upon SP,

the triangles SDE, SFX are similar, and
SE: SX :: SD : SF
:: SA : AX
:: SR : SX ;
.. SE is equal to SR, the semi-latus rectum.
 TANGENTS. 13

15. PROP. XIII. The tangents drawn from any point to

a conic subtend equal angles at the focus.
Let the tangents FTP, FTP' at P and P' meet the
directrix in F and F" and the latus rectum in D and D'.
Join ST and produce it to meet the directrix in K ;
then KF: SD :: KT : ST
:: KF' : SD'.
Hence KF : KF' :: SD : SD'
:: SF : SF' by Prop. XII.
.. the angles TSF, TSF
" are equal.

D P
K
F

But the angles FSP', F'SP are equal, for each is the
complement of FSF' ;
.. the angles TSP, TSP' are equal.
COR. Hence it follows that if perpendiculars TM, TM
be let fall upon SP and SP', they are equal in length.
For the two triangles TSM, TSM' have the angles TMS,
TSM respectively equal to the angles TM'S, TSM ' , and the
side TS common ; and therefore the other sides are equal,
and TM = TM'.

16. PROP. XIV. Iffrom any point T in the tangent at

a point P of a conic, TM be drawn perpendicular to the focal
distance SP, and TN perpendicular to the directrix,
SM : TN :: SA : AX.
14 CONICS.

For, if PK be perpendicular to the directrix and SF be

joined,
SM : SP :: TF : FP .

KR
:: TN : PK ;
N
:. SM : TN :: SP : PK T M
:: SA : AX. F
This theorem, which is due X
to Professor Adams, may be A S
employed to prove Prop. XIII.
For if, in the figure of Art. ( 15 ), TM, TM ' be the
perpendiculars from T on SP and SP', and if TN be the
perpendicular on the directrix, SM and SM ' have each the
same ratio to TN, and are therefore equal to one another.
Hence the triangles TSM, TSM' are equal in all respects,
and the angle PSP is bisected by ST.

17. PROP. XV. To draw tangents from any point to a

conic.
Let T be the point, and let a circle be described about S
as centre, the radius of which bears to TN the ratio of
SA AX; then, if tangents TM, TM ' be drawn to the circle,
the straight lines SM, SM', produced if necessary, will
intersect the conic in the points of contact of the tangents
from T.

18. PROP. XVI. If PG, the normal at P, meet the axis

ofthe conic in G,
SG : SP :: SA : AX.

P
D

X S G

Let the tangent at P meet the directrix in F, and the

latus rectum produced in D.
 NORMALS. 15

Then the angle SPG = the complement of SPF = PFS,

and PSG = the complement of FSX = FSD ;
.. the triangles SFD, SPG are similar, and
SG : SP :: SD : SF :: SA : AX, by Prop. XII.

19. PROP. XVII. If from G, the point in which the

normal at P meets the axis, GL be drawn perpendicular
to SP, the length PL is equal to the semi-latus rectum.
Let the tangent at P P
meet the directrix in F, and
join SF.
Then PLG, FSP are
similar triangles ; F
L
X
.. PL : LG :: SF : SP. G G
Also SLG and FXS are
similar triangles ; P
:. LG : SX :: SG : SF.
Hence PL : SX :: SG : SP
:: SA : AX, Art. ( 18 ),
but SR : SX : SA : AX, Art. (2) ;
.. PL = SR.

20. PROP. XVIII. Iffrom any point F in the directrix

tangents be drawn, and also any straight line FPP ' cutting
the curve in P and P' , the chord PP' is divided harmonically
at F and its point of intersection with the chord of contact.
P

S
16 CONICS .

For, if QSQ be the chord of contact, it bisects the angle

PSP' , (Prop. XI.) , and .. , if V be the point of intersection of
SQ and PP',
FP : FP :: SP' : SP
:: P'V: PV
:: FP - FV : FV- FP.
Hence FV is the harmonic mean between FP and FP'.
The theorems of this article and of Art. 9 are particular
cases of more general theorems, which will appear hereafter.

21. PROP. XIX . If a tangent be drawn parallel to a

chord of a conic, the portion of this tangent which is inter-
cepted by the tangents at the ends of the chord is bisected at
the point of contact.
P

T M

M P

Let PP' be the chord , TP, TP' the tangents, and EQE
the tangent parallel to PP'.
From the focus S draw SP, SP' and SQ, and draw TM,
TM' perpendicular respectively to SP, SP.
Also draw from E perpendiculars EN, EL, upon SP,
SQ, and from E' perpendiculars E'N', E'L ' upon SP' and
SQ.
 TANGENTS. 17

Then, since EE' is parallel to PP

'
TP EP : TP' : E'P',
but TP : EP :: TM : EN,
and TP' : EP : TM' : E'N';
.. TM : EN :: TM
' : E'N
';
but TM = TM
' , Cor. Prop. XIII.;
.. EN = E'N'.

Again, by the same corollary,

EN = EL and E'N ' = E'L' ;
.. EL = E'L',

and, the triangles ELQ, E'L'Q being similar,

EQ = E'Q.

COR. If TQ be produced to meet PP′ in V,

PV : EQ :: TV : TQ,
and PV: EQ TV : TQ ;
.. PV = P'V
that is, PP' is bisected in V.

Hence, if tangents be drawn at the ends of any chord

of a conic, the point of intersection of these tangents, the
middle point of the chord, and the point of contact of the
tangent parallel to the chord, all lie in one straight line.

EXAMPLES .

1. DESCRIBE the relative positions of the focus and directrix, first,

when the conic is a circle, and secondly, when it consists of two straight
lines.
2. Having given two points of a conic, the directrix, and the
eccentricity, determine the conic.
3. Having given a focus, the corresponding directrix, and a tangent,
construct the conic.
B. C. S. 2
18 EXAMPLES .

4. If a circle passes through a fixed point and cuts a given straight

line at a constant angle the locus of its centre is a conic.
5. If PG, pg, the normals at the ends of a focal chord, intersect in
O, the straight line through O parallel to Pp bisects Gg.
6. Find the locus of the foci of all the conics of given eccentricity
which pass through a fixed point P, and have the normal PG given in
magnitude and position.
7. Having given a point P of a conic, the tangent at P, and the
directrix, find the locus of the focus.
8. If PSQ be a focal chord, and X the foot of the directrix, XP
and XQ are equally inclined to the axis.
9. If PK be the perpendicular from a point P of a conic on the
directrix, and SK meet the tangent at the vertex in E, the angles SPE,
KPE are equal.
10. If the tangent at P meet the directrix in F and the axis in T,
the angles KSF, FTS are equal.
11. PSP' is a focal chord, PN, P'N' are the ordinates, and PK,
P'K' perpendiculars on the directrix ; if KN, K'N' meet in L, the
triangle LNN' is isosceles.
12. The focal distance of a point on a conic is equal to the length
of the ordinate produced to meet the tangent at the end of the latus
rectum .
13. The normal at any point bears to the semi-latus rectum the
ratio of the focal distance of the point to the distance of the focus from
the tangent.
14. The chord of a conic is given in length ; prove that, if this
length exceed the latus rectum, the distance from the directrix of
the middle point of the chord is least when the chord passes through
the focus.
15. The portion of any tangent to a conic, intercepted between two
fixed tangents, subtends a constant angle at the focus.
16. Given two points of a conic, and the directrix, find the locus of
the focus.
17. From any fixed point in the axis a line is drawn perpendicular
to the tangent at P and meeting SP in R ; the locus of R is a circle.
18. If the tangent at the end of the latus rectum meet the tangent
at the vertex in T, AT= AS.
19. TP, TQ are the tangents at the points P, Q of a conic, and PQ
meets the directrix in R ; prove that RST is a right angle.
20. SR being the semi-latus rectum, if RA meet the directrix in E,
and SE meet the tangent at the vertex in T,
AT- AS.
 EXAMPLES. 19

21. If from any point T, in the tangent at P, TM be drawn

perpendicular to SP, and TN perpendicular to the transverse axis,
meeting the curve in R, SM= SR.
22. Ifthe chords PQ, P'Q meet the directrix in F and F", the angle
FSF" is half PSP'.
23. If PN be the ordinate, PG the normal, and GL the perpen-
dicular from G upon SP,
GL PN : SA : AX.
24. If normals be drawn at the ends of a focal chord, a line
through their intersection parallel to the axis will bisect the chord.
25. If a conic of given eccentricity is drawn touching the straight
line FD joining two fixed points F and D, and if the directrix always
passes through F, and the corresponding latus rectum always passes
through D, find the locus of the focus.
26. If ST, making a constant angle with SP meet in T the tangent
at P, prove that the locus of T
′ is a conic having the same focus and
directrix.

27. If E be the foot of the perpendicular let fall upon PSP' from
the point of intersection of the normals at P and P',
PE= SP' and P'E= SP.
28. If a circle be described on the latus rectum as diameter, and if
the common tangent to the conic and circle touch the conic in P and
the circle in Q, the angle PSQ is bisected by the latus rectum. (Refer
to Cor. 2. Art. 14. )
29. Given two points, the focus, and the eccentricity, determine
the position of the axis.
30. If a chord PQ subtend a constant angle at the focus, the locus
of the intersection of the tangents at P and Qis a conic with the same
focus and directrix.
31. The tangent at a point P of a conic intersects the tangent at
the fixed point P' in Q, and from S a straight line is drawn perpen-
dicular to SQ and meeting in R the tangent at P ; prove that the locus
of R is a straight line.
32. The circle is drawn with its centre at S, and touching the conic
at the vertex A ; if radii Sp, Sp' of the circle meet the conic in P, P',
prove that PP', pp' intersect on the tangent at A.
33. Pp is any chord of a conic, PG, pg the normals, G, g being on
the axis ; GK, gk are perpendiculars on Pp ; prove that PK=pk.

2-2
 CHAPTER II.

THE PARABOLA.

DEF. A parabola is the curve traced out by a point

which moves in such a manner that its distance from a given
point is always equal to its distance from a given straight
line.

Tracing the Curve.

A
X N

22. Let S be the focus, EX the directrix, and SX the

perpendicular on EX. Then, bisecting SX in A, the point
A is the vertex ; and if, from any point E in the directrix,
EAP, ESL be drawn, and from S the straight line SP
meeting EA produced in P, and making the angle PSL
equal to LSN, we obtain, as in Art. ( 1 ), a point P in the
curve.
 THE PARABOLA. 21

For PL : PK :: SA : AX,
and .. PL = PK.

But SP = PL, and .. SP = PK.

Again, drawing EP' parallel to the axis and meeting in

P' the line PS produced, we obtain the other extremity of
the focal chord PSP'.

For the angle ESP' = PSL = PLS

= SEP',
=
and .. SP' = P'E,
and P' is a point in the parabola.

The curve lies wholly on the same side of the directrix ;

"
P' K N P

for, if P' be a point on the other side, and SN be perpen-

dicular to P'K, SP' is greater than P'N, and therefore is
greater than P'K.

Again, a straight line parallel to the axis meets the curve

in one point only.

For, if possible, let P" be another point of the curve in

KP produced .
Then SPPK and SP" = P"K
.. PP" = SP" — SP,
or PP" + SP = SP" ,
which is impossible.

23. PROP. I. The distance from the focus of a point

inside a parabola is less, and of a point outside is greater
than its distance from the directrix.
22 THE PARABOLA.

If Q be the point inside, K Q P

let fall the perpendicular T
QPK on the directrix, meet- K
ing the curve in P.
Then SP + PQ> SQ, Χ
but SP + PQ
= PK + PQ = QK,
.. SQ < QK.

If Q' be outside, and between P and K,

SQ + PQ > SP,

:. SQ > Q'K.

If Q' lie in PK produced,

SQ' + SP > PQʻ,
and :. SQ' > KQ'.

24. PROP. II . The Latus Rectum = 4. AS.

For if, Fig. Art. 23, LSL be the Latus Rectum, drawing
LK' at right angles to the directrix , we have
LS = LK' = SX = 2AS,
.. LSL' = 4 . AS.

25. Mechanical construction of the Parabola .

Take a rigid bar EKL, of E

which the portions EK, KL are
at right angles to each other, K
and fasten a string to the end
L, the length of which is LK. x
S
Then if the other end of the
string be fastened to S, and the
bar be made to slide along a
fixed straight edge, EKX, a pencil at P, keeping the string
stretched against the bar, will trace out a portion of a
parabola, of which S is the focus, and EX the directrix.
 THE PARABOLA. 23

26. PROP. III. If PK is the perpendicular upon the

directrix from a point P of a parabola, and if PA meet the
directrix in E, the angle KSE is a right angle.
Join ES, and let KP and
p
ES produced meet at L. K
Since SA = AX , it follows
that PL = PK = SP ;
.. P is the centre of the
circle through K, S, and L, X
and the angle KSL is a E
right angle. P

Therefore KSE is a right angle.

27. PROP. IV. If PN is the ordinate of a point P of a

parabola,
PN² = 4AS , AN.

Taking the figure above,

PN: EX :: AN : AX
... PN2 : EX . KX :: 4AS . AN : 4AS²,

But, since KSE is a right angle,

EX . KX = SX² = 4AS ,
.. PN24AS . AN.

COR. If AN increases, and becomes infinitely large, PN

increases and becomes infinitely large, and therefore the two
portions of the curve, above and below the axis, proceed to
infinity.

28. PROP. V. Iffrom the ends of a focal chord per-

pendiculars be let fall upon the directrix, the intercepted
portion ofthe directrix subtends a right angle at the focus.
For, if PA meet the directrix in E, and if the straight
line through E perpendicular to the directrix meet PS in P',
it is shewn, in Art. 22, that P' is the other extremity of the
focal chord PS ; and, as in Art. 26, KSE is a right angle.
24 THE PARABOLA.

29. PROP. VI. The tangent at any point P bisects the

angle between the focal distance SP and the perpendicular
PK on the directrix.

Let F be the point in which

the tangent meets the directrix, K
and join SF.

We have shewn, (Art. 10) that

FSP is a right angle, and, since
SP = PK, and PF is common to F
the right-angled triangles SPF, X A
KPF, it follows that these triangles
are equal in all respects, and there-
fore the angle K

SPF = FPK.

In other words, the tangent at any point is equally inclined

to the focal distance and the axis.

COR. It has been shewn, in Art. (12), that the tangents at the ends
of a focal chord intersect in the directrix, and therefore, if PS produced
meet the curve in P', FP' is the tangent at P' , and bisects the angle
between SP' and the perpendicular from P' on the directrix.

30. PROP. VII. The tangents at the ends of a focal

chord intersect at right angles in the directrix.

Let PSP' be the chord, and PF, P'F

the tangents meeting the directrix in F.
K
Let fall the perpendiculars PK, P'K',
and join SK, SK'.

The angle P'SK

' = {P'SX
=
= SPK = SPF,
.. SK' is parallel to PF,
and, similarly, SK is parallel to P′F.
But (Art. 28 ) KSK' is a right angle ;
.. PFP' is a right angle.
 THE PARABOLA. 25

31. PROP. VIII. If the tangent at any point P of a

parabola meet the axis in T, and PN be the ordinate of P,
then
ATAN.

Draw PK perpendicular to
the directrix. Ꮶ

The angle SPT = TPK

= PTS,
..ST = SP
= PK オ
T X A S N
= NX.
But ST = SA + AT,
and NX = AN+AX ;
.. since SAAX,
AT = AN.

DEF. The line NT is called the sub-tangent.

The sub-tangent is therefore twice the abscissa of the

point of contact.

32. PROP. IX. The foot of the perpendicular from the

focus on the tangent at any point P of a parabola lies on the
tangent at the vertex, and the perpendicular is a mean pro-
portional between SP and SA.

Taking the figure of the previous article, join SK meeting

PT in Y.

Then SP = PK, and PY is common to the two triangles

SPY, KPY ;
also the angle SPY = YPK ;
.. the angle SYP = PYK,
and SY is perpendicular to PT.

Also SY = KY, and SA = AX, .. AY is parallel to KX.

26 THE PARABOLA.

Hence, AY is at right angles to AS, and is therefore

the tangent at the vertex.
Again, the angle SPYSTY = SYA, and the triangles
SPY, SYA are therefore similar ;
.. SP : SY : SY : SA,
or SY SP . SA.

33. PROP. X. In the parabola the subnormal is constant

and equal to the semi- latus Rectum .
DEF. The distance between the foot of the ordinate of P
and the point in which the normal at P meets the axis is
called the subnormal.

K L

T X A S N G

In the figure PG is the normal and PT the tangent.

It has been shewn that the angle SPK is bisected by
PT, and hence it follows that SPL is bisected by PG,
and that the angle SPG = GPL = PGS ;
hence SG = SP = ST
= SA + AT = SA + AN
= 2AS + SN ;
.. the subnormal_NG = 2AS.
34. COR. If Gl be drawn perpendicular to SP,
the angle GP = PGN,
since SP = SG;
and the two right-angled triangles GPN, GPl have their angles equal
and the side GP common ; hence the triangles are equal, and
PING = 2AS
= the semi-latus Rectum.
It has been already shewn, (Art. 19), that this property is a general
property of all conics.
 THE PARABOLA. 27

35. PROP. XI. To draw tangents to a parabola from an

external point.
For this purpose we may employ the general construction
given in Art. ( 17) , or, for the special case of the parabola, the
following construction.

K P

T X A N

Let be the external point, join SQ, and upon SQ as

diameter describe a circle intersecting the tangent at the
vertex in Y and Y'. Join YQ, Y'Q ; these are tangents to
the parabola.
Draw SP, so as to make the angle YSP equal to YSA,
and to meet IQ in P, and let fall the perpendicular PN
upon the axis.
Then, SYQ is a right angle, since it is the angle in a
semicircle, and, T being the point in which QY produced
meets the axis, the two triangles SYP, SYT are equal in all
respects ;
.. SPST, and YT - = YP.

But AY is parallel to PN ;
.. AT = AN.
Hence SP - ST - SA + AT
= AX + AN
= NX,

and P is a point in the parabola.

Moreover, if PK be perpendicular to the directrix, the
angle SPY = STP = YPK, and PY is the tangent at P.
(Art. 29. )
Similarly, by making the angle Y'SP' equal to ASY'
we obtain the point of contact of the other tangent QT
".
28 THE PARABOLA.

36. PROP. XII. If from a point Q tangents QP, QP

be drawn to a parabola, the two triangles SPQ, SQP, are
similar, and SQ is a mean proportional between SP and
SP'.

T ΧΑ S N

Produce PQ to meet the axis in T, and draw SY, SY '

perpendicularly on the tangents. Then Y and Y' are points
in the tangent at A.
The angle SPQ = STY
= SYA
= SQP',
since S, Y', Y, Q are points on a circle, and SYA, SQP' are
in the same segment.

Also, by the theorem of Art. ( 15), the angle

PSQ = QSP' ;
therefore the triangles PSQ, QSP' are similar, and
SP :SQ :: SQ : SP'.

37. From the preceding theorem the following, which

is often useful, immediately follows.
If from any points in a given tangent of a parabola,
tangents be drawn to the curve, the angles which these tangents
make with the focal distances of the points from which they
are drawn are all equal.
For each of them by the theorem, is equal tothe angle
between the given tangent and the focal distance of the
point of contact.
Hence it follows that the locus of the intersection of a
 THE PARABOLA. 29

tangent to a parabola with a straight line drawn through the

focus meeting it at a constant angle is a straight line.
For if QPbe the moveable tangent, the angle SQP= SP'Q,
and therefore, if SQP is constant, SP'Q is a given angle.
The point P' is therefore fixed , and the locus of Q is the
tangent P'Q.

38. Since the two triangles PSQ, QSP' are similar, we have
PQ P'Q : SP : SQ
and PQ PQ :: SQ : SP',
.. PQ² : P'Q² :: SP : SP' ;
that is, the squares of the tangents from any point are proportional to
the focal distances of the points of contact.
This will be found to be a particular case of a subsequent Theorem,
given in Art. 51 .

39. PROP. XIII. The external angle between two tangents

is half the angle subtended at the focus by the chord of
contact.
Let the tangents at P and P' intersect each other in Q
and the axis ASN in T and T'.

Join SP, SP' ; then the angles SPT, STP are equal,
and .. STP is half the angle PSN ; similarly ST'P' is half
P'SN.

T N

But TQT is equal to the difference between STP and

ST'P' , and is therefore equal to half the difference between
PSN and P'SN, that is to half the angle PSP'.

Hence, joining SQ, TQT' is equal to each of the angles

PSQ, P'SQ.
30 THE PARABOLA.

40. PROP. XIV. The tangents drawn to a parabola from

any point make the same angles, respectively, with the axis
and the focal distance of the point.

Let QP, QP' be the tangents ; join SP, and draw QE

parallel to the axis, and meeting SP in E.
Then, if PQ meet the axis in T, the angle
EQP = STP = SPQ
= SQP'. (Art. 37. )
i.e. QP and QP' respectively make the same angles with
the axis and with QS.
41. Conceive a parabola to be drawn passing through Q, having S
for its focus, SN for its axis, and its vertex on the same side of S as the
vertex A of the given parabola. Then the normal at Q to this new
parabola bisects the angle SQE; therefore the angles which QP and
QP make with the normal at Q are equal.
Hence the theorem,
Iffrom any point in a parabola, tangents be drawn to a confocal
and co-axial parabola, the normal at the point will bisect the angle
between the tangents.
If we produce SP to any point p, and take St equal to Sp, pt will
be the tangent at p to the confocal and co-axial parabola passing
through p.
Hence the theorem,
If parallel tangents be drawn to a series of confocal and co-axial
parabolas, the points ofcontact will lie in a straight line passing through
the focus.
In these enunciations the words co-axial and confocal are intended
to imply, not merely the coincidence of the axes, but also that the
vertices of the two parabolas are on the same side of their common
focus.
The reason for this will appear when we shall have discussed the
analogous property of the ellipse.
 THE PARABOLA. 31

42. If two confocal parabolas have their axes in the same straight
line, and their vertices on opposite sides of the focus, they intersect at
right angles.

T
A S N ' T
A

For the angle TPS PST

",
and
T'PS= \PST,
... TPT' = (PST+ PST ") = a right angle.
It will be noticed that, in this case, the common chord PQ is
equidistant from the directrices.
For the distance of P from each directrix is equal to SP.
43. PROP. XV. The circle passing through the points
of intersection of three tangents passes also through the focus.

F
T
..

Let Q, P, Q' be the three points of contact, and F, T, F'

the intersections of the tangents .
32 THE PARABOLA.

In Art. (36) it has been shewn that, if FP, FQ be tan-

gents, the angle
SQF = SFP.
Similarly TQ, TQ being tangents, the angle
SQT = STQ',
" or SFP = SQT,
hence the angle SFF
= STF",
and a circle can be drawn through S, F, T, and F'.

44. DEF. A straight line drawn parallel to the axis

through any point of a parabola is called a diameter.
PROP. XVI. If from any point T tangents TQ, TQ be
drawn to a parabola, the point T is equidistant from the
diameters passing through Q and Q' , and the diameter drawn
through the point T bisects the chord of contact.
Join SQ, SQ, and draw TM, TM' perpendicular re-
spectively to SQ and SQʻ.
Also draw NTN ' per- N
pendicular to the diameters
through and Q' , and
meeting those diameters in T
N and N'. M

Then, since TS bisects

the angle QSQ', R
TM = TM' ;
and, since TQ bisects the angle SQN,
TN = TM.
Similarly TN' = TM',
.. TN = TN'.

Again, join QQ', and draw the diameter TV meeting

QQ in V ; also let QT produced meet Q'N' in R ;
then QV : VQ :: QT : TR
:: TN : TN,
since the triangles QTN, RTN' are similar ;
.. QV = VQ'.
 THE PARABOLA. 33

Hence the diameter through the middle point of a chord

passes, when produced, through the point of intersection ofthe
tangents at the ends of the chord.
It should be noticed that any straight line drawn
through T and terminated by QN and Q'N ' is bisected at T.

45. PROP. XVII. Any diameter bisects all chords parallel

to the tangent at its extremity, and passes through the point of
intersection ofthe tangents at the ends of any of these chords.
Let QQ be a chord parallel to the tangent at P, and
through the point of intersection T of the tangents at Q and
Q' draw FTF parallel to QQ' and terminated at F and F " by
the dian.eters through Q and Q.

F G'

Let the tangent at P meet TQ, TQ' in E and E' , and

QF, Q'F' in G and G'.
Then EG : TF :: EQ : TQ
:: E'Q' : TQ
:: E'G' : TF'.
But TFTF
" , since (Art. 44) T is equidistant from QG and
Q'G' ,
.. EG = E'G'.
Also, EP = EG, since E is equidistant from QG and PV, the
diameter at P.
:. EPE'P and GP = PG',
and .. QV = VQ'.
B. C. S. 3
34 THE PARABOLA.

Again, since T, P, V are each equidistant from the

parallel straight lines QF, Q'F " , it follows that TPV is a
straight line, or that the diameter VP passes through T.
We have shewn that GE, EP, PE', E'G' are all equal,
and we hence infer that
EE' = 1 GG′ = }{ QQ' ,
and consequently that TP = TV, or that TP = PV.
Hence it appears, that the diameter through the point of
intersection of a pair of tangents passes through the point of
contact ofthe tangent parallel to the chord of contact, and also
through the middle point of the chord of contact ; and that the
portion ofthe diameter between the point of intersection ofthe
tangents and the middle point of the chord of contact is bisected
at the point ofcontact ofthe parallel tangent.
' is bisected at
We may observe that in proving that EE
P, we have demonstrated a theorem already shewn (Art. 21 )
to be true for all conics.

46. When the point T

' is on the directrix, QTQ' is a right angle.
If then Qq is the chord which is normal at Q, it is parallel to the
tangent TQ, and is therefore bisected by the diameter QU through Q'.

Since QU is bisected by TV, it follows that

Qq= 4TQ',
i.e. the length of a normal chord is four times the portion ofthe
parallel tangent between the directrix and the point ofcontact.
 THE PARABOLA. 35

47. DEF. The line QV, parallel to the tangent at P,

and terminated by the diameter PV, is called an ordinate
of that diameter, and QQ' is the double ordinate. The point
P, the end ofthe diameter, is called the vertex ofthe diameter,
and the distance PV is called the abscissa ofthe point Q.

We have seen that tangents at the ends of any chord

intersect in the diameter which bisects the chord, and that
the distance of this point from the vertex is equal to the
distance of the vertex from the middle point of the chord.

DEF. The chord through the focus parallel to the tangent

at any point is called the parameter of the diameter passing
through the point.

PROP. XVIII. The parameter of any diameter is four

times the focal distance of the vertex of that diameter.
Let P be the vertex, and
QSQ the parameter, T the
point of intersection of the
P
tangents at Q and Q', and
FPF " the tangent at P. T
Then, since FS and FS
bisect respectively the angles
PSQ, PSQ , FSF is a right
angle, and, P being the middle
point of FF", SP = PF = PF'.

Hence QQ' , which is double

FF', is four times SP.

48. PROP. XIX . If QVQ be a double ordinate of a

diameter PV, QV is a mean proportional between PV and
the parameter ofP.

Let FPF' be the tangent at P, and draw the parameter

through S meeting PV in U.

The angle SUT = FPU = SPF'' ( Art. 29) , and, since the
angles SFQ, SPF are equal (Art. 36), it follows that the
angles SFT, SPF are equal ;
3-2
36 THE PARABOLA.

.. SUT = SFT, and U is a point in the circle passing

through SFTF'.

Hence, QV being twice PF,

QV24PF24PU . PT;

but PU - SP,
for the angle SUPFPU = SPF' = PSU:
and PT = PV,
.. QV2 = 4SP.PV.

49. This relation may be pre-

sented in a different form, which is
sometimes useful.
If from any point U in the tan-
gent at P, UQ is drawn parallel to
the axis, UP and UQ are respec-
tively equal to the ordinate and
abscissa of the point with regard
to the diameter through P, and
E therefore
PU -4SP . UQ.

Therefore, if VR is drawn parallel

F R to the axis from another point V of
the tangent,
PU2 : PV2 : UQ : VR.
 THE PARABOLA. 37

Hence, since UE : VR :: PU : PV,

UE² : VR² :: UQ : VR :: UQ . VR : VR²,
and UE²= UQ . VR.
Hence UE : UQ :: VR : UE :: PR : PE ;
.. UQ QE :: PE : ER.
In a similar manner it can be shewn that VF² = UQ . VR, and it
follows that VF= UE, and therefore that EF is parallel to the tangent
at P.

50. PROP. XX. If QVQ be a double ordinate of a

diameter PV, and QD the perpendicular from Q upon PV,
QD is a mean proportional between PV and the latus rectum.

Let the tangent at P meet the tangent at the vertex in

Y, and join SY.
The angle QVD= SPY= SYA , and therefore the triangles
QVD, SAY are similar ;
and QD' : QV² :: AS : SY
:: AS : AS . SP.
:: AS : SP
:: 4AS . PV : 4SP . PV,
but QV4SP . PV;
.. QD² = 4AS . PV.

51. PROP. XXI. If from any point, within or without

a parabola, two straight lines be drawn in given directions
and intersecting the curve, the ratio of the rectangles of the
segments is independent ofthe position of the point.
From any point 0 draw a straight line intersecting the
38 THE PARABOLA.

parabola in and Q', and draw the diameter OE, meeting

the curve in E.

S
·

If PV be the diameter bisecting QQ' , and EU the

ordinate, OQ . OQ' = OV² — QV²
EU² - QV² := 4SP . PU - 4SP . PV
= EU'
= 4SP . OE

Similarly, if ORR be any other intersecting line and P'

the vertex of the diameter bisecting RR',
OR . OR = 4SP ' . OE
.. OQ . OQ OR . OR :: SP : SP',
that is, the ratio of the rectangles depen's only on the
positions of P and P', and , if the lines QQQ , ORR' are drawn
parallel to given straight lines, these points P, P' are fixed.
It will be easily seen that the proof is the same if the
point O be within the parabola.
If the lines OQQ' , ORR' be moved parallel to themselves
until they become the tangents at P and P', we shall then
obtain, if these tangents intersect in T,
TP2 : TP :: SP : SP^ ,
a result previously obtained ( Art. 38).
Again if QSQ , RSR be the focal chords parallel to TP
and TP', it follows that
TP2 : TP'2 :: QS . SQ
' : RS . SR',
.. (cor. Art. 8) TP² : TP" :: QQ' : RR'.
 THE PARABOLA. 39

52. PROP. XXII . Iffrom a point 0, outside a para-

bola, a tangent OM, and a chord OAB be drawn, and ifthe
diameter ME meet the chord in E,
OE OA . OB.

Let P be the point of contact of the tangent parallel to

OAB, and let OM, ME meet this tangent in T and F.
Draw TV parallel to the axis and meeting PM in V;
then OA . OB : 0M² :: TP² : TM² (Art. 51 ),
:: TF2 : TM ,
since PM is bisected in V ;
also TF: TM :: OE : OM;
.. OE² = OA . OB.

COR. 1. If AL, BN be the ordinates, parallel to OM, of

A and B, ML, ME, and MN are proportional to OA, OE
and OB, and therefore
ME2 = ML . MN.

This theorem may be also stated in the following form :

If a chord AB of a parabola intersect a diameter in the

point E, the distance of the point E from the tangent at the
end of the diameter is a mean proportional between the dis-
tances ofthe points A and Bfrom the same tangent..
40 THE PARABOLA.

COR. 2. Let KE be the ordinate through E parallel to

OM.
Then, since ML : ME :: ME : MN,
AL KE2 :: KE² : BN2
.. AL : KE :: KE : BN,
so that KEis a mean proportional between AL and BN, the
ordinates of A and B.

53. PROP. XXIII . If a circle intersect a parabola in

four points, the two straight lines constituting any one of
the three pairs of the chords of intersection are equally in-
clined to the axis.

Let Q, Q' , R, R' be the four points of intersection ;

then OQ . OQ = OR . OR',
and therefore SP, SP' are equal, (Art. 51 ).

S
O.

But, if SP, SP' be equal, the points P, P' are on opposite

sides of, and are equidistant from the axis, and the tangents
at P and P' are therefore equally inclined to the axis.
Hence the chords QQ' , RR', which are parallel to these
tangents, are equally inclined to the axis.

In the same manner it may be shewn that QR, Q'R'

are equally inclined to the axis, as also QR', Q'R.
 EXAMPLES. 41

54. Conversely, if two chords QQ', RR', which are not parallel,
make equal angles with the axis, a circle can be drawn through Q, Q
',
R', R.
For, ifthe chords intersect in O, and OE be drawn parallel to the
axis and meeting the curve in E, it may be shewn as above that
OQ . OQ = 4SP . OE, and OR . OR' = 4SP' . OE,
P and P' being the vertices of the diameters bisecting the chords.
But the tangents at P and P', which are parallel to the chords, are
equally inclined to the axis, and therefore SP is equal to SP
'.
Hence OQ . OQ OR . OR',
and therefore a circle can be drawn through the points Q, Q
' , R, R'.
If the two chords are both perpendicular to the axis, it is obvious
that a circle can be drawn through their extremities, and this is the
only case in which a circle can be drawn through the extremities of
parallel chords.

EXAMPLES.

1. FIND the locus of the centre of a circle which passes through a

given point and touches a given straight line.
2. Draw a tangent to a parabola, making a given angle with the
axis.
3. If the tangent at P meet the tangent at the vertex in Y,
AY2 -AS. AN.
4. If the normal at P meet the axis in G, the focus is equidistant
from the tangent at P and the straight line through G parallel to the
tangent.
5. Given the focus, the position of the axis, and a tangent, construct
the parabola.
6. Find the locus of the centre of a circle which touches a given
straight line and a given circle.
7. Construct a parabola which has a given focus, and two given
tangents .
8. The distance of any point on a parabola from the focus is equal
to the length of the ordinate at that point produced to meet the tangent
at the end of the latus rectum.
9. PT being the tangent at P, meeting the axis in T, and P.V the
ordinate, prove that TY.TP= TS . TN.
42 EXAMPLES.

10. If SE be the perpendicular from the focus on the normal at P,

shew that
SE2 AN . SP.
11. The locus of the vertices of all parabolas, which have a
common focus and a common tangent, is a circle.
12. Having given the focus, the length of the latus rectum, and a
tangent, construct the parabola.
13. If PSP' be a focal chord, and PN, P'N' the ordinates, shew
that
AN. AN' = AS².
Shew also that the latus rectum is a mean proportional between
the double ordinates.
14. The locus of the middle points of the focal chords of a parabola
is another parabola.
15. Shew that in general two parabolas can be drawn having a
given straight line for directrix, and passing through two given points
on the same side of the line.
16. Pp is a chord perpendicular to the axis, and the perpendicular
from p on the tangent at P meets the diameter through P in R; prove
that RP is equal to the latus rectum, and find the locus of R.
17. Having given the focus, describe a parabola passing through
two given points.
18. The circle on any focal distance as diameter touches the
tangent at the vertex.
19. The circle on any focal chord as diameter touches the directrix.
20. A point moves so that its shortest distance from a given circle
is equal to its distance from a given diameter of the circle ; prove that
the locus is a parabola, the focus of which coincides with the centre of
the circle.
21. Find the locus of a point which moves so that its shortest
distance from a given circle is equal to its distance from a given
straight line.
22. The vertex of an isosceles triangle is fixed. The extremities of
its base lie on two fixed parallel straight lines. Prove that the base is
a tangent to a parabola.
23. Shew that the normal at any point of a parabola is equal to
the ordinate through the middle point of the subnormal.
24. If Fis any point on the directrix of a parabola, and if E, E',
are points on the directrix such that FEFEFS, the lines EA and
E'A will meet the parabola in the points of contact of the tangents
from F
25. PSP is a focal chord of a parabola. The diameters through
P, P' meet the normals at P, P in V, V' respectively. Prove that
PVVP is a parallelogram.
 EXAMPLES. 43

26. If APC be a sector of a circle, of which the radius CA is fixed,

and a circle be described, touching the radii CA, CP, and the arc AP,
the locus of the centre of this circle is a parabola.
27. If from the focus S of a parabola, SY, SZ be perpendiculars
drawn to the tangent and normal at any point, YZ is parallel to the
diameter.
28. Prove that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the
focus on the normal is a parabola.
29. If PG be the normal, and GL the perpendicular from G upon
SP, prove that GL is equal to the ordinate PN.
30. Given the focus, a point P on the curve, and the length of the
perpendicular from the focus on the tangent at ĺ, find the vertex.
31. A circle is described on the latus rectum as diameter, and
a common tangent QP is drawn to it and the parabola : shew that SP,
SQ make equal angles with the latus rectum.
32. G is the foot of the normal at a point P of the parabola,
Qis the middle point of SG, and X is the foot of the directrix : prove
that
QX2-QP2-4AS².
33. If PG the normal at P meet the axis in G, and if PF, PH,
lines equally inclined to PG, meet the axis in F and H, the length SG is
a mean proportional between SF and SH.
34. A triangle ABC circumscribes a parabola whose focus is S, and
through A, B, C, lines are drawn respectively perpendicular to SA, SB,
SC ; shew that these pass through one point.
35. If PQ be the normal at P meeting the curve in Q, and if the
chord PR be drawn so that PR, PQ are equally inclined to the axis,
PRQ is a right angle.
36. PN is a semi-ordinate of a parabola, and AM is taken on the
other side of the vertex along the axis equal to AN ; from any point Q
in PN, QR is drawn parallel to the axis meeting the curve in R; prove
that the lines MR, AQ will intersect in the parabola.
27. Having given two points of a parabola, the direction of the
axis, and the tangent at one of the points, construct the parabola.
38. Having given the vertex of a diameter, and a corresponding
double ordinate, construct the parabola.
39. PM is an ordinate of a point P ; a straight line parallel to the
axis bisects PM, and meets the curve in Q; MQ meets the tangent at
the vertex in 7 ; prove that 3AT= 2PM.
40. AB, CD are two parallel straight lines given in position, and
AC is perpendicular to both, A and C being given points ; in CD any
point is taken, and in AQ, produced if necessary, a point P is taken,
44 EXAMPLES.

such that the distance of P from AB is equal to CQ ; prove that the

locus of P is a parabola.
41. If the tangent and normal at a point P of a parabola meet the
tangent at the vertex in K and L respectively, prove that
KL2 SP2 :: SP - AS : AS.
42. Having given the length of a focal chord , find its position.
43. If the ordinate of a point P bisects the subnormal of a point
P', prove that the ordinate of P is equal to the normal of P'.
44. A parabola being traced on a plane, find its axis and vertex.
45. If PV, P'V ' be two diameters, and PV', PV ordinates to these
diameters,
PV= P'V'.

46. If one side of a triangle be parallel to the axis of a parabola,

the other sides will be in the ratio of the tangents parallel to them.
47. QVQ is an ordinate of a diameter PV, and any chord PR
meets Q in N, and the diameter through Q in Z ; prove that
PL2 PN. PR.

48. Describe a parabola passing through three given points, and

having its axis parallel to a given line.
49. If AP, AQ be two chords drawn from the vertex at right
angles to each other, and PN, QM be ordinates, the latus rectum is a
mean proportional between AN and AM.
50. PSP is a focal chord of a parabola ; prove that AP, Ap meet
the latus rectum in two points whose distances from the focus are
equal to the ordinates of p and P respectively.
51. If the straight line AP and the diameter through P meet the
double ordinate QMQ' in R and R' , prove that
RM . RM = QM2.

52. A and P are two fixed points. Parabolas are drawn all having
their vertices at A , and all passing through P. Prove that the points
of intersection of the tangents at P with the tangent and normal at A
lie on two fixed circles, one of which is double the size of the other.
53. A variable tangent to a parabola intersects two fixed tangents
in the points T and T' : shew that the ratio ST : ST" is constant.
54. Through a fixed point on the axis of a parabola a chord PQ is
drawn, and a circle of given radius is described through the feet of the
ordinates of P and Q. Shew that the locus of its centre is a circle.
55. If SY be the perpendicular on the tangent at P, and if YS be
produced to R so that SR- SY, shew that PAR is a right angle.
 EXAMPLES. 45

56. If two circles be drawn touching a parabola at the ends of a

focal chord, and passing through the focus, shew that they intersect
each other orthogonally.

57. PSQ is a focal chord of a parabola, whose vertex is A and

focus S, V being the middle point of the chord, shew that
PV2 =AV² +3AS².
58. QQ is a focal chord of a parabola. Describe a circle which
shall pass through Q, Q and touch the parabola.
If P be the point of contact and the angle QPQ' a right angle, find
the inclination of QP to the axis.
59. Through two fixed points E, F, on the axis of a parabola are
drawn two chords PQ, PR meeting the curve in P, Q, R. If QR meet
the axis in T, shew that the ratio TR : TQ is constant.
60. A chord PQ is normal to the parabola at P, and the angle
PSQ is a right angle. Prove that SQ = 2SP, and that the ordinate of P
is equal to the latus rectum. Also, if T is the point of intersection of
the tangents at P and Q, and if R is the middle point of TQ, prove
that the angle TSR is a right angle, and that ST = 2SR.
61. A straight line intersects a circle ; prove that all the chords of
the circle which are bisected by the straight line are tangents to a
parabola.
62. If two tangents TP, TQ be drawn to a parabola, the perpen-
dicular SE from the focus on their chord of contact pass s through the
middle point of their intercept on the tangent at the vertex.
63. From the vertex of a parabola a perpendicular is drawn on
the tangent at any point ; prove that the locus of its intersection with
the diameter through the point is a straight line.
64. If two tangents to a parabola be drawn from any point in
its axis, and if any other tangent intersect these two in P and Q,
prove that SP= SQ.
65. T is a point on the tangent at P, such that the perpendicular
from T on SP is of constant length ; prove that the locus of T is a
parabola.
If the constant length be 24S, prove that the vertex of the locus
is on the directrix.
66. Given a chord of a parabola in magnitude and position, and
the point in which the axis cuts the chord, the locus of the vertex
is a circle.

67. If the normal at a point P of a parabola meet the curve in Q,

and the tangents at P and Q intersect in T, prove that T and P are
equidistant from the directrix.
46 EXAMPLES.

68. If TP, TQ be tangents to a parabola, such that the chord

PQ is normal at P,
PQ PT :: PN ; AN,
PN and AN being the ordinate and abscissa.
69. If two equal tangents to a parabola be cut by a third tangent,
the alternate segments of the two tangents will be equal.
70. If AP be a chord through the vertex, and if PL, perpendicular
to AP, and PG, the normal at P, meet the axis in L, G respectively,
GL-half the latus rectum.
71. If PSQ be a focal chord, A the vertex, and PA, QA be
produced to meet the directrix in P', Q' respectively, then P'SQ
' will
be a right angle.
72. The tangents at P and Q intersect in T, and the tangent at
R intersects TP and TQ in C and D ; prove that
PC CT : CR : RD :: TD : DQ.
73. From any point D in the latus rectum of a parabola, a straight
line DP is drawn, parallel to the axis, to meet the curve in P ; if
I be the foot of the directrix, and A the vertex, prove that AD,
XP intersect in the parabola.
74. PSp is a focal chord, and upon PS and pS as diameters
circles are described ; prove that the length of either of their common
tangents is a mean proportional between AS and Pp.
75. If AQ be a chord of a parabola through the vertex A , and
QR be drawn perpendicular to AQ to meet the axis in R ; prove
that AR will be equal to the chord through the focus parallel to AQ.
76. If from any point P of a circle, PC be drawn to the centre
C, and a chord PQ be drawn parallel to the diameter AB, and
bisected in R ; shew that the locus of the intersection of CP and AR
is a parabola.
77. A circle, the diameter of which is three-fourths of the latus
rectum, is described about the vertex A of a parabola as centre ; prove
that the common chord bisects AS.
78. Shew that straight lines drawn perpendicular to the tan-
gents of a parabola through the points where they meet a given fixed
line perpendicular to the axis are in general tangents to a confocal
parabola.
79. If QR be a double ordinate, and PD a straight line drawn
parallel to the axis from any point P of the curve, and meeting QR
in D, prove, from Art. 27, that
QD . RD - 4AS . PD.
80. Prove, by help of the preceding theorem, that, if QQ be a
chord parallel to the tangent at P, QQ is bisected by PD, and hence
determine the locus of the middle point of a series of parallel chords.
 EXAMPLES. 47

81. If a parabola touch the sides of an equilateral triangle, the

focal distance of any vertex of the triangle passes through the point
of contact of the opposite side,
82. Find the locus of the foci of the parabolas which have a
common vertex and a common tangent.
83. From the points where the normals to a parabola meet the
axis, lines are drawn perpendicular to the normals : shew that these
lines will be tangents to an equal parabola.
84. Inscribe in a given parabola a triangle having its sides
parallel to three given straight lines.
85. PNP is a double ordinate, and through a point of the
parabola RQL is drawn perpendicular to PP' and meeting PA, or
PA produced in R ; prove that
PN NL : LR : RQ.
86. PNP is a double ordinate, and through R, a point in the
tangent at P, RQM is drawn perpendicular to PP' and meeting the
curve in Q ; prove that
QM QR : P'M : PM.
87. If from the point of contact of a tangent to a parabola, a
chord be drawn, and a line parallel to the axis meeting the chord,
the tangent, and the curve, shew that this line will be divided by
them in the same ratio as it divides the chord.
88. PS is a focal chord of a parabola, RX is the directrix meet-
ing the axis in X, Q is any point in the curve ; prove that if QP, Op
produced meet the directrix in R, r, half the latus rectum will be
a mean proportional between XR and Xr.

89. A chord of a parabola is drawn parallel to a given straight

line, and on this chord as diameter a circle is described ; prove that
the distance between the middle points of this chord, and of the chord
joining the other two points of intersection of the circle and parabola,
will be of constant length .

90. If a circle and a parabola have a common tangent at P, and

intersect in and R ; and if QV, UR be drawn parallel to the axis
of the parabola meeting the circle in V and U respectively, then will
VU be parallel to the tangent at P.
91. If PV be the diameter through any point P, QV a semi-
ordinate, another point in the curve, and QP cut QV in R, and
Q'R' , the diameter through Q', meet Q ' in R', then
VR . VR - QV²,
92. PQ, PR are any two chords ; PQ meets the diameter through
R in the point F, and PR meets the diameter through in E;
prove that EF is parallel to the tangent at P.
48 EXAMPLES.

93. If parallel chords be intersected by a diameter, the distances

of the points of intersection from the vertex of the diameter are in
the ratio of the rectangles contained by the segments of the chords.
94. If tangents be drawn to a parabola from any point P in the
latus rectum, and if Q, Q′ be the points of contact, the semi-latus
rectum is a geometric mean between the ordinates of Q and Q' , and
the distance of P from the axis is an arithmetic mean between the
same ordinates.
95. If A' , ' " be the middle points of the sides of a triangle
B', C
ABC, and a parabola drawn through A' , B', C " meet the sides again
in A" , B", C ", then will the lines AA", BB", CC" be parallel to each
other.
96. A circle passing through the focus cuts the parabola in two
points. Prove that the angle between the tangents to the circle at
those points is four times the angle between the tangents to the
parabola at the same points.
97. The locus of the points of intersection of normals at the
extremities of focal chords of a parabola is another parabola.
98. Having given the vertex, a tangent, and its point of contact,
construct the parabola.
99. PSP is a focal chord of a parabola ; show that the distance
of the point of intersection of the normals at P and p from the
directrix varies as the rectangle contained by PS, pS.
100. TP, TQ are tangents to a parabola at P and Q, and O is
the centre of the circle circumscribing PTQ ; prove that TSO is a
right angle.
101. Pis any point of a parabola who e vertex is A, and through
the focus S the chord QSQ is drawn parallel to AP ; PN, QM, Q'M',
being perpendicular to the axis, shew that SMis a mean proportional
between AM, AN, and that
MM' = AP.

102. If a circle cut a parabola in four points, two on one side

of the axis, and two on the other, the sum of the ordinates of the
first two is equal to the sum of the ordinates of the other two points.
Extend this theorem to the case in which three of the points are
on one side of the axis and one on the other.
103. The tangents at P and Q meet in T, and TL is the per-
pendicular from 7 on the axis ; prove that if PÑ, QM be the ordinates
of P and Q,
PN . QM= 4AS . AL.
104. The tangents at P and Q meet in T, and the lines TA, PA,
QA, meet the directrix in t, p, and q : prove that
tp = tq .
 EXAMPLES. 49

105. From a point T tangents TP, TQ are drawn to a parabola,

and through T straight lines are drawn parallel to the normals at P
and ; prove that one diagonal of the parallelogram so formed passes
through the focus.
106. Through a given point within a parabola draw a chord which
shall be divided in a given ratio at that point.
107. ABC is a portion of a parabola bounded by the axis AB and
the semi-ordinate BC : find the point P in the semi-ordinate such that
if PQ be drawn parallel to the axis to meet the parabola in Q, the sum
of BP and PQ shall be the greatest possible.
108. The diameter through a point P of a parabola meets the
tangent at the vertex in Z ; the normal at P and the focal distance
of Z will intersect in a point at the same distance from the tangent
at the vertex as P.

109. Given a tangent to a parabola and a point on the curve,

shew that the foot of the ordinate of the point of contact of the
tangent drawn to the diameter through the given point lies on a fixed
straight line.
110. Find a point such that the tangents from it to a parabola
and the lines from the focus to the points of contact may form a
parallelogram.
111. Two equal parabolas have a common focus ; and, from any
point in the common tangent , another tangent is drawn to each ; prove
that these tangents are equidistant from the common focus.
112. Two parabolas have a common axis and vertex, and their
concavities turned in opposite directions ; the latus rectum of one is
eight times that of the other ; prove that the portion of a tangent to
the former, intercepted between the common tangent and axis, is
bisected by the latter.

B. C. S.
 CHAPTER III.

THE ELLIPSE.

DEF. An ellipse is the curve traced out by a point which

moves in such a manner that its distance from a given point is
in a constant ratio of less inequality to its distance from a
given straight line.

Tracing the Curve.

55. Let S be the focus, EX the directrix, and SX the

perpendicular on EX from S.

K P Z

2
A'

K
P'
E

Divide SX at the point A in the given ratio ; the point

A is the vertex.
From any point E in EX, draw EAP, ESL, and through
S draw SP making the angle PSL equal to LSN, and
meeting EAP in P.
Through P draw LPK perpendicular to the directrix and
meeting ESL in L.
 THE ELLIPSE. 51

Then the angle PSL = LSN = SLP.

.. SP = PL.
Also PL : PK :: SA : AX.
Hence SP PK :: SA : AX ,
and P is therefore a point in the curve.

Again, in the axis XAN find a point A ' such that

SA' A'X : SA AX ;
this point is evidently on the same side of the directrix as
the point A , and is another vertex of the curve.

K P L

A
A'

K
P'
E

Join EA' meeting PS produced in P', and draw P'L'K'

perpendicular to the directrix and meeting ES in L.
Then P'L' : P'K' :: SA' : A'X
:: SA AX,
and the angle SL'P' = L'SA = L'SP' ;
.. P'L' = SP'.

Hence P' is also a point in the curve, and PSP' is a focal

chord.

By giving E a series of positions on the directrix we

shall obtain a series of focal chords, and we can also, as in
Art. (1 ), find other points of the curve lying in the lines.
KP, K'P', or in these lines produced.

We can thus find any number of points in the curve.

4-2
52 THE ELLIPSE.

56. DEF. The distance AA' is the major axis.

The middle point C of AA' is called the centre of the

ellipse.
If through C the double ordinate BCB' be drawn, BB' is
called the minor axis.
Any straight line drawn through the centre, and terminated
by the curve, is called a diameter.

The lines ACA' , BCB' are called the principal diameters,

or, briefly, the axes ofthe curve.
The line ACA' is also sometimes called the transverse
axis, and BCB' the conjugate axis.

57. PROP. I. If P be any point of an ellipse, and AA'

the axis major, and if PA, A'P, when produced, meet the
directrix in E and F, the distance EF subtends a right angle
at the focus.

A
X
A'

Pr
E

By the theorem of Art. 4, ES bisects the angle ASP',

and FS bisects the angle ASP ;

.. ESF is a right angle.

It will be seen that, since ASA' is a focal chord, this is a

particular case of the theorem of Art. 6.
 THE ELLIPSE. 53

58. PROP. II. If PN be the ordinate of any point

P of an ellipse, ACA' the axis major, and BCB' the axis
minor,
PN : AN. NA' :: BC : AC .

F B
P

A A'
te
‫حر‬

SN

E
B'

Join PA, A'P, and let these lines produced meet the
directrix in E and F.
Then PN : AN : EX : AX,
and PN : A'N FX : A'X ;
.. PN : AN . NA' : EX .FX : AX. A'X
:: SX2 : AX . A'X,

since ESF is a right angle (Prop. I.) ; that is, PN is to

AN. NA' in a constant ratio.

Hence, taking PN coincident with BC, in which case

ANNA' = AC,
BC : AC : SX2 : AX . A'X,
and .. PN : AN . NA' :: BC2 : AC2.
This may be also written
PN : AC - CN2 :: BC2 : AC2.

COR. If PM be the perpendicular from P on the axis

minor,
CM = PN, PM = CN,
and CM² AC - PM² :: BC2 : AC².
Hence AC AC - PM' :: BC2 : CM²,
and .. AC2 : PM :: BC2 : BC2 - CM²,
or PM' : BM. MB AC : BC2.
54 THE ELLIPSE .

59. If a point N' be taken on the axis major, between

C and A', such that CN' = CN, the corresponding ordinate
P'N'PN, and therefore it follows that the curve is sym-
metrical with regard to BCB' , and that there is another
focus, and another directrix , corresponding to the vertex A'.

60. By help of the theorem of Art. 57, we can give an

independent proof of the existence of the other focus and
directrix, corresponding to the vertex A'.
In AA' produced take a point X' such that A'X' = AX,
and in AA' take a point S' such that A'S" 1
= AS.
Through X' draw a straight line eX'f perpendicular to
the axis, and let EP, FP produced meet this line in e and f
Join eS', and fS'.

F
P

K k

X A'
X
'
A S S

Then eX' : EX :: AX' : AX

:: Α'Χ : Α'Χ'
:: FX : ƒX' ;
.. eX' . ƒX' = EX . FX = SX² = S'X".
 THE ELLIPSE. 55

Hence eS'f is a right angle.

Through P draw_KPk parallel to the axis, meeting eS
and fS" produced in L and l.
Then PL Pk :: S'A : AX' :: SA' : A'X,
and Pl : Pk :: S'A' : A'X' :: SA : AX,
.. PL = Pl.

Moreover, LS' being a right angle,

S'P = Pl,
.. S'P Pk :: S'A' : A'X',
and the curve can be described by means of the focus S
and the directrix eX'.

If SA be equal to AX, the point A', and therefore the points S" and
X'," will be at an infinite distance from S and A.
Hence a parabola is the limiting form of an ellipse, the axis major
of which is indefinitely increased in magnitude, while the distance SA
remains finite.

61. PROP. III. If ACA' be the axis major, C the centre,

S one ofthe foci, and X the foot ofthe directrix,
CS CA CA : CX :: SA : AX,
and CS : CX :: CS² : CA².

X A S' X

For S'A SA :: AX' : AX

:: A'X : AX ;
.. SS' : SA :: AA ' : AX,
or CS : CA : SA : AX.
Again, SA' : SA AX' : AX ;
. AA' : SA :: XX' : AX,
or CA CX :: SA : AX ;
.. CS : CA :: CA : CX,
00

or CS . CXCA .
CS.CX
Also CS : CX CS2 : CS . CX
:: CS² : CA².
56 THE ELLIPSE.

62. PROP. IV. If S be a focus, and B an extremity of

the axis minor,
SB = AC and BC2 AS . SA' .

For, joining SB in the figure of Art. 58,

SB : CX :: SA : AX
:: CA : CX,
by the previous Article,
.. SB = CA.
Also BCSB2 - SC² = AC2 SC2
= AS . SA' .

63. PROP. V. The semi-latus rectum SR is a third

proportional to AC and BC.

For, Prop . II. ,

SR : AS . SA' :: BC : AC² ;
2
: . SR² : BC² :: BC² : AC²,
or SR : BC :: BC : AC.

COR. Since SR : SX : SA : AX
:: SC AC
it follows that SX . SC = SR . AC = BC2 ;
and hence also, since SC . CX = AC², that
SX : CX :: ᏴᏟ : ᎪᏛ.

64. PROP. VI . The sum of the focal distances of any

point is equal to the axis major.
Let PN be the ordinate of a point P (Fig. Art. 60) , then
S'P SP :: NX' : NX ;
: . S'P + SP : SP :: XX' : NX,
or S'P +SP : XX' :: SP : NX
:: SA : AX
:: AA' : XX' ;
: . S'P + SP = AA '.
 THE ELLIPSE. 57

COR. Since SP : NX :: SA : AX
:: AC : CX ;
. AC SP :: CX NX,
AC - SP SP :: CN : NX,
and AC - SP CN : SA : AX.
Also, AC - SPS'P - AC ;
.. S'P - AC : CN :: SA : AX.
Hence, S'P - SP 2CN :: SA : AX.

Mechanical Construction of the Ellipse.

65. Fasten the ends of a piece of thread to two pins.

fixed on a board, and trace a curve on the board with a
pencil pressed against the thread so as to keep it stretched ;
the curve traced out will be an ellipse, having its foci at the
points where the pins are fixed, and having its major axis
equal to the length of the thread.

66. PROP. VII. The sum of the distances of a point

from the foci of an ellipse is greater or less than the major
axis according as the point is outside or inside the ellipse.
If the point be without the ellipse, join SQ, S'Q, and
take a point P on the intercepted arc of the curve.
Then P is within the triangle SQS" and therefore, join-
ing SP, S'P,
SQ + S'Q > SP + S'P, Euclid 1. 21 ,
i.e. SQ + S'Q > AA '.

If Q' be within the ellipse , let

SQ, S'Q' produced meet the curve
and take a point P on the inter- S 'S'
cepted arc .
Then Q' is within the triangle
SPS' , and
.. SP + S'P > S'Q' + S'Q' ,
i.e. SQ' + S'Q' < A A' .
58 THE ELLIPSE .

67. DEF. The circle described on the axis major as

diameter is called the auxiliary circle.

PROP. VIII. If the ordinate NP of an ellipse be pro-

duced to meet the auxiliary circle in Q,

PN QN : BC : AC.

For (Art. 58)

PN2 : AN . NA :: BC : AC²,

and, by a property of the circle,

QNAN . NA' ;

B
M
Q'
N

.. PN : QN : BC AC

COR. Similarly, if PM, the perpendicular on BB', meet

in Q' the circle described on BB' as diameter,

PM : Q'M : AC : BC.

For PM2 BM . MB' :: AC : BC2,

and BM . MB'Q'M².
 THE ELLIPSE. 59

Properties of the Tangent and Normal.

68. PROP. IX. The normal at any point bisects the

angle between the focal distances of that point, and the
tangent is equally inclined to the focal distances.
Let the normal at P meet the axis in G ; then (Art. 18 )
SG : SP :: SA : AX,
and S'G : S'P :: SA : AX.

F
L

S G

Hence SG : S'G : SP : S'P,

and therefore the angle SPS
" is bisected by PG.

Also FPF " being the tangent, and GPF, GPF " being
right angles, it follows that the angles SPF, S'PF" are equal,
or that the tangent is equally inclined to the focal distances.
Hence if S'P be produced to L, the tangent bisects the
angle SPL.

COR. If a circle be described about the triangle SPS ",

its centre will lie in BCB', which bisects SS' at right angles ;
and since the angles SPG, SPG are equal, and equal angles
stand upon equal arcs, the point g, in which PG produced
meets the minor axis, is a point in the circle.
Also, if the tangent meet the minor axis in t, the point t
is on the same circle, since gPt is a right angle.
60 THE ELLIPSE.

Hence, Any point P of an ellipse, the two foci, and the

points ofintersection of the tangent and normal at P with the
minor axis are concyclic.

69. PROP. X. Every diameter is bisected at the centre,

and the tangents at the ends of a diameter are parallel.

Let PCp be a diameter, PN, pn the ordinates of P

and p.

T N S
S n

Then CN : Cn² :: PN : pn²

:: AC - CN : AC- Cn (Art. 58) ;

.. CN2 : AC2 :: Cn² : AC².
Hence CN = Cn and .. CP = Cp.

Draw the focal distances ; then, since Pp and SS' bisect

each other in C, the figure SPS'p is a parallelogram, and the
angle
SPS ' = SPS'.

But the tangents PT, pt are equally inclined to the focal

distances ;

.. the angle SPT = S'pt,

and, adding the equal angles CPS, CPS',
CPT = Cpt ;

.. PT and pt are parallel.

COR. Since Sp and S'p are equally inclined to the

tangent at p, it follows that SP and Sp make equal angles
with the tangents at P and p.
 THE ELLIPSE. 61

70. PROP. XI . The perpendiculars from the foci on

any tangent meet the tangent on the auxiliary circle, and
the semi-minor axis is a mean proportional between their
lengths.

Let SY, S'Y' be the perpendiculars ; join S'P, and let

SY, S'P produced meet in L.

E'
A
'
A
S"

The angles SPY, YPL being equal, and PY being

common, the triangles SPY, YPL are equal in all respects ;
.. PL = SP, SY = YL,
and S'L = S'P + PL = S'P + SP = AA'.

Join CY, then C being the middle point of SS , and Y

of SL, CY is parallel to S'L,
and .. S'L = 2CY.

Hence CY = AC, and Y is a point on the auxiliary ci.cle.

Similarly by producing SP, S'Y' it may be shewn that

Y' is also on the auxiliary circle.
Let YS produced meet the circle in Z, and join Y'Z ;
then YYZ being a right angle, ''Z is a diameter and
passes through C.
Hence the triangles SCZ, S'CY' are equal, and
SY.S'Y' = SY.SZ = AS . SA' = BC².
62 THE ELLIPSE.

COR. (1 ). If P' be the other extremity of the diameter

through P, the tangent at P' is parallel to PY, and there-
fore Z is the foot of the perpendicular from S on the tangent
at P'.

L
Р

E
Α'
S''

P'

COR. ( 2) . If the diameter DCD' , drawn parallel to the

tangent at P, meet SP, S'P in E and E , PECY' is a
parallelogram, for CY' is parallel to SP, and CE to PY' ;
=
.. PE = CY' AC ; and similarly PE' 1
= CY = AC.

COR. (3). Any diameter parallel to the focal distance of

a point meets the tangent at the point on the auxiliary
circle.

71. PROP. XII. To draw tangents from a given point to

an ellipse.
For this purpose we may employ the general construc-
tion of Art. (17), or the following.
Let Q be the given point ; upon SQ as diameter describe
a circle cutting the auxiliary circle in Y and Y' ; YQ and
Y'Q will be the required tangents.

Producing SY to L so that YL = SY, join S'L cutting

the line YQ in P.

The triangles SPY, LPY are equal in all respects,

 THE ELLIPSE. 63

since SYYL and PY is common and perpendicular to

SL;
.. SP = PL, and S'L = S'P + PL = S'P + SP ;
but, joining CY, S'L = 2CY = 2AC ;
.. SP + S'P = 2AC,
and P is therefore a point on the ellipse.

Q
Р

Also the angle SPY = YPL,

and .. QP is the tangent at P.
A similar construction will give the point of contact of
the other tangent QP'.
Referring to Art. 35 it will be seen that the construction is the
same as that given for the parabola, the ultimate form of the circle
being, for the parabola, the tangent at the vertex.

72. PROP. XIII . If two tangents be drawn to an ellipse

from an external point, they are equally inclined to the focal
distances of that point.

Let QP, QP' be the tangents,

SY, S'Y', SZ, S'Z' the perpen-
diculars from the foci on the tan-
gents ; join YZ, Y'Z.
Then (Art. 70) P
Z'
SY.S'Y' = SZ.S'Z
';
S'
.. SY SZ :: S'Z' : S'Y'.
64 THE ELLIPSE.

The points S, Y, Q, Z being concyclic, the angles YSZ,

YQZ are supplementary ; and similarly, Z'S'Y', Z'QY' are
supplementary.
Therefore the angle YSZ = Z'S'Y' and the triangles
YSZ, Z'S'Y' are similar.
Therefore the angle SQP = SZY = S'Y'Z' = S'QP'.

73. DEF. Ellipses which have the same foci are called confocal
ellipses.
If Q be a point in a confocal ellipse the normal at Q bisects the
angle SQS and therefore bisects the angle PQP'.
Hence, If from any point of an ellipse tangents are drawn to a
confocal ellipse, these tangents are equally inclined to the normal at the
point.
By reference to the remark of Art. 41 , it will be seen
that this theorem includes that of Art. 41 as a particular
case.

74. PROP. XIV. If PT the tangent at P meet the axis

major in T, and PN be the ordinate,
CN . CT - AC².

T ASN S'

Draw the focal distances SP, S'P, and the perpendicular

SY on the tangent, and join NY, CY.
Then, as in Art. 70, CY is parallel to S'P ; therefore the
angle
CYP = S'Pt = SPY
= SNY
since S, Y, P, N are concyclic.
Hence CYT = CNY,

and the triangles CYT, CNY are equiangular.

 THE ELLIPSE. 65

Therefore CN : CY :: CY : ᏟᎢ
or CN.CT = CY² = AC².

COR. (1 ). CN . NTCN.CT- CN == AC² - CN²

= AN.NA'.

COR. (2). Hence it follows that tangents at the extre-

mities of a common ordinate of an ellipse and its auxiliary
circle meet the axis in the same point.
For, if NP produced meet the auxiliary circle in Q, and
the tangent at Q meet the axis in T
",
CN.CT " = CQ * = AC²,
therefore T' coincides with T.

And more generally it is evident that, Ifany number of

ellipses be described having the same major axis, and an ordi-
nate be drawn cutting the ellipses, the tangents at the points of
section will all meet the common axis in the same point.

75. PROP. XV. If the tangent at P meet the axis minor

in t, and PN be the ordinate,
Ct . PN= BC².
For, Ct : PN : CT : NT (Fig. Art. 74),
.. Ct . PN : PN² :: CT . CN : CN.NT
:: AC : AN . NA' (Cor. 1 , Art. 74),
:: BC2 : PN².
.. Ct . PN = BC2.

76. PROP. XVI. If the tangent and normal at P meet

the axis major in T and G,
CG.CT = SC².

The triangles CGg, CTt, in the figure of the next article,

being similar,
CG Cg Ct : CT,
.. CG . CT = Cg . Ct.
But, since t, S, g, S' are concyclic (Cor. Art. 68),
Cg . Ct = SC . CS' = SC² ;
.. CG . CT = SC².
B. C. S.
66 THE ELLIPSE.

COR. Since CN . CT = AC², and PN . Ct = BC²,

CG : CN :: SC² : AC²
and Cg PN : SC² : BC².
We hence see that
NG : CN :: BC² : AC².

77. PROP. XVII . Ifthe normal at P meet the axes in G

and g, and the diameter parallel to the tangent at P in F,
PF.PG = BC², and PF . Pg = AC².

Let PN, PM, perpendiculars on the axes, meet the

diameter in K and L, and let the tangent at P meet the axes
in T and t.

D
M
G

E
'

Then, since G, F, K, N are concyclic,

PF.PGPN . PK - = PN. Ct = BC2.

Similarly, since L, M, F, g ale coneyclic,

PF . Pg = PM . PL = CN.CT = AC¹².

COR. If SP, S'P meet the diameter DCD' parallel to the

tangent at P in E and E',
PE = AC (Cor. 2 , Art. 70) ;

.. PF. Pg = PE² = PE' ,

and hence it follows that the angles PEg, PE'g are right
angles.
 THE ELLIPSE, 67

78. PROP. XVIII. If PCp be a diameter, QVQ' a chord

parallel to the tangent at P and meeting Pp in V, and if the
tangent at Q meet pP produced in T,
CV. CT = CP .

c
S
M n

Let TQ meet the tangents at P and p in R and r, and S

being a focus, join SP, SQ, Sp.
Let fall perpendiculars RN, RM, rn, rm upon these focal
distances ;

then, since the angle SPR = Spr (Cor. Art. 69),

RP rp : RN : rn
:: RM : rm (Cor. Art. 15),
:: RQ : rQ ;
:: PV : Vp.
Hence TP : Tp :: PV : Vp,
or CT - CP CT+ CP :: CP - CV : CP + CV ;
.. CT : CP :: CP : CV,
or CT.CVCP2.

COR. 1. Hence, since CV and CP are the same for the

point Q' , the tangent at Q' passes through T.
COR. 2. Since Tp TP :: pV : VP, it follows that
TPVp is harmonically divided .
It will be seen in a subsequent chapter that this is a par-
ticular case of a general theorem.
5-2
68 THE ELLIPSE.

Properties of Conjugate Diameters.

79. PROP. XIX. A diameter bisects all chords parallel

to the tangents at its extremities.
We have shown in Art. 21 , that , if QQ ' be a chord of a
conic, TQ, TQ the tangents at Q, Q' , and EPE' a tangent
parallel to QQ , the length EE' is bisected at P.
Draw the diameter PCp ; the tangent epe' at p is parallel
to EPE' (Art. 69), and is therefore parallel to QQ.
T E Q e

E
P

Hence eppe', and P, p being the middle points of the

parallels ee' , EE' the line Pp passes through T, and moreover
bisects QQ.
Similarly, if any other chord qq' be drawn parallel to QQ
the tangents at q and q' will meet in pP produced, and qq'
will be bisected by pP.
COR. Hence, if QQ', qq' be two chords parallel to the
tangent at P, the chords Qq, Q'q' will meet in CP or CP pro-
duced.

80. DEF. The diameter DCd, drawn parallel to the

tangent at P, is said to be conjugate to PCp.
A diameter therefore bisects all chords parallel to its
conjugate.
PROP. XX. If the diameter DCd be conjugate to PCP,
then will PCp be conjugate to DCd.
Let the chord QVq be parallel to DCd, and therefore
bisected by PC, and draw the diameter qCR.
 THE ELLIPSE. 69

Join QR meeting CD in U;
then RC = Cq, and QV = Vq ;
. QR is parallel to CP.
R
Also QU : UR :: qC : CR, d
and therefore QU = UR.

That is, CD bisects the chords parallel to PCp ; therefore

PCp is conjugate to DCd.

DEF. Chords drawn from the extremities of a diameter to

any point ofthe ellipse are called supplemental chords.

Thus qQ, RQ are supplemental chords, and hence it

appears that supplemental cho ds are parallel to conjugate
diameters.

DEF. A line QV drawn from a point Q of an ellipse,

parallel to the tangent at P'and terminated by the diameter
PCp, is called an ordinate ofthat diameter, and QVq is the
double ordinate if QV produced meet the curve in q.

81. Any diameter is a mean proportional between the

transverse axis and the focal chord parallel to the diameter.

T
Р Ты

A
A

From Art. 70, it appears that if CQT parallel to SP meet

in Tthe tangent at P,
CT = AC.

Draw PV parallel to the tangent at Q ;

then CQ CV.CT = CV. AC ;
70 THE ELLIPSE.

but the diameter through C parallel to the tangent at Q

bisects Pp (Art. 80) ,
so that Pp = 2CV ;
.. Qq = Pp.AA '.

82. PROP. XXI. If PCp, DCd be conjugate diameters,

and QV an ordinate of Pp,
QV PV. Vp :: CD2 : CP2.

Let the tangent at Q (Fig. Art. 80) meet CP, CD produced

in T and t, and draw QU parallel to CP and meeting CD in
U.
Then CPCV.CT,
and CDCU . CtQV . Ct ;

.. CD2 : CP2 : QV , Ct CV . CT
:: QV CV . VT,
and CV . VT = CV . CT - CV² = CP² - CV2
= PV . Vp,
.. CD2 : CP2 :: QV2 : PV. Vp.

83. PROP. XXII. If ACA', BCB be a pair of conju-

gate diameters, PCP' , DCD' another pair, and if PN, DM be
ordinates of ACA ',
CNAM . MA', CM² = AN . NA ' ,
CM PN : AC : BC,
and DM : CN :: BC : AC.

AT

M
A D'
P B'

Let the tangents at P and D meet ACA' in T and t.

 THE ELLIPSE. 71

Then CN . CTAC = CM . Ct ;
hence CM CN :: CT : Ct
:: PT : CD
:: PN : DM
:: CN Mt,
.. CNCM . Mt = AC2 - CM² = AM . MA',

and similarly, CM² = AN . NA'.

Also DM : AM . MA' :: BC : AC²,

: . DM : CN :: BC : AC,
and similarly CM PN : AC : BC.

COR. We have shewn in the course of the proof that

CN² + CM² = AC².

By similar reasoning it appears that if Pn, Dm, be ordi-

nates of BCB',
2
Cn + Cm = BC ;
.. PN²+ DM² = BC².

It should be noticed that these relations are shewn to

be true when ACA' , BCB' are any conjugate diameters,
including of course the principal axes.

84. PROP. XXIII. If CP, CD be conjugate semi- diameters,

and AC, BCthe principal semi-diameters,
CP² + CD² = AC² + BC².

From the preceding article,

CN + CM² = AC ,
and PN + DM = BC ;

also ACB being in this case a right angle,

PN2 + CN2 = CP²,
and DM² + CM² = CD²,
.. CP² + CD² = AC² + BC².
72 THE ELLIPSE.

85. DEF. Ifthe ordinate NP of a point, when produced,

meets the auxiliary circle in Q, the angle ACQ is called the
eccentric angle of the point P.

PROP. XXIV. If CP, CD be conjugate semi- diameters,

the difference between the eccentric angles of P and D is a
right angle.

R B

P
N A
M

B'

From Art. 67, RM : DM :: AC : BC.

and, from Art. 83, CN : DM :: AC : BC
.. RM = CN, and similarly, QN = CM.

. The triangles QCN, CRM are equal, and the angles

QCN, RCM are complementary.

.. QCR is a right angle.

86. PROP. XXV. Ifthe normal at P meet the principal

axes in G and g,
PG CD : BC : AC,
and Pg CD : AC : BC.

For, the triangles DCM, PGN being similar,

PG CD :: PN : CM
:: BC : AC.
 THE ELLIPSE. 73

So also Pgn and DCM are similar, and

Pg CD : Pn : DM
:: AC : BC.
I.
B P
n

D
N A
M F

L'
g
Hence it follows that

PG . Pg = CD².

87. PROP. XXVI. The parallelogram formed by the

tangents at the ends of conjugate diameters is equal to the
rectangle contained by the principal axes.
For, taking the preceding figure,
PG BC : CD : AC ;
but PG : BC :: BC : PF (Art. 77),
.. CD AC :: BC : PF,
and CD . PF - AC . BC,
whence the theorem stated.

88. PROP. XXVII. Iƒ SP, S'P be the focal distances of

P, and CD be conjugate to CP,
SP.SP CD2,
and SY : SP :: BC : CD. Y
Let CD meet SP, SP in E E
and E' , and the normal at Pin
F; then SPY, PEF, and S'PY'
are similar triangles ; E
74 THE ELLIPSE.

:. SP SY :: PE : PF,
and S'P : S'Y' :: PE : PF ;
.. SP . S'P : SY . S'Y' :: PE² : PF²
:: AC2 : PF2
:: CD : BC (Art. 87) ;
.. SP . S'P = CD².

Also SY SP :: PF : PE :: PF : AC,
:. SY : SP :: BC : CD.

89. PROP. XXVIII. If the tangent at P meet a pair of

conjugate diameters in T and T
' , and CD be conjugate to CP,
PT.PT = CD².
From the figure
PT PN : CD : DM ;

B P

AT

M
D'
P B'

and, if TP produced meet CB in T

",
PT CN : CD : CM ;
:. PT . PT : PN . CN :: CD2 : DM . CM.
But PN.CN = DM . CM (Art. 83),
.. PT . PT = CD².
COR. Let TQU be the tangent at the other end of the chord PNQ,
meeting CB ' produced in U ; and let CE be the semi-diameter parallel
to TQ.
Then TP TQ PT' : QU,
.. TP2 : TQ2 :: PT. PT" : QT . QU
:: CD2 : CE2,
that is, the two tangents drawn from any point are in the ratio of the
parallel diameters.
 THE ELLIPSE. 75

In a similar manner it can be shewn that, if the tangent at P meet

the tangents at the ends of a diameter ACA' in T and I",
PT. PT' = CD2,
CD being conjugate to CP,
and AT. A'T' = CB²,
CB being conjugate to ACA '.

90. Equi-conjugate diameters.

PROP. XXIX. The diagonals of the rectangle formed by
the principal axes are equal and conjugate diameters.
For, joining AB, A'B, these lines B
are parallel to the diagonals CF,
CE ; and, AB, A'B being supple-
mental chords, it follows that CD,
CP are conjugate to each other.
Moreover, they are equally inclined
to the axes, and are therefore of
equal length.

COR. 1. If QV, QU be drawn parallel to the equi-con-

jugate diameters, meeting them in and U,
QV² : CP² - CV² :: CD² : CP² ;
.. QV² = CP² - CV² = PV . VP ',
if P' be the other end of the diameter PCP'.

Hence QV + QU* = CP.

COR. 2 . CP² + CD² = AC² + BC" (Art. 84) ;

.. 2CP² = AC² + BC².

91. PROP. XXX. Pairs of tangents at right angles to

each other intersect on a fixed circle.

The two tangents being TP, TP ', let S'P produced meet
SY the perpendicular on TP in K.

Then the angle PTK = STP = S'TP' ;

.. S'TK is a right angle.
76 THE ELLIPSE.

Hence 4AC = S'K² = S'T² + TK²

= S'T + ST
= 2CT2 +2CS2 (Euclid , II. 12 and 13) ;
.. CT = AC² + BC2,
and T lies on a fixed circle , of which C is the centre.

This circle is called the Director Circle of the Ellipse, and

it will be seen that when the ellipse, by the elongation of SC
from S is transformed into a parabola, the director circle
merges into the directrix of the parabola.

COR. If XQ is the tangent to the director circle from

the foot of the directrix ,
2
XQ² = CX2 - CQ² = CX² -– CA² — CB²
= CX2-SC.CX-SC.SX (Arts. 61 and 63),
= CX.SX - SC . SXSX2.
.. XQ = SX,
and hence it follows that the directrix is the radical axis of
the director circle and of a point circle at the focus.

PROP. XXXI. The rectangles contained by the

segments of any two chords which intersect each other are in
the ratio ofthe squares ofthe parallel diameters.
Through any point O in a chord OQQ ' draw the diameter
ORR', and let CD be parallel to QQ', and CP conjugate to
CD, bisecting QQ' in V.

Draw RU parallel to CD.

 THE ELLIPSE. 77

Then CD - RU² : CU² :: CD² : CP² (Art. 82),

:: CD2 - QV2 : CV2.
But RU CU : OV² : CV² ;

CD : CƯ :: CD + OV - QV : CV

Р Q
R

or CD² : CD² + OV²- QV² :: CU² : CV²

:: CR2 : CO² ;
-
.. CD2 : OV² – QV² :: CR² : CO² – CR²,
or CD² : OQ.OQ' :: CR² : OR.OR'.
Similarly, if Oqq' be any other chord through 0, and Cd
the parallel semi-diameter,
Cd² : Oq . Oq' :: CR² : OR.OR' ;
.. OQ . OQ ' : Oq . Oq' :: CD² : Cd².

This may otherwise be expressed thus,

The ratio ofthe rectangles of the segments depends only on
the directions in which they are drawn.
The proof is the same if the point O be within the
ellipse.

93. PROP. XXXII . If a circle intersect an ellipse in

four points, the several pairs of the chords of intersection are
equally inclined to the axes.
For if QQ ' , qq' be a pair of the chords of intersection , and
if these meet in O, or be produced to meet in 0, the rect-
angles OQ . OQ' , Oq . Oq' are proportional to the squares on
the parallel diameters.
78 THE ELLIPSE.

But these rectangles are equal since QQ ' , qq' are chords
of a circle.

Therefore the parallel diameters are equal, and, since

equal diameters are equally inclined to the axes , it follows
that the chords QQ ' , qq ' are equally inclined to the axes.

Conversely, if two chords, not parallel, be equally in-

clined to the axes a circle can be drawn through their
extremities.

For, as in Art. 92 , if OQQ' , Oqq' be two chords, and CD,

Cd the parallel semi-diameters,
OQ . OQ ' : 0q . Oq' :: CD² : Cd² ;
but, if CD and Cd be equally inclined to the axes, they are
equal, and
.. ÖQ . OQ' = Oq . Og',

and the points Q, Q' , q, q' are concycl.c.

EXAMPLES.

1. IF the tangent at Bmeet the latus rectum produced in D, CDX

is a right angle.
2. If PCp be a diameter, and the focal distance pS produced meet
the tangent at P in T, SP= ST.
3. If the normal at P meet the axis minor in G' and G'N be the
perpendicular from G' on SP, then PN = AC.
4. The tangent at P bisects any straight line perpendicular to AA'
and terminated by AP, A'P, produced if necessary.
5. Draw a tangent to an ellipse parallel to a given line.
6. SR being the semi-latus rectum, if RA meet the directrix in E,
and SE meet the tangent at A in T,
AT= AS.
7. Prove that SY : SP :: SR : PG.
Find where the angle SPS' is greatest.
8. If two points E and E' be taken in the normal PG such that
PE= PE = CD, the loci of E and E' are circles.
 EXAMPLES , 79

9. If from the focus S' a line be drawn parallel to SP, it will meet
the perpendicular SY in the circumference of a circle.
10. If the normal at P meet the axis major in G, prove that PG is
an harmonic mean between the perpendiculars from the foci on the
tangent at P.
11. The straight line NQ is drawn parallel to AP to meet CP in
Q; prove that AQ is parallel to the tangent at P.
12. The locus of the intersection with the ordinate of the perpen-
dicular from the centre on the tangent is an ellipse.
13. If a rectangle circumscribes an ellipse, its diagonals are the
directions of conjugate diameters.
14. If tangents TP, T2 be drawn at the extremities, P, Q of any
focal chord of an ellipse, prove that the angle ITQ is half the supple-
ment ofthe angle which PQ subtends at the other focus.
15. If Y, Z be the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on the
tangent at P ; prove that Y, N, Z, C are concyclic.
16. If AQ be drawn from one of the vertices perpendicular to the
tangent at any point P, prove that the locus of the point of intersection
of PS and QA produced will be a circle.
17. The straight lines joining each focus to the foot of the perpen-
dicular from the other focus on the tangent at any point meet on the
normal at the point and bisect it.
18. If two circles touch each other internally, the locus of the
centres of circles touching both is an ellipse whose foci are the centres
of the given circles.
19. The subnormal at any point P is a third proportional to the
intercept of the tangent at P on the major axis and half the minor axis.
20. If the normal at P meet the axis major in G and the axis minor
in g, Gg : Sg :: SA : AX, and if the tangent meet the axis minor in t,
St : tg :: BC : CD.
21. If the normal at a point P meet the axis in G, and the tangent
at P meet the axis in 7, prove that
TQ TP :: BC : PG,
Qbeing the point where the ordinate at P meets the auxiliary circle.
22. If the tangent at any point P meet the tangent at the extre-
mities of the axis AA' in F and F", prove that the rectangle AF, A'F"
is equal to the square on the semiaxis minor.
23. TP, TQ are tangents ; prove that a circle can be described
with T as centre so as to touch SP, HP, SQ, and HQ, or these lines
produced, S and H being the foci.
80 EXAMPLES.

24. If two equal and similar ellipses have the same centre, their
points of intersection are at the extremities of diameters at right angles
to one another.

25. The external angle between any two tangents to an ellipse is

equal to the semi-sum of the angles which the chord joining the points
of contact subtends at the foci.

26. The tangent at any point P meets the axes in T and t ; if 8 be

a focus the angles PSt, STP are equal.

27. A conic is drawn touching an ellipse at the extremities A, B

of the axes, and passing through the centre C of the ellipse ; prove that
the tangent at Cis parallel to AB.

28. The tangent at any point P is cut by any two conjugate

diameters in T, t, and the points T, t are joined with the foci S, H
respectively ; prove that the triangles SPT, HPt are similar to each
other.

29. If the diameter conjugate to CP meet SP, and HP (or these

produced) in E and E', prove that SE is equal to HE', and that the
circles which circumscribe the triangles SCÊ, HCE', are equal to one
another.

30. PG is a normal, terminating in the major axis ; the circle, of

which PG is a diameter, cuts SP, HP, in K, L, respectively : prove
that KL is bisected by PG, and is perpendicular to it.

31. Tangents are drawn from any point in a circle through the
foci, prove that the lines bisecting the angles between the several pairs
of tangents all pass through a fixed point.

32. If a quadrilateral circumscribe an ellipse, the angles subtended

by opposite sides at one of the foci are together equal to two right
angles.
33. If the normal at P meet the axis minor in G, and if the tangent
at P meet the tangent at the vertex A in V, shew that
SG SC : PV : VA.

34. P, Q are points in two confocal ellipses, at which the line

joining the common foci subtends equal angles ; prove that the tangents
at P, Q are inclined at an angle which is equal to the angle subtended
by PQ at either focus.

35. The transverse axis is the greatest and the conjugate axis the
least of all the diameters.
36. Prove that the locus of the centre of the circle inscribed in the
triangle SPS' is an ellipse.
 EXAMPLES. 81

37. If the tangent and ordinate at P meet the transverse axis in T

and N, prove that any circle passing through N and T will cut the
auxiliary circle orthogonally.
38. If SY, S'Y' be the perpendiculars from the foci on the tangent
at a point P, and PN the ordinate, prove that
PY: PY ' :: NY : NY '.
39. If a circle, passing through Y and Y', touch the major axis in
Q, and that diameter of the circle, which passes through Q, meet the
tangent in P, then PQ = BC.
40. From the centre of two concentric circles a straight line is
drawn to cut them in P and Q ; from P and Q straight lines are drawn
parallel to two given lines at right angles. Shew that the locus of their
point of intersection is an ellipse.
41. From any two points P, Q on an ellipse four lines are drawn
to the foci S, S' : prove that SP . S'Q and SQ . S'P are to one another
as the squares of the perpendiculars from a focus on the tangents
at P and Q.
42. Two conjugate diameters are cut by the tangent at any point
Pin M, N ; prove that the area of the triangle CPM varies inversely as
that of the triangle CPN.
43. If P be any point on the curve, and AV be drawn parallel to
PC to meet the conjugate CD in V, prove that the areas of the triangles
CAV, CPN are equal, PN being the ordinate.
44. Two tangents to an ellipse intersect at right angles ; prove
that the sum of the squares on the chords intercepted on them by the
auxiliary circle is constant.
45. Prove that the distance between the two points on the cir-
cumference, at which a given chord, not passing through the centre,
subtends the greatest and least angles, is equal to the diameter which
bisects that chord.
46. The tangent at P intersects a fixed tangent in T; if S is the
focus and a line be drawn through S perpendicular to ST, meeting the
tangent at P in Q, shew that the locus of Q is a straight line touching
the ellipse.
47. Shew that, if the distance between the foci be greater than the
length of the axis minor, there will be four positions of the tangent, for
which the area of the triangle, included between it and the straight
lines drawn from the centre of the curve to the feet of the perpen-
diculars from the foci on the tangent, will be the greatest possible.
48. Two ellipses whose axes are equal, each to each, are placed in
the same plane with their centres coincident, and axes inclined to each
other. Draw their common tangents.
49. An ellipse is inscribed in a triangle, having one focus at the
orthocentre ; prove that the centre of the cllipse is the centre of the
B. C. S. 6
82 EXAMPLES .

nine-point circle of the triangle and that its transverse axis is equal to
the diameter of that circle.
50. The tangent at any point P of a circle meets the tangent at a
fixed point A in T, and 7' is joined with Bthe extremity of the diameter
passing through A ; the locus of the point of intersection of AP, BT is
an ellipse.
51. The ordinate NP at a point P meets, when produced, the circle
on the major axis in Q. If be a focus of the ellipse, prove that
SQ SP : the axis major : the chord of the circle through Q and S,
and that the diameter of the ellipse parallel to SP is equal to the same
chord.
52. If the perpendicular from the centre C on the tangent at P
meet the focal distance SP produced in R, the locus of R is a circle,
the diameter of which is equal to the axis major.
53. A perfectly elastic billiard ball lies on an elliptical billiard
table, and is projected in any direction along the table : shew that all
the lines in which it moves after each successive impact touch an
ellipse or an hyperbola confocal with the billiard table.
54. Shew that a circle can be drawn through the foci and the
intersections of any tangent with the tangents at the vertices.
55. If CP, CD be conjugate semi-diameters, and a rectangle be
described so as to have PD for a diagonal and its sides parallel to the
axes, the other angular points will be situated on two fixed straight
lines passing through the centre C.
56. If the tangent at P meet the minor axis in T, prove that the
areas of the triangles SPS
", STS' are in the ratio of the squares on CD
and ST.
57. Find the locus of the centre of the circle touching the trans-
verse axis, SP, and S'P produced .
58. In an ellipse SQ and SQ, drawn perpendicularly to a pair of
conjugate diameters, intersect in ; prove that the locus of Q is a con-
centric ellipse.
59. If the ordinate NP meet the auxiliary circle in Q, the perpen-
dicular from S on the tangent at Q is equal to SP.
60. If PT, QT be tangents at corresponding points of an ellipse
and its auxiliary circle, shew that
PT : QT :: BC : PF.
61. If CQ be conjugate to the normal at P, then is CP conjugate
to the normal at Q.
62. PQ is one side of a parallelogram described about an ellipse,
and the lines joining P, Q to the foci intersect in D, E ; prove that the
points D, E and the foci are concyclic.
 EXAMPLES. 83

63. If the centre, a tangent, and the transverse axis be given,

prove that the directrices pass each through a fixed point.
64. The straight line joining the feet of perpendiculars from the
focus on two tangents is at right angles to the line joining the intersec-
tion of the tangents with the other focus.
65. A circle passes through a focus, has its centre on the major
axis of the ellipse, and touches the ellipse : shew that the straight line
from the focus to the point of contact is equal to the latus rectum.
66. Prove that the perimeter of the quadrilateral formed by the
tangent, the perpendiculars from the foci, and the transverse axis, will
be the greatest possible when the focal distances of the point of contact
are at right angles to each other.
67. Given a focus, the length of the transverse axis, and that the
second focus lies on a straight line, prove that the ellipse will touch
two fixed parabolas having the given focus for focus.
68. Tangents are drawn from a point on one of the equiconjugate
diameters ; prove that the point, the centre, and the two points of con-
tact are concyclic.
69. If PN be the ordinate of P, and if with centre C and radius
equal to PN a circle be described intersecting PN in Q, prove that the
locus of is an ellipse.
70. If AQO be drawn parallel to CP, meeting the curve in Q and
the minor axis in 0, 2CP² = AO . AQ.
71. PS is a focal distance ; CR is a radius of the auxiliary circle
parallel to PS, and drawn in the direction from P to S; SQ is a per-
pendicular on CR : shew that the rectangle contained by SP and QR is
equal to the square on half the minor axis.
72. If a focus be joined with the point where the tangent at the
nearer vertex intersects any other tangent, and perpendiculars be
let fall from the other focus on the joining line and on the last-
mentioned tangent, prove that the distance between the feet of these
perpendiculars is equal to the distance from either focus to the remoter
vertex.
73. A parallelogram is described about an ellipse ; if two of its
angular points lie on the directrices, the other two will lie on the
auxiliary circle.
74. From a point in the auxiliary circle straight lines are drawn
touching the ellipse in P and P' ; prove that SP is parallel to S'P'.
75. Find the locus of the points of contact of tangents to a series
of confocal ellipses from a fixed point in the axis major.
76. A series of confocal ellipses intersect a given straight line ;
prove that the locus of the points of intersection of the pairs of
tangents drawn at the extremities of the chords of intersection is a
straight line at right angles to the given straight line.
6-2
84 EXAMPLES.

77. Given a focus and the length of the major axis ; describe an
ellipse touching a given straight line and passing through a given
point.
78. Given a focus and the length of the major axis ; describe an
ellipse touching two given straight lines.
79. Find the positions of the foci and directrices of an ellipse
which touches at two given points P, Q, two given straight lines P'O,
QO, and has one focus on the line PQ, the angle POQ being less than a
right angle.
80. Through any point P of an ellipse are drawn straight lines
APQ, A'PR, meeting the auxiliary circle in Q, R, and ordinates Qq, Rr
are drawn to the transverse axis ; prove that, ĺ being an extremity of
the latus rectum,
Aq . A'r Ar . A'q :: AC² : SL².
81. If a tangent at a point P meet the major axis in 7, and the
perpendiculars from the focus and centre in Y and Z, then
TY2 : PY2 :: TZ : PZ.
82. An ellipse slides between two lines at right angles to each
other ; find the locus of its centre.
83. TP, TQ are two tangents, and CP', CQ' are the radii from the
centre respectively parallel to these tangents, prove that P'Q' is parallel
to PQ.
84. The tangent at P meets the minor axis in t ; prove that
St. PN = BC . CD.
85. If the circle, centre t, and radius tS, meet the ellipse in Q, and
QM be the ordinate, prove that
QM : PN :: BC : BC + CD.
86. Perpendiculars SY, S'Y' are let fall from the foci upon a pair
of tangents TY, TY' ; prove that the angles STY, S'TY' are equal to
the angles at the base of the triangle YCY'.
87. PQ is the chord of an ellipse normal at P, LCL the diameter
bisecting it, shew that PQ bisects the angle LPL' and that LP+PL' is
constant.
88. ABC is an isosceles triangle of which the side AB is equal to
the side AC. BD, BE drawn on opposite sides of BC and equally
inclined to it meet AC in D and E. If an ellipse is described round
BDE having its axis minor parallel to BC, then AB will be a tangent to
the ellipse.
89. If A be the extremity of the major axis and P any point on
the curve, the bisectors of the angles PSA, PS'A meet on the tangent
at P.
 EXAMPLES. 85

90. If two ellipses intersect in four points, the diameters parallel

to a pair of the chords of intersection are in the same ratio to each
other.
91. From any point P of an ellipse a straight line PQ is drawn
perpendicular to the focal distance SP, and meeting in the diameter
conjugate to that through P ; shew that PQ varies inversely as the
ordinate of P.
92. If a tangent to an ellipse intersect at right angles a tangent to
a confocal ellipse, the point of intersection lies on a fixed circle.
93. If from a point 7' in the director circle of an ellipse tangents
TP, TP are drawn, the line joining T with the intersection of the
normals at P and P' passes through C.
94. Through the middle point of a focal chord a straight line is
drawn at right angles to it to meet the axis in R ; prove that SR bears
to SCthe duplicate ratio of the chord to the diameter parallel to it, S
being the focus and C the centre.
95. The tangent at a point P meets the auxiliary circle in Q' to
which corresponds on the ellipse ; prove that the tangent at Q cuts
the auxiliary circle in the point corresponding to P.
96. If a chord be drawn to a series of concentric, similar, and
similarly situated ellipses, and meet one in P and Q, and if on PQ
as diameter a circle be described meeting that ellipse again in RS,
shew that RS is constant in position for all the ellipses.
97. An ellipse touches the sides of a triangle ; prove that if one of
its foci move along the arc of a circle passing through two of the
angular points of the triangle, the other will move along the arc of a
circle through the same two angular points.
98. The normal at a point P of an ellipse meets the conjugate
axis in K, and a circle is described with centre K and passing through
the foci S and H. The lines SQ, HQ, drawn through any point of
this circle, meet the tangent at P in T and t ; prove that T and t lic
on a pair of conjugate diameters.
99. If SP, SQ be parallel focal distances drawn towards the same
parts, the tangents at P and Q intersect on the auxiliary circle.
100. Having given one focus, one tangent and the eccentricity of
an ellipse, prove that the locus of the other focus is a circle.
101. PSQ is a focal chord of an ellipse, and pq is any parallel
chord ; if PQ meet in 7' the tangent at p,
pq : PQ :: Sp : ST.
102. If an ellipse be inscribed in a quadrilateral so that one focus
is equidistant from the four vertices, the other focus must be at the
intersection of the diagonals.
86 EXAMPLES.

103. If a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse be produced to

meet either directrix, prove that the orthocentre of the triangle so
formed is the corresponding focus of the curve.
104. A pair of conjugate diameters intercept, on the tangent
at either vertex, a length which subtends supplementary angles at
the foci.

105. The straight lines TP, TQ are the tangents at the points
P, Q of an ellipse ; one circle touches TP' at P and meets TQ in Q
and Q' , and another circle touches TQ at Q and meets TP in P and
P' ; prove that PQ and P'Q are parallel, and that they are divided in
the same ratio by the ellipse.
106. If the normals at P and D meet in E, prove that EC is
perpendicular to PD, and that the straight line joining C to the
centroid of the triangle EPD bisects the line joining E to T, the point
of intersection of the tangents at P and D.
107. A chord PQ, normal at P, meets the directrices in K and L,
and the tangents at P and Q meet in T ; prove that PK and QL
subtend equal angles at T, and that KL subtends at 7' an angle which
is half the sum of the angles subtended by SS " at the ends of the
chord.

108. The tangent at the point P meets the directrices in E and F;

prove that the other tangents from E and F intersect on the normal
at P.

109. If the tangent at any point meets a pair of conjugate

diameters in T and T
", prove that TT' subtends supplementary angles
at the foci.

110. PSQ, PSR are focal chords ; prove that the tangent at P
and the chord QR cut the major axis at equal distances from the
centre.
 CHAPTER IV.

THE HYPERBOLA.

DEFINITION.

An hyperbola is the curve traced by a point which moves

in such a manner, that its distance from a given point is in a
constant ratio of greater inequality to its distance from a
given straight line.

Tracing the Curve.

94. Let S be the focus, EX the directrix, and A the
vertex .

XA
S N
E

TKP

Then, as in Art. 1 , any number of points on the curve

may be obtained by taking successive positions of E on the
directrix .
88 THE HYPERBOLA,

In SX produced, find a point A' such that

SA' : A'X : SA AX,

then A' is the other vertex as in the ellipse, and, the

eccentricity being greater than unity, the points A and A'
are evidently on opposite sides of the directrix.
Find the point P corresponding to E, and let A'E, PS
produced meet in P', then, if P'K ' perpendicular to the
directrix meet SE produced in L',
PL : PK :: SA' : A'X : SA : AX,

and the angle

P'L'S = L'SX = L'SP' ;
.. SP' = P'L'.

Hence P' is a point in the curve , and PSP' is a focal

chord.

Following out the construction we observe that, since

SA is greater than AX, there are two points on the directrix,
e and e', such that Ae and Ae are each equal to AS.
If E coincide with e , the angle
QSL = LSN = A Se = AeS.

P
P.

X A
N

Hence SQ, AP are parallel, and the corresponding point

of the curve is at an infinite distance ; and similarly the
curve tends to infinity in the direction Ae'.
Further, the angle ASE is less or greater than AES,
according as the point E is, or is not, between e and e'.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 89

Hence, when E is below e, the curve lies above the axis,

to the right of the directrix ; when between e and X, below
the axis to the left ; when between X and e' , above the axis
to the left ; and when above e', below the axis to the right.
Hence a general idea can be obtained of the form of the
curve, tending to infinity in four directions, as in the figure
of Art. 102,

DEFINITIONS.

The line AA' is called the transverse axis ofthe hyperbola.

The middle point, C, of AA ' is the centre.

Any straight line, drawn through C and terminated by
the curve, is called a diameter.

95. PROP. I. If P be any point of an hyperbola, and

AA' its transverse axis, and if A'P, and PA produced, (or
PA and PA' produced) meet the directrix in E and F, EF
subtends a right angle at the focus.

A SN
E

By the theorem of Art. 4, ES bisects the angle ASP'

and FS bisects ASP ;

.. ESF is a right angle.

SAA' being a focal chord , this is a particular case of the
theorem of Art. 6.

96. PROP. II. If PN be the ordinate of a point P, and

ACA' the transverse axis, PN is to AN . ÑA ' in a constant
ratio.
90 THE HYPERBOLA.

Join AP, A'P, meeting the directrix in E and F.

Then PN : AN EX : AX,
and PN : A'N :: FX : A'X ;
:. PN² : AN . NA' :: EX . FX : AX . A'X
:: SX2 : AX . A'X,

since ESF is a right angle ; that is, PN2 is to AN . NA',

in a constant ratio.

A' S N
E

Through C, the middle point of AA', draw CB at right

angles to the axis, and such that

BC : AC :: SX2 : AX . A'X ;
then PN : AN. NA' :: BC2 : AC ,
or PN2 : CN2- AC² :: BC² : AC².

COR. If PM be the perpendicular from P on BC,

PMCN, and PN = CM ;
... CM² PM - AC : BC : AC²,
or CM² : BC2 :: PM² -
– AC² : AC²
.. CM² + BC : BC² :: PM² : AC²
or PM² CM² + BC2 :: AC2 : BC2.

97. If we describe the circle on AA' as diameter, which

we may term, for convenience, the auxiliary circle, the
rectangle AN . NA' is equal to the square on the tangent to
the circle from N.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 91

Hence the preceding theorem may be thus expressed :

The ordinate of an hyperbola is to the tangent from its

foot to the auxiliary circle in the ratio of the conjugate to the
transverse axis.

DEF. If CB ' be taken equal to CB, on the other side of

the axis, the line BCB' is called the conjugate axis.

The two lines AA ', BB' are the principal axes of the
curve.

When these lines are equal, the hyperbola is said to be

equilateral, or rectangular.

The lines AA' , BB' are sometimes called major and

minor axes, but, as AA' is not necessarily greater than BB
',
these terms cannot with propriety be generally employed.

If a point N' be taken on CA' produced, such that

CN' = CN, the corresponding ordinate P'N' = PN, and
therefore it follows that the curve is symmetrical with regard
to BCB, and that there is another focus and directrix ,
corresponding to the vertex A'.

98. PROP. III . If ACA ' be the transverse axis, C the

centre, S one ofthe foci, and X the foot of the directrix,
CS : ᏟᎪ :: Ꮯ A : CX :: SA : AX ,
and CS : CX :: CS : ᏟᎪ.

Interchanging the positions of S and X for a new

S' Α i X A S

figure, the proof of these relations is identical with the

proof given for the ellipse in Art. 61.

99. PROP. IV. If S be a focus, and B an extremity

of the conjugate axis,

BCAS . SA', and SC² = AC² + BC².

92 THE HYPERBOLA.

Referring to Art. (98), SX = SA + AX ;

... SX : AX :: SA + AX : AX,
:: SCAC AC ;
and similarly
SX A'X SC - AC : AC ;
.. SX² : AX . A'X :: SC² -
– AC² AC².
But BC : AC : SX : AX . A'X;
... BC² = SC² - AC AS . SA'.

Hence SC = AC + BC = AB ;
ie. SC is equal to the line joining the ends of the axes.

100. PROP. V. The difference of the focal distances of

any point is equal to the transverse axis.

For, if PKK', perpendicular to the directrices, meet

them in K and K' ,
S'P : PK' :: SA : AX,
and SP PK SA : AX ;
... S'P - SP : KK' :: SA : AX,
:: AA' : XX' (Art. 98) ;
.. S'P - SP = AA '.

COR. 1. SP : NX AC : CX ;
.. SP AC NX : CX ;
... SP + AC : AC CN : CX,
or SPAC CN :: SA : AX.

Hence also S'P – AC : CN :: SA : AX.

COR. 2. Hence also it can be easily shewn, that the

difference of the distances of any point from the foci of an
hyperbola, is greater or less than the transverse axis, according
as the point is within or without the concave side of the
curve.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 93

101. Mechanical Construction of the Hyperbola .

Let a straight rod S'L be moveable in the plane of the

paper about the point S. Take a piece of string, the

length of which is less than that of the rod, and fasten one
end to a fixed point S, and the other end to L; then, pressing
a pencil against the string so as to keep it stretched, and a
part of it PL in contact with the rod, the pencil will trace
out on the paper an hyperbola, having its foci at S and S",
and its transverse axis equal to the difference between
the length of the rod and that of the string.
This construction gives the right-hand branch of the
curve ; to trace the other branch, take the string longer
than the rod, and such that it exceeds the length of the rod
by the transverse axis.
We may remark that by taking a longer rod MS'L, and
taking the string longer than SS + SL, so that the point P
will be always on the end S'M of the rod, we shall obtain
an ellipse of which S and S" are the foci. Moreover, re-
membering that a parabola is the limiting form of an ellipse
when one of the foci is removed to an infinite distance,
the mechanical construction given for the parabola will be
seen to be a particular case of the above.

The Asymptotes.
102. We have shewn in Art. 94 that if two points, e
and e', be taken on the directrix such that
Ae = Ae = AS,
the lines eA, e' A meet the curve at an infinite distance.
94 THE HYPERBOLA.

These lines are parallel to the diagonals of the rectangle

formed by the axes, for
Ae : AX AS : AX : SC : AC,
:: AB : AC, (Art. 99).

DEFINITION. The diagonals of the rectangle formed by

the principal axes are called the asymptotes.
We observe that the axes bisect the angles between the
asymptotes, and that if a double ordinate, PNP', when
produced, meet the asymptotes in Q and Q',
PQ = P'Q'.
The figure appended will give the general form of the
curve and its connection with the asymptotes and the
auxiliary circle.

SAX X AS

103. PROP. VI . The asymptotes intersect the directrices

in the same points as the auxiliary circle, and the lines joining
the corresponding foci with the points of intersection are
tangents to the circle.

If the asymptote CL meet the directrix in D, joining

SD (fig. Art. 102), CL² = AC² + BC² = SC²,
and CD : CX :: CL : CA :: SC : CA :: CA : CX ;
.. CD 11 CA, and D is on the auxiliary circle.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 95

Also
CS . CX = CA² = CD² ;

... CDS is a right angle, and SD is the tangent at D.

COR. CD2 + SD² = CS² = AC² + BC² ( Art. 99) ;

.. SD = BC.

104. An asymptote may also be characterized as the ultimate

position of a tangent when the point of contact is removed to an infinite
distance.
It appears from Art. 10 that in order to find the point of contact of
a tangent drawn from a point 7 ' in the directrix, we must join T with
the focus S, and draw through S a straight line at right angles to ST ;
this line will meet the curve in the point of contact.
In the figures of Arts. 94 and 102 we know that the line through S,
parallel to eA or CL, meets the curve in a point at an infinite distance,
and also that this straight line is at right angles to SD, since SD is at
right angles to CD. Hence the tangent from D, that is the line from
D to the point at an infinite distance, is perpendicular to DS and there-
fore coincident with CD.
The asymptotes therefore touch the curve at an infinite distance.

105. DEF. If an hyperbola be described , having for its

transverse and conjugate axes, respectively, the conjugate and
transverse axes of a given hyperbola, it is called the conjugate
hyperbola .
It is evident from the preceding article that the conju-
gate hyperbola has the same asymptotes as the original
hyperbola, and that the distances of its foci from the centre
are also the same.

The relations of Art. 96 and its Corollary are also true,

mutatis mutandis, of the conjugate hyperbola ; thus, if R be
a point in the conjugate hyperbola,
RM2 : CM - BC :: AC : BC ,
and CM² : RM2 + AC : BC : AC².

DEF. A straight line drawn through the centre and ter-

minated bythe conjugate hyperbola is also called a diameter
ofthe original hyperbola .
96 THE HYPERBOLA.

106. PROP. VII. If from any point Q in one of the

asymptotes, two straight lines QPN, QRM be drawn at right
angles respectively to the transverse and conjugate axes, and
meeting the hyperbola in P, p, and the conjugate hyperbola
in R, r,
QP . Qp = BC²,
and QR . Qr = AC2.

For QN² : BC² :: CN² : AC² ; ´

.. QN² – BC² : BC² :: CN² – AC² : AC²
:: PN2 : BC² ;
.. QN – BC = PN,
or QN² - PN² = BC² ;
i.e. QP . Qp = BC .
Similarly, QM2 : AC² :: CM² : BC² ;
.. QM - AC : AC :: CM - BC2 : BC ,
:: RM2 : AC² ;
... QM² -— RM² = AC²,
or QR . Qr = AC².
These relations may also be given in the form,
QP . Pq = BC², QR . Rq = AC .
COR. If the point Q be taken at a greater distance
from C, the length QN and therefore Qp will be increased,
and may be increased indefinitely.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 97

But the rectangle QP . Qp is of finite magnitude ; hence

QP will be indefinitely diminished , and the curve, therefore,
as it recedes from the centre, tends more and more nearly to
coincide with the asymptote.

A further illustration is thus given of the remarks in

Art. 104.

107. If in the preceding figure the line Qq be produced

to meet the conjugate hyperbola in E and e, it can be shewn,
in the same manner as in Art. 106 , that

QE . Qe = BC² ;
and this equality is still true when the line Qq lies between
C and A, in which case Qq does not meet the hyperbola.

Properties of the Tangent and Normal.

108. In the case of the hyperbola the theorem, proofs

of which are given in Arts. 15 and 16, takes the following
form :

The tangents drawn from any point to an hyperbola

subtend equal or supplementary angles at either focus ac-
cording as they touch the same or opposite branches of the
curve.

M
M

For, T being the point of intersection of tangents to

opposite branches of the curve, let TM, TM' be the per-
B. C. S. 7
98 THE HYPERBOLA.

pendiculars let fall from T on SP and SQ, then, as in Arts.

15 and 16, TM = TM ';
.. the angles TSM, TSM ' are equal, and consequently
the angles TSP, TSQ are supplementary.

109. PROP. VIII. The tangent at any point bisects the

angle between the focal distances of that point, and the normal
is equally inclined to the focal distances.
Let the normal at P meet the axis in G.
Then (Art. 18),
SG : SP :: SA : AX,
and S'G : S'P :: SA : AX ;
... SG : S'G :: SP : S'P ;

and therefore the angle between SP and SP produced is

bisected by PG.
Hence PT, the tangent which is perpendicular to PG,
bisects the angle SPS'.

COR. 1. If PT and GP produced meet, respectively,

the conjugate axis in t and g, it can be shewn, in exactly the
same manner as in the corresponding case of the ellipse
(Art. 68 ), that S, P, S', t, and g are concyclic.

COR. 2. If an ellipse be described having S and S' for

its foci, and if this ellipse meet the hyperbola in P, the
normal at P to the ellipse bisects the angle SPS', and there-
fore coincides with the tangent to the hyperbola.

Hence, if an ellipse and an hyperbola be confocal, that is,

have the same foci, they intersect at right angles.

110. PROP. IX. Every diameter is bisected at the centre,

and the tangents at the ends of a diameter are parallel.
Let PCP be a diameter, and PN, pn the ordinates.
Then CN2 : Cn² :: PN : pn²,
:: CN - AC : Cn²- AC² ;
hence CNCn, and .. CP = Cp.
 THE HYPERBOLA, 99

Again, if PT, pt be the tangents,

The triangles PCS, pCS' are equal in all respects, and

therefore SPS'p is a parallelograin.

n s T

Hence the angles SPS', SpS" are equal, and therefore

SPT = S'pt.

But SPC = S'pC,

.. the difference TPC = the difference tpC, and PT is

parallel to pt.

It can be shewn in exactly the same manner, that, if

the diameter be terminated by the conjugate hyperbola, it
is bisected in C, and the tangents at its extremities are
parallel.

COR. The distances SP, Sp are equally inclined to the

tangents at P and p.

111. PROP. X. The perpendiculars from the foci on any

tangent meet the tangent on the auxiliary circle, and the
semi-conjugate axis is a mean proportional between their
lengths.

Let SY, S'Y' be the perpendiculars, and let SY produced

meet S'P in L.

Then the triangles SPY, LPY are equal in all respects,

and SY = LY,
7-2
100 THE HYPERBOLA.

Hence, C being the middle point of SS" and Y of SL, CY

is parallel to S'L, and S'L = 2CY.

L
E

G
Y

But S'L - SP - PL = S'P - SP = 2AC;

... CY = AC,

and Y is on the auxiliary circle.

' is a point in the circle.

So also Y

Let SY produced meet the circle in Z, and join Y'Z;

then, YYZ being a right angle, ZY ' is a diameter and
passes through C. Hence, the triangles SCZ, S'CY' being
equal,
S'Y' = SZ,
and SY. S'Y'SY . SZ - SA . SA' = BC2.

COR. 1. If P' be the other extremity of the diameter

PC, the tangent at P' is parallel to PY, andtherefore Z
is the foot of the perpendicular from S on the tangent
at P'.

COR. 2. If the diameter DCD' , drawn parallel to the

tangent at P, meet S'P, SP in E and E ', PECY is a
parallelogram ;
.. PE = CY = AC,
and so also ' = AC.
PE = CY
 THE HYPERBOLA. 101

112. PROP. XI . To draw tangents to an hyperbolafrom

a given point.

The construction of Art. 17 may be employed , or, as in

the cases of the ellipse and parabola, the following.

Let Q be the given point ; join SQ, and upon SQ as

Y'

diameter describe a circle intersecting the auxiliary circle

in Y and Y' ;

QY and QY' are the required tangents.

Producing SY to L, so that YLSY, draw S'L cutting

QY in P, and join SP.

The triangles SPY, LPY are equal in all respects,

and S'P - SP = S'L = 2CY = 2AC ;

.. P is a point on the hyperbola.

Also QP bisects the angle SPS' , and is therefore the

tangent at P. A similar construction will give the other
tangent QP'.

If the point Q be within the angle formed by the asymp-

totes, the tangents will both touch the same branch of the
curve ; but if it lie within the external angle, they will touch
opposite branches.
102 THE HYPERBOLA.

113. PROP. XII. If two tangents be drawn from any

point to an hyperbola they are equally inclined to the focal
distances of that point.
Let PQ, P'Q be the tangents, SY, S'Y', SZ, S'Z' the
perpendiculars from the foci ; join YZ, Y'Z'.

Then the angles YSZ, Y'S'Z' are equal , for they are the
supplements of YQZ, Y'QZ'.
Also SY.S'Y' = SZ . S'Z' (Art. 111 ) ;
or SY : SZ : S'Z
' : S'Y' ;

.. the triangles YZS, Y'S'Z' are similar,

and the angle YZS = Z'Y'S'.
But the angle YQS = YZS, and Z'QS' = ZY'S' ;
.. YQS = Z'QS'.
That is, the tangent QP and the tangent P'Q produced
are equally inclined to SQ and S'Q.
Or, producing S'Q, QP and QP' are equally inclined to
QS and S'Q produced .
In exactly the same manner it can be shewn that if
QP, QP' touch opposite branches of the curve the angles
PQS, P'QS' are equal.

COR. If Q be a point in a confocal hyperbola, the nor-

mal at Q bisects the angle between SQ and S'Q produced
and therefore bisects the angle PQP'.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 103

Hence, if from any point of an hyperbola tangents be

drawn to a confocal hyperbola, these tangents are equally
inclined to the normal or the tangent at the point, according
as it lies within or without that angle formed by the asymptotes
ofthe confocal which contains the transverse axes.

114. PROP. XIII. If PT, the tangent at P, meet the

transverse axis in T, and PN be the ordinate,
CN.CT = AC2.

Let fall the perpendicular SY upon PT, and join YN,

CY, SP, and S'P.

The angle CYT = S'PY = SPY

=the supplement of SNY = CNY ;

also the angle YCT is com-

mon to the two triangles
CYT, CYN ; these triangles
are therefore similar, Y

and TAN
CN : CY :: CY : ᏟᎢ ,
or
CN.CT = CY' = AC".

COR. 1. Hence CN . NT = CN² - CN . CT

== CN² - AC²
= AN . NA'.

COR. 2. Hence also it follows that

If any number of hyperbolas be described having the
same transverse axis, and an ordinate be drawn cutting
the hyperbolas, the tangents at the points of section will all
meet the transverse axis in the same point.

COR. 3. If CN be increased indefinitely, CT is dimi-

nished indefinitely, and the tangent ultimately passes
through C, as we have already shewn in Art. 104.
104 THE HYPERBOLA.

115. PROP. XIV. Ifthe tangent at P meet the conjugate

axis in t, and PN be the ordinate,

Ct . PN = BC2.

For Ct PN : CT : NT ; (Fig. Art. 114)

.. Ct . PN : PN² :: CT.CN : CN.NT

:: AC² : AN . NA'.

.. Ct . PN : AC2 : PN : AN . NA'

:: BC² : AC²,

and Ct . PNBC2.

In exactly the same manner as in Art. 76, it can be

shewn that
CG . CTSC2,

ᏟG : CN :: ᏚᏨ : ᎪᏟ , Cg : PN :: SO : BC ,
and NG CN : BC2 : AC².

116. PROP. XV. Ifthe normal at P meet the transverse

axis in G, the conjugate axis in g, and the diameter parallel
to the tangent at P in F,
PF.PGBC2,> and PF. Pg = AC².

Let NP, PM, perpendicular

to the axes, meet the diameter IK
CF in K and L;
F
Then KNG, KFG being right
ΔΙ
angles, K, F, N, G are concyclic ;
.. PF . PGPK.PN C
TN
= Ct . PNBC².

Similarly F, L, M, g are con-

cyclic ;

.. PF . Pg = PL.PM= CT.CN = AC².

 THE HYPERBOLA. 105

117. PROP. XVI. If PCp be a diameter, and QV an

ordinate, and if the tangent at Q meet the diameter Pp in T,
CV . CTCP2.

Let the tangents at P and p meet the tangent at Q in

R and r ;

Then the angle SPR = Spr (Cor. Art. 110 )

and therefore if RN, rn be the perpendiculars on SP, sp, the
triangles RPN, rpn are similar.

Draw RM, rm perpendiculars on SQ.

Then TR : Tr :: RP : rp :: RN : rn,
:: RM : rm (Cor. Art. 15 )
:: RQ : rQ.

Hence, QV, RP, and rp being parallel ,

TP : Tp :: PV : pV ;
.. TP + Tp : Tp - TP :: PV + pV : pV − PV,
or 2CP : 2CT : 2CV : 2CP,
or CV . CTCP2.
106 THE HYPERBOLA.

118. PROP. XVII . A diameter bisects all chords par-

allel to the tangents at its extremities.

Let PCp be the diameter, and QQ the chord, parallel to

the tangents at P and p. Then if the tangents TQ, TQ '

AE
સ
E

at Q and meet the tangents at P and p, in the points

E, E', e, é',
EP = E'P and epe'p, (Art. 21 )
.. the point T is on the line Pp ;
but TP bisects QQ' ;
that is, the diameter pCP produced bisects QQ'.

DEF. The line DCd, drawn parallel to the tangent at

P and terminated by the conjugate hyperbola, that is, the
diameter parallel to the tangent at P, is said to be conjugate
to PCp.
A diameter therefore bisects all chords parallel to its
conjugate.

119. PROP. XVIII. If the diameter DC'd be conjugate

to PCp, then will PCp be conjugate to DCd.

Let the chord QVq be parallel to CD and be bisected in

V by CP produced .

Draw the diameter qCR, and join RQ meeting CD

in U.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 107

Then RC = Cq and QV = Vq ; .. QR is parallel to CP.

Also QU : UR :: Cq : CR,
and .. QU= UR,

U
P

that is, CD bisects the chords parallel to CP, and PCp is

therefore conjugate to DCd.
Hence, when two diameters are conjugate, each bisects
the chords parallel to the other.

DEF. Chords drawn from the extremities of any diameter

to a point on the hyperbola are called supplemental chords.
Thus, qQ, QR are supplemental chords, and they are
parallel to CD and CP ; supplemental chords are therefore
parallel to conjugate diameters.
DEF. A line QV, drawn from any point Q of an
hyperbola, parallel to a diameter DCd, and terminated by the
conjugate diameter PCp, is called an ordinate of the diameter
PCp, and if QV produced meet the curve in Q, QVQ' is the
double ordinate.

This definition includes the two cases in which QQ' may

be drawn so as to meet the same, or opposite branches of the
hyperbola.

120. PROP. XIX . Any diameter is a mean proportional

between the transverse axis and the focal chord parallel to the
diameter .

This can be proved as in Art. 81 .

108 THE HYPERBOLA.

Properties of Asymptotes.

121. PROP. XX . Iffrom any point Q in an asymptote

QPpq be drawn meeting the curve in P, p and the other
asymptote in q, and if CD be the semi-diameter parallel
to Qq,
QP . Pq = CD and QP = pq.

Through P and D draw RPr, DTt perpendicular to the

transverse axis, and meeting the asymptotes.

R
D L 1Q
P
E
2

Then QP : RP : CD : DT,
and Pq : Pr : CD : Dt ;
..QP . Pq : RP . Pr :: CD2 : DT . Dt.

But RP . Pr = BC = DT . Dt (Arts. 106 and 107),

.. QP . Pq = CD2.
Similarly qp.pQ = CD ;
..QP . Pq = qp . pQ ;
or, if V be the middle point of Qq,
QV2 - PV² = QV2 - pV2.
Hence PV = pV, and .. PQ = pq.

We have taken the case in which Qq meets one branch

of the hyperbola. It may however be shewn in the same
manner that the same relations hold good for the case in
which Qq meets opposite branches.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 109

COR. If a straight line PP'p'p meet the hyperbola in

P, P, and the conjugate hyperbola in P', p', PP' = pp'.

For, if the line meet the asymptotes in Q, q,

QP'p'q, and PQ = qp ;
:. PP' = pp'.

122. PROP. XXI. The portion of a tangent which is

terminated by the asymptotes is bisected at the point of contact,
and is equal to the parallel diameter.

LE being the tangent (Fig. Art. 121 ) , and DCd the

parallel diameter, draw any parallel straight line QPpq
meeting the curve and the asymptotes .
Then QP - pq; and, if the line move parallel to itself
until it coincides with Ll, the points P and p coincide with
E, and .. LE = El.
Also QP . Pq = CD², always ;
.. LE . El = CD2, or LE = CD.

Properties of Conjugate Diameters.

123. PROP. XXII. Conjugate diameters of an hyperbola

are also conjugate diameters of the conjugate hyperbola, and
the asymptotes are diagonals of the parallelogram formed by
the tangents at their extremities.

PCp and DC'd being conjugate, let QVq, a double ordinate

of CD, meet the conjugate hyperbola in Q' and q'.
Then
QVVq, and QQ′ = qq′ (Cor. Art. 121 ),

: . Q'V = Vq'.
That is , CD bisects the chords of the conjugate hyperbola
parallel to CP.

Hence CD and CP are conjugate in both hyperbolas, and

therefore the tangent at D is parallel to CP.
110 THE HYPERBOLA.

Let the tangent at P meet the asymptote in L ; then

PL CD (Art. 122).

Hence LD is parallel and equal to CP ;

but the tangent at D is parallel to CP ;
.. LD is the tangent at D.
Completing the figure, the tangents at p and d are par-
allel to those at P and D, and therefore the asymptotes are
the diagonals of the parallelogram Lll'L
'.

COR. Hence, joining PD, it follows that PD is parallel

to the asymptote ICL
' , since LP = PL', and LD = D.

124. PROP. XXIII. If QV be an ordinate of a dia-

meter PCp, and DCd the conjugate diameter,
QV² : PV . Vp :: CD² : CP².

R
L

Let QV and the tangent at P meet the asymptote in

R and L.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 111

Then LP being equal to CD,

RV CD :: CV2 : CP² ;
.. RV -
– CD® : CD :: CV? -_ CP : CP.
But RV² - QV² = CD².
Hence QV2 CD² :: CV2 - CP : CP2,

or QV PV . Vp :: CD : CP².

125. PROP. XXIV. If QV be an ordinate of a dia-

meter PCp, and if the tangent at Q meet the conjugate diameter,
DCd, in t,
Ct . QV = CD².
For, ( Fig. Art. 118 )
Ct : QV ::
: CT : VT,
and .. Ct . QV : QV" :: CV . CT : CV . VT.
But CV . CTCP2,
=
and CV . VT CV- CV . CT = CV² - CP²;

.. Ct . QV : QV² :: CP² : CV² – CP²,

:: CD² : QV².
Hence Ct . QV = CD².

126. PROP. XXV. If ACa, BCb be conjugate diameters,

and PCp, DC'd another pair of conjugate diameters, and if
PN, DM be ordinates of ACa,
CM : PN :: AC : BC,
and DM : CN :: BC : AC.

Let the tangents at P and D meet ACa in T and t ;

then CN . CTAC = CM. Ct (Art. 117),

.. CM : CN :: CT : Ct,
:: PT : CD,
:: PN : DM,
:: CN : Mt ;
112 THE HYPERBOLA.

.. CN = CM . Mt = CM² + CM . Ct = CM² + AC²,

so that CM² CN2 - AC2.

P
B

M TAN

But PN : CN - AC² :: BC² : AC² ;

.. CM PN : AC : BC;
and, similarly, DM : CN : BC AC.

COR. We have shewn in the course of the proof, that

CN2 - CM² = AC².

Similarly, if Pn, Dm be ordinates of BC,

Cm²- Cn BC2 ;
that is, DM -PN = BC² ;

and it must be noticed that these relations are shewn for any
pair of conjugate diameters ACa, BCb, including of course
the axes .

127. PROP. XXVI. If CP, CD be conjugate semi-

diameters, and AC, BC the semi- axes,
CP2 - CD2 = AC²- BC².

For, drawing the ordinates PN, DM, and remembering

that in this case the angles at N and M are right angles, we
have, from the figure of the previous article,
CPCN2 + PN2, ..
CD2 = CM2 + DM².
= AC and DM -PN = BC";
But CN2 - CM2-
:. CP² — CD² = AC² — BC .
 THE HYPERBOLA. 113

128. PROP. XXVII . Ifthe normal at P meet the axes

in G and g,
PG CD : BC : AC,
and Pg : CD : AC : BC.

For the proofs of these relations, see Art. 86.

Observe also that

PG . Pg = CD ,
and that
Gg CD : SC2 : AC . BC.

129. PROP. XXVIII . The area of the parallelogram

formed by the tangents at the ends of conjugate diameters
is equal to the rectangle contained by the axes.

Let CP, CD be the semi-diameters, and PN, DM the

ordinates of the transverse axis.

Let the normal at P meet

CD in F. and the axis in G.
Then PNG, CDM are similar
triangles, and , exactly as in
Art. 87 , it can be shewn that
PF.CD = AC . BC.

Hence it follows that, in M G

the figure of Art. 123, the
triangle LCL' is of constant area.

For the triangle is equal to the parallelogram CPLD.

130. PROP. XXIX. IfSP, S'P be the focal distances of

a point P, and CD be conjugate to CP,
SP.S'P = CD².

Attending to the figure of Art. 111 , the proof is the

same as that of Art. 88.
B. C. S. 8
114 THE HYPERBOLA ,

131 . PROP. XXX. If the tangent at P meet a pair

of conjugate diameters in T and t, and CD be conjugate
to CP,
PT. Pt = CD².

This can be proved as in Art. 89.

It can also be shewn that if the tangent at P meet two

parallel tangents in T
" and t',
PT' . Pt = CD².

132. PROP. XXXI. If the tangent at P meet the

asymptotes in L and L',
CL . CL' = SC².

K
H

Let the tangent at A meet the asymptotes in K and

K' ; then (Art. 129 ) the triangles LCL' , KCK ' are of equal
area, and therefore

CL : CK' :: CK ' (Euclid, Book VI. ) ,

CL
or CL . CL'CK = AC² + BC² = SC².

COR. If PH, PH' be drawn parallel to, and terminated

by the asymptotes,
4.PH.PH' := CS*,

for CL2PH', and CL' = 2PH.

 THE HYPERBOLA, 115

133. PROP. XXXII. Pairs of tangents at right angles

to each other intersect on a fixed circle.
PT, QT being two tangents at right angles, let SY,
perpendicular to PT, meet S'P in K.

S'

Then (Art. 113) the angle STY' = QTS,

and obviously , KTP = PTS ;

therefore S'TY' is complementary to KTP, and S'TK is a

right angle.
Hence
4AC2S'K² = S'T² + TK2
=
= S'T² + ST²
= 2 . CT² + 2.CS" by Euclid II. 12 and 13 ;
.. CT² = AC² — BC²,
and the locus of T is a circle.

If AC be less than BC, this relation is impossible,

In this case, however, the angle between the asymptotes

is greater than a right angle, and the angle PTQ between a
pair of tangents, being always greater than the angle between
the asymptotes, is greater than a right angle. The problem
is therefore à priori impossible for the hyperbola, but be-
comes possible for the conjugate hyperbola.
As in the case of the ellipse, the locus of T is called the
director circle.
8-2
116 THE HYPERBOLA.

134. PROP. XXXIII. The rectangles contained by the

segments of any two chords which intersect each other are in
the ratio ofthe squares on the parallel diameters.

R'

Through any point O in a chord QOQ' draw the diameter

ORR ' ; and let CD be parallel to QQ', and CP conjugate to
CD, bisecting QQ' in V.
Draw RU an ordinate of CP.

Then RU CU - CP :: CD2 : CP2 ;

.. CD² + RU² : CU² :: CD² : CP²,
:: CD² + QV² : CV2.
But RU CU : OV² : CV² ;

: . CD² : CU² :: CD² + QV² – OV² : CV²,

or CD² : CD² + QV² – OV² :: CU² : CV²,
:: CR2 : CO² ;

.. CD : QV²- OV² :: CR2 : CO² - CR²,

or CD QO.OQ : CR : OR.OR'.

Similarly, if q0q' be any other chord , and Cd the parallel

semi-diameter,

Cd q0.0q : CR² : OR.OR' ;

.. QO.OQ' : q0.0q
′ :: CD² : Cď³ ;
that is, the ratio of the rectangles depends only on the
directions of the chords.
 EXAMPLES. 117

PROP. XXXIV. If a circle intersect an hyperbola in four

points, the several pairs of the chords of intersection are
equally inclined to the axes.
For the proof, see Art. 93.

EXAMPLES.

1. If a circle be drawn so as to touch two fixed circles externally,

the locus of its centre is an hyperbola.
2. If the tangent at B to the conjugate meet the latus rectum in
D, the triangles SCD, SXD are similar.
3. The straight line drawn from the focus to the directrix , parallel
to an asymptote, is equal to the semi-latus-rectum, and is bisected by
the curve.

4. Given the asymptotes and a focus, find the directrix.

5. Given the centre, one asymptote, and a directrix, find the focus.
6. Parabolas are described passing through two fixed points, and
having their axes parallel to a fixed line ; the locus of their foci is an
hyperbola.
7. The base of a triangle being given, and also the point of contact
with the base of the inscribed circle, the locus of the vertex is an
hyperbola.
8. If the normal at P meet the conjugate axis in g, and g№ be the
perpendicular on SP, then PN= AC.
9. Draw a tangent to an hyperbola, or its conjugate, parallel to a
given line.
10. If AA' be the axis of an ellipse, and PNP ′ a double ordinate,
the locus of the intersection of A'P and P'A is an hyperbola.

11. The tangent at P bisects any straight line perpendicular to

AA' , and terminated by AP, and A'P.
12. If PCp be a diameter, and if Sp meet the tangent at P in T,
SP= ST.

13. Given an asymptote, the focus, and a point ; construct the

hyperbola.
118 EXAMPLES.

14. A circle can be drawn through the foci and the intersections of
any tangent with the tangents at the vertices.
15. Given an asymptote, the directrix, and a point ; construct the
hyperbola.
16. If through any point of an hyperbola straight lines are drawn
parallel to the asymptotes and meeting any semi-diameter CQ in P
and R,
CP . CR= CQ2.
17. PN is an ordinate and NQ parallel to AB meets the conjugate
axis in ; prove that QB . QB' = PN².
18. NP is an ordinate and Q a point in the curve ; AQ, A'Q meet
NP in D and E ; prove that ND . NE=NP².
19. If a tangent cut the major axis in the point T, and perpen-
diculars SY, HZ be let fall on it from the foci, then
AT . A'T= YT . ZT.

20. In the tangent at P a point Q is taken such that PQ is pro-

portional to CD ; shew that the locus of Q is an hyperbola.
21. Tangents are drawn to an hyperbola, and the portion of each
tangent intercepted by the asymptotes is divided in a constant ratio ;
prove that the locus of the point of section is an hyperbola.
22. If the tangent and normal at P meet the conjugate axis in t
and K respectively, prove that a circle can be drawn through the foci
and the three points P, t, K.
Shew also that
GK : SK :: SA : AX,
and St : tK : BC : CD,
CD being conjugate to CP.
23. Shew that the points of trisection of a series of conterminous
circular arcs lie on branches of two hyperbolas ; and determine the
distance between their centres.
24. If the tangent at any point P cut an asymptote in T, and if
SP cut the same asymptote in Q, then SQ = QT.
25. A series of hyperbolas having the same asymptotes is cut by
a straight line parallel to one of the asymptotes, and through the
points of intersection lines are drawn parallel to the other, and equal
to either semi-axis of the corresponding hyperbola : prove that the
locus of their extremities is a parabola.
26. Prove that the rectangle PY. PY in an ellipse is equal to
the square on the conjugate axis of the confocal hyperbola passing
through P.
 EXAMPLES. 119

27. If the tangent at P meet one asymptote in T, and a line TQ

be drawn parallel to the other asymptote to meet the curve in Q ; prove
that if PQ be joined and produced both ways to meet the asymptotes
in R and R', RR' will be trisected at the points P and Q.
28. The tangent at a point P of an ellipse meets the hyperbola
having the same axes as the ellipse in C and D. If be the middle
point of CD, prove that OQ and OP are equally inclined to the axes, (
being the centre of the ellipse.
29. Given one asymptote, the direction of the other, and the
position of one focus, determine the position of the vertices.
30. Two points are taken on the same branch of the curve, and on
the same side of the axis ; prove that a circle can be drawn touching
the four focal distances.

31. Supposing the two asymptotes and one point of the curve to
be given in position, shew how to construct the curve ; and find the
position of the foci.
32. Given a pair of conjugate diameters, construct the axes.
33. If PH, PK be drawn parallel to the asymptotes from a point
P on the curve, and if a line through the centre meet them in R, T,
and the parallelogram PRQT be completed, Q is a point on the curve.
34. The ordinate NP at any point of an ellipse is produced to a
point , such that NQ is equal to the subtangent at P ; prove that the
locus of Q is an hyperbola.
35. If a given point be the focus of any hyperbola, passing through
a given point and touching a given straight line, prove that the locus of
the other focus is an arc of a fixed hyperbola.
36. An ellipse and hyperbola are described, so that the foci of
each are at the extremities of the transverse axis of the other ; prove
that the tangents at their points of intersection meet the conjugate
axis in points equidistant from the centre.
37. A circle is described about the focus as centre, with a radius
equal to one-fourth of the latus rectum : prove that the focal distances
of the points at which it intersects the hyperbola are parallel to the
asymptotes.
38. The tangent at any point forms a triangle with the asymptotes :
determine the locus of the point of intersection of the straight lines
drawn from the angles of this triangle to bisect the opposite sides.
39. If SY, SY' be the perpendiculars on the tangent at P, a circle
can be drawn through the points Y, Y', N, C.
40. The straight lines joining each focus to the foot of the per-
pendicular from the other focus on the tangent meet on the normal and
bisect it.
120 EXAMPLES.

41 . If the tangent and normal at P meet the axis in T and G,

NG.CT= BC2.

42. If the tangent at P meet the axes in T and t, the angles PSt,
STP are supplementary .

43. If the tangent at P meet any conjugate diameters in T and t,

the triangles SPT, S'Pt are similar.
44. If the diameter conjugate to CP meet SP and S'P in E and
E', prove that the circles about the triangles SCE, S'CE' are equal.
45. The locus of the centre of the circle inscribed in the triangle
SPS' is a straight line.
46. If PN be an ordinate, and NQ parallel to AP meet CP in Q,
AQ is parallel to the tangent at P.
47. If an asymptote meet the directrix in D, and the tangent at
the vertex in E, AD is parallel to SE.
48. The radius of the circle touching the curve and its asymptotes
is equal to the portion of the latus rectum produced, between its
extremity and the asymptote.
49. If G be the foot of the normal, and if the tangent meet the
asymptotes in L and M, GL = GM.
50. With two conjugate diameters of an ellipse as asymptotes, a
pair of conjugate hyperbolas is constructed : prove that if one hyper-
bola touch the ellipse, the other will do so likewise ; prove also that the
diameters drawn through the points of contact are conjugate to each
other.
51. If two tangents be drawn the lines joining their intersections
with the asymptotes will be parallel.
52. The locus of the centre of the circle touching SP, S'P pro-
duced, and the major axis, is an hyperbola.
53. If from a point P in an hyperbola, PK be drawn parallel to
an asymptote to meet the directrix in A, then PK- SP.
54. If PD be drawn parallel to an asymptote, to meet the con-
jugate hyperbola in D, CP and CD are conjugate diameters.
55. If QR be a chord parallel to the tangent at P, and if QL, PN,
RM be drawn parallel to one asymptote to meet the other,
CL . CM= CN2.
56. If a circle touch the transverse axis at a focus, and pass
through one end of the conjugate, the chord intercepted by the
conjugate is a third proportional to the conjugate and transverse
semi-axes.
 EXAMPLES. 121

57. A line through one of the vertices, terminated by two lines

drawn through the other vertex parallel to the asymptotes, is bisected
at the other point where it cuts the curve.
58. If PSQ be a focal chord, and if the tangents at P and Q meet
in T, the difference between PTQ and half PS'Q is a right angle.
59. If a straight line passing through a fixed point C meet two
fixed lines OA, OB in A and B, and if P be taken in AB such that
CP2 CA. CB, the locus of P is an hyperbola, having its asymptotes
parallel to OA, OB.
60. If from the points P and Q in an hyperbola there be
drawn PL, QM parallel to each other to meet one asymptote, and
PR, QN also parallel to each other to meet the other asymptote,
PL. PR= QM . QN.
61. Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of two
tangents to a parabola which cut at a constant angle is an hyperbola,
and that the angle between its asymptotes is double the external angle
between the tangents .

62. An ordinate Q of any diameter CP is produced to meet the

asymptote in R, and the conjugate hyperbola in Q ; prove that
QV2+QV2 = 2RV2.
Prove also that the tangents at Q and Q' meet the diameter CP in
points equidistant from C.

63. A chord QPL meets an asymptote in L, and a tangent from L

is drawn touching at R; if PM, RE, QN, be drawn parallel to the
asymptote to meet the other,
PM+QN = 2 . RE.
64. Tangents are drawn from any point in a circle through the
foci ; prove that the lines bisecting the angle between the tangents,
or between one tangent and the other produced, all pass through a
fixed point.

65. If a circle through the foci meet two confocal hyperbolas

in P and Q, the angle between the tangents at P and Q is equal
to PSQ.

66. If SY, S'Y' be perpendiculars on the tangent at P, and if PN

be the ordinate, the angles PNY, PNY' are supplementary.

67. Find the position of P when the area of the triangle YCY' is
the greatest possible, and shew that, in that case,
PN. SC = BC2.
68. If the tangent at P meet the conjugate axis in t, the areas of
the triangles SPS', StS' are in the ratio of CD2 : St².
122 EXAMPLES.

69. If SY, SZ be perpendiculars on two tangents which meet in T,

YZ is perpendicular to ST.
70. A circle passing through a focus, and having its centre on the
transverse axis, touches the curve ; shew that the focal distance of the
point of contact is equal to the Latus Rectum.
71. If CQ be conjugate to the normal at P, then is CP conjugate
to the normal at Q.
72. From a point in the auxiliary circle lines are drawn touching
the curve in P and P' ; prove that SP, S'P' are parallel.
73. If any hyperbola is drawn confocal with a given ellipse, and
if PN is the ordinate of a point of intersection of the hyperbola with
the ellipse, and NT the tangent from N to the auxiliary circle of the
hyperbola, prove that the angle PNT is always the same.
74. Find the locus of the points of contact of tangents to a series
of confocal hyperbolas from a fixed point in the axis.
75. Tangents to an hyperbola are drawn from any point in one
of the branches of the conjugate, shew that the chord of contact will
touch the other branch of the conjugate.

76. An ordinate NP meets the conjugate hyperbola in Q ; prove

that the normals at P and Q meet on the transverse axis.
77. A parabola and an hyperbola have a common focus S and
their axes in the same direction. If a line SPQ cut the curves in P
and Q, the angle between the tangents at P and Q is equal to half the
angle between the axis and the other focal distance of the hyperbola.
78. If an hyperbola be described touching the four sides of a
quadrilateral which is inscribed in a circle, and one focus lie on the
circle, the other focus will also lie on the circle.
79. A conic section is drawn touching the asyınptotes of an
hyperbola. Prove that two of the chords of intersection of the
curves are parallel to the chord of contact of the conic with the
asymptotes.

80. A parabola P and an hyperbola H have a common focus,

and the asymptotes of H are tangents to P ; prove that the tangent
at the vertex of P is a directrix of H, and that the tangent to P
at the point of intersection passes through the further vertex of H.
81. From a given point in an hyperbola draw a straight line
such that the segment intercepted between the other intersection
with the hyperbola and a given asymptote shall be equal to a
given line.
When does the problem become impossible ?
 EXAMPLES. 123

82. If an ellipse and a confocal hyperbola intersect in P, an

asymptote passes through the point on the auxiliary circle of the
ellipse corresponding to P.
83. P is a point on an hyperbola whose foci are S and H; another
hyperbola is described whose foci are S and P, and whose transverse
axis is equal to SP - 2PH : shew that the hyperbolas will meet only at
one point, and that they will have the same tangent at that point.
84. A point D is taken on the axis of an hyperbola, of which the
eccentricity is 2, such that its distance from the focus S is equal to
the distance of S from the further vertex A' ; P being any point on the
curve, A'P meets the latus rectum in K. Prove that DK and SP
intersect on a certain fixed circle.
85. Shew that the locus of the point of intersection of tangents
to a parabola, making with each other a constant angle equal to half a
right angle, is an hyperbola.
86. The tangent and normal at any point intersect the asymptotes
and axes respectively in four points which lie on a circle passing
through the centre of the curve.
The radius of this circle varies inversely as the perpendicular from
the centre on the tangent.
87. The difference between the sum of the squares of the distances
of any point from the ends of any diameter and the sum of the squares
of its distances from the ends of the conjugate is constant.
88. If a tangent meet the asymptotes in L and M, the angle
subtended by LM at the farther focus is half the angle between the
asymptotes.
89. If PN be the ordinate of P, and PT the tangent, prove that
SP : ST :: AN : AT.
90. If an ellipse and an hyperbola are confocal, the asymptotes
pass through the points on the auxiliary circle of the ellipse which
correspond to the points of intersection of the two curves.
91. Two adjacent sides of a quadrilateral are given in magnitude
and position ; if the quadrilateral be such that a circle can be inscribed
in it, the locus of the point of intersection of the other two sides is
an hyperbola.
92. The tangent at P meets the conjugate axis in t, and tQ is
perpendicular to SP ; prove that SQ is of constant length .
93. An hyperbola, having a given transverse axis, has one focus
fixed, and always touches a given straight line ; the locus of the other
focus is a circle.
94. A chord PRVQ meets the directrices in R and V ; shew that
PR and VQ subtend, each at the focus nearer to it, angles of which the
sum is equal to the angle between the tangents at P and Q.
124 EXAMPLES.

95. A circle is drawn touching the transverse axis of an hyperbola

at its centre, and also touching the curve ; prove that the diameter
conjugate to the diameter through either point of contact is equal to
the distance between the foci.

96. A parabola is described touching the conjugate axes of an

hyperbola at their extremities ; prove that one asymptote is parallel to
the axis of the parabola, and that the other asymptote is parallel to
the chords of the parabola bisected by the first.
If a straight line parallel to the second asymptote meet the hyper-
bola and its conjugate in P, P', and the parabola in Q, Q' , it may be
shewn that PQ= P'Q'.
97. If two points E and E' be taken in the normal PG such that
PE= PE' = CD, the loci of E and E' are hyperbolas having their axes
equal to the sum and difference of the axes of the given hyperbola.
98. If two tangents are drawn to the same branch of an hyperbola,
the external angle between them is half the difference between the
angles which the chord of contact subtends at the foci.
If the tangents are drawn to opposite branches, the angle between
them is half the sum, or half the difference, of these angles according as
the points of contact are on the same or on opposite sides of the
transverse axis.
99. Parabolas are drawn passing through two fixed points A and
B, and having their axes in a given direction ; find the locus of the foci,
and, if a tangent be drawn at right angles to AB, prove that the locus
of its point of contact P is an hyperbola.
100. Tangents are drawn from a point T to an hyperbola whose
centre is C, and CT produced meets the hyperbola in Pand the chord
of contact of the tangents in 1. If D be any point in the diameter
conjugate to CP, and DT, DV meet the tangent at P in K and U,
prove that the triangles PUV, TPK are equal in area.
101. One asymptote and three points P, Q, R of an hyperbola are
given, construct the other asymptote.
102. If an ellipse be described having its centre on a given
hyperbola, its foci on the asymptotes, and passing through the centre
of the hyperbola, prove that the minor axis of the ellipse is equal to
the major axis of the hyperbola, and the ellipse touches the minor axis
of the hyperbola.
103. The angular point A of a triangle ABC is fixed, and the
angle A is given, while the points B and C move on a fixed straight
line ; prove that the locus of the centre of the circle circumscribing the
triangle is an hyperbola, and that the envelope of the circle is another
circle.
104. Given an asymptote CQ and two points on an hyperbola,
P, p on the curve, shew that the envelope of the axes is a parabola.
 EXAMPLES. 125

105. Find the locus of the middle points of a system of chords of

an hyperbola, passing through a fixed point on one of the asymptotes.
106. If a conic be described having for its axes the tangent and
normal at any point of a given ellipse, and touching at its centre the
axis-major of the given ellipse, and if another conic be described in
the same manner, but touching the minor axis at the centre, prove
that the foci of these conics lie in two circles concentric with the
given ellipse, and having their diameters equal to the sum and
difference of its axes.

107. An ellipse and an hyperbola are confocal ; if a tangent to

one intersect at right angles a tangent to the other, the locus of the
point of intersection is a circle.
Shew also that the difference of the squares on the distances from
the centre of parallel tangents is constant.
108. If a circle passing through any point P of the curve, and
having its centre on the normal at P, meets the curve again in Q and
R, the tangents at Q and R intersect on a fixed straight line.
109. If the tangent at P meet an asymptote in T, the angle
between that asymptote and SP is double the angle STP.
110. Four tangents to an hyperbola form a rectangle. If one side
QR of the rectangle intersect a directrix in F, and S be the correspond-
ing focus, the triangles FSQ, FRS are similar.
111. An ellipse and hyperbola have the same transverse axis,
and their eccentricities are the reciprocals of one another ; prove that
the tangents to each through the focus of the other intersect at right
angles in two points and also meet the conjugate axis on the auxiliary
circle.

112. ACA' and BCB' are the transverse and conjugate axes of an
ellipse, of which S and S are the foci. P is one of the points of
intersection of this ellipse and a confocal hyperbola, and a Ca' is the
transverse axis of the hyperbola.
Prove that SP= Aa, S'P = A'a, and aB = CP.

113. Prove that if A, B and S are three given points, two parabolas
can be drawn through A and B with S as focus, and that the axes of
these parabolas are parallel to the asymptotes of the hyperbola which
can be drawn through S with its foci at A and B.
 CHAPTER V.

THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA.

If the axes of an hyperbola be equal, the angle between the

asymptotes is a right angle, and the curve is called equilateral
or rectangular.

135. PROP. I. In a rectangular hyperbola

CS² = 2AC², and SA² = 2AX².
For CS² = AC² + BC² = 2AC²,
and SA : AX SC : AC ;
.. SA² = 2AX².

Observe that, in the figure of Art. 102 , SDC is an isos-

celes triangle, since
SD = BC, and CD = AC,
and therefore SD = DC.

136. PROP. II . The asymptotes of a rectangular hyperbola

bisect the angles between any pair of conjugate diameters.

For, in a rectangular or equilateral hyperbola,

CA = CB,

and therefore, since CP - CD³ = CA' - CB ,

CP = CD ,

CP, CD being any conjugate semi-diameters.

 THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA. 127

Also, in the figure of Art. 123, the parallelogram_CPLD

is a rhombus, and therefore CL bisects the angle PCD.

COR. Supplemental chords are equally inclined to the

asymptotes, for they are parallel to conjugate diameters.

137. PROP. III. If CY be the perpendicular from the

centre on the tangent at P, the angle POY is bisected by the
transverse axis, and halfthe transverse axis is a mean propor-
tional between CY and CP.

For the angle PCL = DCL

L
= YCL' ;
.. PCA = ACY.

Hence it follows that the

triangles PCN, TCY are similar,
and that

CY : CT :: CN : CP ;
T
.. CY . CP = CT , CN = AC². AN

Hence also, if we join PA

and AY, we observe that the
triangles PAC, AYC are
similar.

138. PROP. IV. Diameters at right angles to eachother

are equal.

Let CP, CP' be semi -diameters at right angles to each

other, and CD conjugate to CP.

Then, if CL, CL' be the asymptotes,

the angle P'CL' = PCL = DCL ;

.. CPCD = CP.

Hence it follows, by help of the theorem of Art. 120, that

focal chords at right angles to each other are equal, and that
focal chords parallel to conjugate diameters are equal.
128 THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA .

139. PROP. V. If the normal at P meet the axes in G

and 9,
CN = NG and PG = Pg = CD,

CD being conjugate to CP.

For (Art. 115) NG : CN :: BC² : AC² ;

.. NG = CN.

Also PF . PG = BC² and PF . Pg = AC²;

.. PG = Pg.

Further (Art. 128) PG : CD :: BC : AC ;

.. PG = CD = CP.

140. PROP. VI. If QV be an ordinate of a diameter

PCP,
QV² = PV . Vp.
For QV² : PV . Vp :: CD² : CP²,
and CD = CP ;

QV² = PV . Vp = CV² – CP².

141. PROP. VII . The angle between a chord PQ, and

the tangent at P, is equal to the angle subtended by PQ at the
other extremity of the diameter through P.

Let PQ and the tangent at P meet the asymptote in 7

and L. Then, if CV be conjugate to PQ,
the angle LPQ = PLC - VIC = LCP – VCI
- VCP = QpP.
 THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA. 129

Or thus, let QU parallel to the tangent at P, meet CP produced

in U.
Then QU² = PU. Up,
or, QU : PU :: Up : UQ.
Therefore the triangles PQU, QUp are similar, and the angle
QpU= PQU = LPQ.
If P and Q are on opposite branches of the curve, the
same proof shews that

the angle QpU = UQP = LPQ ;

:. QPL' = QpP.

P
C

'
L'

If QP is the normal at P, it follows that QP subtends a

right angle at the other end of the diameter through P.

142. PROP. VIII. Any chord subtends, at the ends of

any diameter, angles which are equal or supplementary.
This theorem divides itself
into four cases, which are
shewn in the appended figures.
Let QR be the chord, and
Pp the diameter. Then, if LP
be the tangent at P, fig. (1 ),

the angle LPQ = QpP,

and LPR = RpP ;

.. QPR = QpR.
B. C. S. 9
130 THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA.

In fig. (2), if pl be the tangent at p, parallel to PL,

QpR = Qpl + lpR = Qpl +pPR,

R L

and QPR = QPL + LPR = QpP + LPR ;

.. QpR + QPR = lpP + LPp,
that is, QpR and QPR are together equal to two right
angles.
L
In fig. (3)

QPR = QPL + LPp + pPR

= QpP + Ppl + lpR
=
= QpR. R

' == RpP ;
In fig. (4) QPL = QpP, and RPL
.. QpR = QPL + RPL' ;

therefore QpR and QPR are to- L

gether equal to two right angles.
Hence it will be seen that
when QR, or QR produced, meet
p
the diameter Pp between P and
p, the angles subtended at P and
p are equal ; in other cases they
are supplementary. I R
In the cases of the second and
third figures, if one of the angles QPR is a right angle,
the other angle QpR is also a right angle. The four points
Q, P, p, R are then concyclic, and QR is a diameter of the
circle.
 THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA. 131

143. PROP. IX . If a rectangular hyperbola circumscribe

a triangle, it passes through the orthocentre.
NOTE. The orthocentre is the point of intersection of the
perpendiculars from the angular points on the opposite sides.
If O be the orthocentre, the
triangles LOP, LQR are similar,
and
LO : LP LQ : LR ;
.. LO . LR = LP . LQ. K
But, if a rectangular hyper-
bola pass through P, Q, R, the G R
diameters parallel to LR, PQ are
equal : hence O is a point on the curve.
If the angle PRQ is a right angle, the line ROL will be
the tangent to the curve at R, so that if a rectangular
hyperbola pass through the angular points of a right-angled
triangle, the hypothenuse will be parallel to the normal at the
right-angle vertex.

144. PROP. X. If a rectangular hyperbola circumscribe

a triangle, the locus of its centre is the nine-point circle of the
triangle.

L
F E

If PQR be the triangle, let L, L' be the points in which

an asymptote meets the sides PQ, PR.
9-2
132 EXAMPLES.

Join C, the centre of the hyperbola, with E and F, the

middle points of PR and PQ.

Then CF is conjugate to PQ, and CE to PR ; therefore

the angle
FCE = FCL + L'CE = CLF+ EL'C
= PLL' + PL'L = FPE
= FDE,

if D be the middle point of QR.

.. D, E, F, C are concyclic ; that is, C lies on the nine-
point circle.

A similar proof is applicable to the case in which the

points P, Q, R lie on the same branch of the hyperbola.

EXAMPLES.

1. PCP is a transverse diameter, and QV an ordinate ; shew that

QV is the tangent at Q to the circle circumscribing the triangle PQp.
2. If the tangent at P meet the asymptotes in L and M, and the
normal meet the transverse axis in G, a circle can be drawn through
C, L, M, and G, and LGM is a right angle.
3. If AA' be any diameter of a circle, PP ' any ordinate to it, then
the locus of the intersections of AP, A'P' is a rectangular hyperbola.
4. Given an asymptote and a tangent at a given point, construct
the rectangular hyperbola.
5. The points of intersection of an ellipse and a confocal rectangular
hyperbola are the extremities of the equi-conjugate diameters of the
ellipse.
6. If CP, CD be conjugate semi-diameters, and PN, DM ordinates
of any diameter, the triangles PCN, DCM are equal in all respects.
7. The distance of any point from the centre is a geometric mean
between its distances from the foci.
 EXAMPLES. 133

8. If P be a point on an equilateral hyperbola, and if the tangent

at Q meet CP in T, the circle circumscribing CTQ touches the ordinate
QV conjugate to CP.
9. If a circle be described on SS as diameter, the tangents at the
vertices will intersect the asymptotes in the circumference.
10. If two concentric rectangular hyperbolas be described, the
axes of one being the asymptotes of the other, they will intersect at
right angles.
11. If the tangents at two points Q and Q' meet in T, and if CQ,
CQ' meet these tangents in R and R', the points R, T, R', C are con-
cyclic.
12. If from a point in the conjugate axis QA be drawn to the
vertex, and QR parallel to the transverse axis to meet the curve,
QR= AQ.
13. Straight lines, passing through a given point, are bounded by
two fixed lines at right angles to each other ; find the locus of their
middle points.
14. Given a point Q and a straight line AB, if a line QCP be
drawn cutting AB in C, and P be taken in it, so that, PD being a
perpendicular upon AB, CD may be of constant magnitude, the locus
of P is a rectangular hyperbola.
15. Every conic passing through the centres of the four circles
which touch the sides of a triangle, is a rectangular hyperbola.
16. Ellipses are inscribed in a given parallelogram, shew that their
foci lie on a rectangular hyperbola.
17. If two focal chords be parallel to conjugate diameters, the lines
joining their extremities intersect on the asymptotes.
18. If P, Q be two points of a rectangular hyperbola, centre 0,
and QN the perpendicular let fall on the tangent at P, the circle
through O, N, and P will pass through the middle point of the chord
P, Q.
19. Having given the centre, a tangent, and a point of a rectangular
hyperbola, construct the asymptotes.
20. If a right-angled triangle be inscribed in the curve, the normal
at the right angle is parallel to the hypothenuse.
21. On opposite sides of any chord of a rectangular hyperbola are
described equal segments of circles ; shew that the four points, in which
the circles, to which these segments belong, again meet the hyperbola,
are the angular points of a parallelogram.
22. Two lines of given lengths coincide with and move along two
fixed lines, in such a manner that a circle can always be drawn through
their extremities ; the locus of the centre is a rectangular hyperbola.
134 EXAMPLES.

23. If a rectangular hyperbola, having its asymptotes coincident

with the axes of an ellipse, touch the ellipse, the axis of the hyperbola
is a mean proportional between the axes of the ellipse.
24. The tangent at a point P of a rectangular hyperbola meets a
diameter QCQ in T. Shew that CQ and TQ' subtend equal angles at P.
25. If A be any point in a rectangular hyperbola, of which O is the
centre, BOC the straight line through O at right angles to OA, D any
other point in the curve, and DB, DC parallel to the asymptotes, prove
that B, D, A, C are concyclic.
26. The angle subtended by any chord at the centre is the supple-
ment of the angle between the tangents at the ends of the chord.
27. If two rectangular hyperbolas intersect in A , B, C, D ; the
circles described on AB, CD as diameters intersect each other ortho-
gonally.
28. Prove that the triangle, formed by the tangent at any point
and its intercepts on the axes, is similar to the triangle formed by the
straight line joining that point with the centre, and the abscissa and
ordinate of the point.
29. The angle of inclination of two tangents to a parabola is half
a right angle ; prove that the locus of their point of intersection is a
rectangular hyperbola, having one focus and the corresponding directrix
coincident with the focus and directrix of the parabola.
30. P is a point on the curve, and PM, PN are straight lines
making equal angles with one of the asymptotes ; if MP, NP be pro-
duced to meet the curve in P' and Q', then PQ ' passes through the
centre.
31. A circle and a rectangular hyperbola intersect in four points
and one of their common chords is a diameter of the hyperbola ; shew
that the other common chord is a diameter of the circle.
32. AB is a chord of a circle and a diameter of a rectangular
hyperbola ; Pany point on the circle ; AP, BP, produced if necessary,
meet the hyperbola in Q, Q' , respectively ; the point of intersection of
BQ, AQ will be on the circle.
33. PP is any diameter, any point on the curve, PR, P'R' are
drawn at right angles to PQ, PQ respectively, intersecting the normal
at Q in R, R' ; prove that QR and QR' are equal.
34. Parallel tangents are drawn to a series of confocal ellipses ;
prove that the locus of the points of contact is a rectangular hyperbola
having one of its asymptotes parallel to the tangents.
35. If tangents, parallel to a given direction, are drawn to a
system of circles passing through two fixed points, the points of contact
lie on a rectangular hyperbola.
 EXAMPLES. 135

36. If from a point P on the curve chords are equally inclined to

the asymptotes, the line joining their other extremities passes through
the centre.

37. From the point of intersection of the directrix with one of

the asymptotes of a rectangular hyperbola a tangent is drawn to the
curve and meets the other asymptote in T : shew that CT is equal to
the transverse axis.

38. The normals at the ends of two conjugate diameters intersect

on the asymptote, and are parallel to another pair of conjugate
diameters.

39. If the base AB of a triangle ABC be fixed, and if the differ-

ence of the angles at the base is constant, the locus of the vertex is a
rectangular hyperbola.
40. A circle described through the angular points A, B of a given
triangle ABC meets AC in D. If BD meet the tangent at A in P,
shew that the vertex and orthocentre of the triangle APB lie on fixed
rectangular hyperbolas.
41. The locus of the point of intersection of tangents to an ellipse
which make equal angles with the transverse and conjugate axes
respectively, and are not at right angles, is a rectangular hyperbola
whose vertices are the foci of the ellipse.
42. If OT is the tangent at the point 0 of a rectangular hyperbola,
and PQ a chord meeting it at right angles in T, the two bisectors of
the angle OCT bisect OP and OQ.
43. With two sides of a square as asymptotes, and the opposite
point as focus, a rectangular hyperbola is described ; prove that it
bisects the other sides.

44. With the focus S of a rectangular hyperbola as centre and

radius equal to SC a circle is described, prove that it touches the
conjugate hyperbola.
45. If parallel normal chords are drawn to a rectangular hyper-
bola, the diameter bisecting them is perpendicular to the join of their
feet.
46. From the foot of the ordinate PN of a point P of a rectangular
hyperbola, tangents NQ, NR are drawn to the circle on AA' as
diameter. Prove that PQ passes through A', and PR through A, and
that, if QR intersect AA' in M, PM is the tangent at P.
47. Shew that the angle between two tangents to a rectangular
hyperbola is equal or supplementary to the angle which their chord of
contact subtends at the centre, and that the bisectors of these angles
meet on the chord of contact.
136 EXAMPLES.

48. Through a point P on an equilateral hyperbola two lines are

drawn parallel to a pair of conjugate diameters ; the one meeting the
curve in P, P', and the other meeting the asymptotes in Q, Q ' ; shew
that PPQQ.

49. If four points forming a parallelogram be taken on a rect-

angular hyperbola, then the product of the perpendiculars from any
point of the curve on one pair of opposite sides equals the product of
the perpendiculars on the other pair of sides.
 CHAPTER VI.

THE CYLINDER AND THE CONE.

DEFINITION.
145.
IF a straight line move so as to pass through the
circumference of a given circle, and to be perpendicular to
the plane of the circle, it traces out a surface called a Right
Circular Cylinder. The straight line drawn through the
centre of the circle perpendicular to its plane is the Axis of
the Cylinder .
It is evident that a section of the surface by a plane
perpendicular to the axis is a circle, and that a section by
any plane parallel to the axis consists of two parallel lines.

PROP. I. Any section of a cylinder by a plane not

parallel or perpendicular to the axis is an ellipse.
If APA' be the section, let the plane of the paper be the
plane through the axis perpendicular to APA'.
Inscribe in the cylinder a sphere touching the cylinder in
the circle EF and the plane APA' in the point S.
Let the planes APA', EF intersect in XK, and from any
point P of the section draw PK perpendicular to XK.
Draw through P the circular section QP, cutting APA'
in PN, so that PN is at right angles to AA ' and therefore
parallel to XK.
Let the generating line through P meet the circle EF in
R ; and join SP.
Then PS and PR are tangents to the sphere ;
.. SP = PR = EQ.
138 THE CYLINDER.

But EQ: NX AE : AX
:: SA : AX,
and NX = PK,
.. SP : PK :: SA : AX.

E X

R K
A

I
R

Also, AE being less than AX, SA is less than AX, and

the curve APA' is therefore an ellipse, of which S is the
focus and XK the directrix .

If another sphere be inscribed in the cylinder touching

AA' in S' , S' is the other focus, and the corresponding di-
rectrix is the intersection of the plane of contact E'F
" with
APA'.

Producing the generating line RP to meet the circle

EF in R' we observe that SP = PR', and therefore
SP + S'P = RR
' = EE'
= AE +AE
"
==
= AS + AS' ;
and AS == AE' = A'F = A'S,
... SP + S'P = AA '.
 THE CYLINDER AND THE CONE. 139

The transverse axis of the section is AA' and the con-

jugate, or minor, axis is evidently a diameter of a circular
section.

146. DEF. If O be a fixed point in a straight line OE

drawn through the centre E of a fixed circle at right angles
to the plane of the circle, and if a straight line QOP move
so as always to pass through the circumference of the circle ,
the surface generated by the line QOP is called a Right
Circular Cone.

The line OE is called the axis of the cone, the point O is

the vertex, and the constant angle POE is the semi- vertical
angle of the cone.

It is evident that any section by a plane perpendicular

to the axis, or parallel to the base of the cone, is a circle ;
and that any section by a plane through the vertex consists
of two straight lines, the angle between which is greatest
and equal to the vertical angle when the plane contains the
axis.

Any plane containing the axis is called a Principal

Section.
140 THE CONE.

147. PROP. II . The section of a cone by a plane, which

is not perpendicular to the axis, and does not pass through the
vertex, is either an Ellipse, a Parabola, or an Hyperbola.

F E

R
K

V
A

Let UAP be the cutting plane, and let the plane of the
paper be that principal section which is perpendicular to the
plane UAP; OV, OAQ being the generating lines in the
plane of the paper.
Let AU be the intersection of the principal section VOQ
by the plane PAU perpendicular to it, and cutting the cone
in the curve AP.

Inscribe a sphere in the cone, touching the cone in the

circle EF and the plane AP in the point S, and let XK be
the intersection of the planes AP, EF. Then XK is per-
pendicular to the plane of the paper.
Taking any point P in the curve, join OP cutting the
circle EF in R, and join SP.
Draw through P the circular section QPV cutting the
plane AP in PN which is therefore perpendicular to AN
and parallel to XK.
Then, SP and PR being tangents to the sphere ,
SP =- PR - EQ;
 THE CONE. 141

and EQ : NX :: AE : AX
:: AS : AX.
Also NX = PK;
.. SP: PK :: SA : AX.
The curve AP is therefore an Ellipse, Parabola, or Hy-
perbola, according as SA is less than, equal to, or greater
than AX. In any case the point S is a focus and the cor-
responding directrix is the intersection of the plane of the
curve with the plane of contact of the sphere.

148. (1) If AU be parallel to OV, the angle

AXE - OFE = OEF = AEX,
so that SA = AE AX ;

the section is therefore a parabola when the cutting plane

is parallel to a generating line, and perpendicular to the
principal section which contains the generating line.
(2) Let the line AU meet the curve again in the point
A' on the same side of the vertex as the point A.

E I
R
K

R'
142 THE CONE.

Then the angle

AEX = OFX > FXA,

and therefore AE < AX,

that is SA < AX,

and the curve is an ellipse.

In this case another sphere can be inscribed in the cone,

touching the cone along the circle E' F ' and touching the
plane AP in S.
It may be shewn as before that S' is a focus and that the
corresponding directrix is the intersection of the planes EF
",
APA', and also that the eccentricity, SS' : AA ', is equal to
the ratio of OA' - OA to AA'.

(3) Let the line UA produced meet the cone on the

other side of the vertex. The section then consists of two
separate branches.

Also the angle AEX = A'FX

< AXF,
and therefore AE >AX,
that is AS > AX ,

and the curve AP is one branch of an hyperbola, the other

branch being the section A'P
'.

Taking P' in the other branch the proof is the same as

before that
SP : PK' :: SA : AX.

In this case a sphere can be inscribed in the other

branch of the cone, touching the cone along the circle EF',
and the plane UA'P' in S', and it can be shewn that S is
the other focus of the hyperbola, and that the directrix is
the intersection of the cutting plane with the plane of con-
tact E'F".

Hence the section of a cone by a plane cutting in AU

 THE CONE. 143

the principal section VOQ perpendicular to it is an Ellipse,

Parabola, or Hyperbola, according as the angle EAX is
greater than, equal to, or less than, the vertical angle of the
cone.

R E
X
0

F E
201

Further, it is obvious that, if any plane be drawn parallel

to the plane AP, the ratio of AE to AX is always the same ;
hence it follows that all parallel sections have the same
eccentricity.

149. This method of determining the focus and directrix

was published by Mr Pierce Morton, of Trinity College, in
the first volume of the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions.
The method was very nearly obtained by Hamilton, who
gave the following construction.
First finding the vertex and focus, A and S, take AE
along the generating line equal to AS, and draw the circular
144 THE CONE.

section through E; the directrix will be the line of inter-

section of the plane of the circle with the given plane of
section.

Hamilton also demonstrated the equality of SP and PR.

150. PROP. III . To prove that, in the case of an elliptic

section,
SP +SPAA'.

Taking the 2nd figure,

SP PR and S'P = PR' ;
.. SP + S'P = RR' = EE
= AE +AE
=
= AS + AS'.

But A'S' = A'FFF - A'F

= EE
' - A'S,

also A'S' + SS'A'S ;

.. 2A'S' + SS' = EE'.

Similarly ' = EE' ;

2AS + SS

.. A'S' = AS,

and AS' = A'S.

Hence SP +SP AA',

'.
and the transverse, or major axis = EE

In a similar manner it can be shewn that in an hyper-

bolic section
S'P - SPAA'.

151. PROP. IV. To shew that, in a parabolic section,

PN =4AS . AN.

Let A be the vertex of the section, and let ADE be the

diameter of the circular section through A.
 THE CONE. 145

From D let fall DS perpendicular to AN ;

then PN2 = QN . NQ
0
= QN.AE

= 4NL . AD,

if AL be perpendicular to
NQ.

But the triangles ANL, A

E
ADS being similar,
NL: AN :: AS : AD ;

.. NL . AD = AN . AS, N Q
L
and P
PN24AS . AN.

152. PROP. V. To shew that, in an elliptic section, PN

is to AN . NA' in a constant ratio.

Draw through P the circular

section QPQ' , bisect AA ' in C,
and draw through C the circu-
lar section EBE'.

Then
F A
QN : AN : CE : AC, N Q
P
and NQ' : NA' :: CE' : A'C ;
Ε E
..QN. NO : AN . NA'
B
:: EC . CE : AC²,
or
A' D'
PN :AN.NA' : EC.CE : AC²;

and, the transverse axis being AA', the square of the semi-
minor axis = BC2 = EC . CE'.
B. C. S. 10
146 THE CONE.

Again, if ADF be perpendicular to the axis, AD = DF, and,

AC being equal to CA', CD is parallel to A'F,
and therefore CE' = FD = AD.

Similarly, CE = A'D', the perpendicular from A' on the

axis ;

.. BCAD . A'D' ,

that is, the semi- minor axis is a mean proportional between

the perpendiculars from the vertices on the axis ofthe cone.

COR. If H, H' are the centres of the focal spheres, the

angles HAH , HA'H' are right angles, so that H, A, H', A'
are concyclic.

It follows that the triangles ASH, A'H'D' are similar, as

are also the triangles A'S'H', AHD, so that
SH : A'D' :: AH : A'H' :: AD : S'H' ;
and SH . S'H' = AD . A'D' = BC2 ;

..the semi-minor axis is a mean proportional between the

radii of the focal spheres.
 THE CONE, 147

The fact that H, A, H', A' are concyclic also shews that
the sphere of which HH ' is a diameter intersects the plane
of the ellipse in its auxiliary circle.

153. In exactly the same manner it can be shewn that,

for an hyperbolic section,
PN :AN . NA' :: CE . CE : AC ,
and that CE = AD, and CE' = A'D',

D'
A

E
F

IN Q

Also, as in the case of the ellipse, BC is a mean pro-

portional between AD and A'D' , and is also a mean pro-
portional between the radii of the focal spheres.

154. PROP. VI. The two straight lines in which a cone

is intersected by a plane through the vertex parallel to an
hyperbolic section are parallel to the asymptotes of the
hyperbola.
Taking the preceding figure, let the parallel plane cut
10-2
148 THE CONE.

the cone in the lines OG, OG' , and the circular section
through C in the line GLG', which will be perpendicular to
the plane of the paper, and therefore perpendicular to EE'
and to OL.
Hence GL² = EL . E'L.
But EL EC : OL : A'C,
and E'L : EC : OL : AC ;
.. GL EC . E'C :: OL : AC²,
or GL : OL :: BC : AC ;

therefore, (Art. 102), OG and OGʻare parallel to the asymptotes

of the hyperbola .

Hence, for all parallel hyperbolic sections, the asymptotes

are parallel to each other.

If the hyperbola be rectangular, the angle GOG' is a

right angle ; but this is evidently not possible if the vertical
angle of the cone be less than a right angle.
When the vertical angle of the cone is not less than a
right angle, and when GOG ' is a right angle, LOG is half
a right angle, and therefore
OL = LG,
and 2.OLOG² =
3 OE²,
=
and the length OL is easily constructed.
Hence, placing OL, and drawing the plane GOG' per-
pendicular to the principal section through OL, any section
by a plane parallel to GOG' is a rectangular hyperbola.

It will be observed that the eccentricity of the section is

greatest when its plane is parallel to the axis of the cone.

155. PROP. VII. The sphere which passes through the

circles of contact of the focal spheres with the surface of the
cone intersects the plane of the section in its director circle.
Let Q, Q be the points in which the straight line AA'
is intersected by the sphere which passes through the circles
EF and E'F ".
 THE CONE. 149

Then the sphere intersects the plane of the ellipse in the

circle of which QQ' is the diameter .

Also CQ² — CA² = AQ . AQ’ = AE . AE'

= AS , AS = BC ;
.. CQ² = AC² + BC²,

so that CQ is the radius of the director circle.

Changing the figure the proof is exactly the same for the
hyperbola.

156. PROP. VIII. If two straight lines be drawn

through any point, parallel to two fixed lines, and intersecting
a given cone, the ratio of the rectangles formed by the segments
of the lines will be independent of the position of the point.
Thus, if through E, the lines EPQ, EP'Q ' be drawn,
parallel to two given lines, and cutting the cone in the
150 THE CONE.

points P, Q and P', Q', the ratio of EP . EQ to EP' . EQ' is

constant.

RP

Through O draw OK parallel to the given line to which

EPQ is parallel, and let the plane through OK, EPQ,
which contains the generating lines OP, OQ, meet the
circular section through E in R and S, and the plane base
in the straight line DFK, cutting the circular base in D
and F.
Then DFK and ERS being sections of parallel planes
by a plane are parallel to each other.
Also , EPQ is parallel to OK ;
Therefore ERP, ODK are similar triangles, as are also
ESQ, OFK;
.. EP ER :: OK : DK,
and EQ : ES : OK : FK ;
.. EP . EQ : ER . ES :: OK2 : DK . FK
:: OK2 : KT ,
if KT be the tangent to the circular base from K.
If a similar construction be made for EP'Q' , we shall
have
EP' . EQ ER . ES :: OK' : K'T
"².
 THE CONE. 151

But ER . ES - ER
' . ES' ;
therefore the rectangles EP . EQ and EP' . EQ ' are each
in a constant ratio to the same rectangle, and are therefore
in a constant ratio to each other.

Since the plane through EPQ, EP'Q' cuts the cone in

an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, this theorem includes as
particular cases those of Arts. 51 , 58 , 82, 92, 96 , 124 and
134.

The proof is the same if the point P be within the cone,

or if one or both of the lines meet opposite branches of the
cone.
If the chords be drawn through the centre of the
section PEP ', the rectangles become the squares of the
semi-diameters.

Hence the parallel diameters of all parallel sections of a

cone are proportional to each other.
If the lines move until they become tangents the rect-
angles then become the squares of the tangents ; therefore
if a series of points be so taken that the tangents from
them are parallel to given lines, these tangents are always
in the same proportion. The locus of the point E will be
the line of intersection of two fixed planes touching the
cone, that is, a fixed line through the vertex.

EXAMPLES.

1. Shew how to cut from a cylinder an ellipse of given eccentricity.

2. What is the locus of the foci of all sections of a cylinder of a
given eccentricity ?
3. Shew how to cut from a cone an ellipse of given eccentricity.
4. Prove that all sections of a cone by parallel planes are conics
of the same eccentricity.
5. What is the locus of the foci of the sections made by planes
inclined to the axis at the same angle ?
152 EXAMPLES.

6. Find the least angle of a cone from which it is possible to cut

an hyperbola, whose eccentricity shall be the ratio of two to one.
7. The centre of a spherical ball is moveable in a vertical plane
which is equidistant from two candles of the same height on a table ;
find its locus when the two shadows on the ceiling are always just in
contact.

8. Through a given point draw a plane cutting a given cone in a

section which has the given point for a focus.
9. If the vertical angle of a cone, vertex O, be a right angle, P
any point of a parabolic section, and PN perpendicular to the axis of
the parabola,
OP =2AS +AN,
A being the vertex and S the focus.
10. Prove that the directrices of all parabolic sections of a cone lie
in the tangent planes of a cone having the same axis.
11. If the curve formed by the intersection of any plane with a
cone be projected upon a plane perpendicular to the axis ; prove that
the curve of projection will be a conic section having its focus at the
point in which the axis meets the plane of projection.
12. Prove that the latera recta of parabolic sections of a right
circular cone are proportional to the distances of their vertices from
the vertex of the cone.
13. The shadow of a ball is cast by a candle on an inclined plane
in contact with the ball ; prove that as the candle burns down, the
locus of the centre of the shadow will be a straight line.
14. The vertex of a right cone which contains a given ellipse lies
on a certain hyperbola, and the axis of the cone will be a tangent to
the hyperbola.
15. Find the locus of the vertices of the right circular cones which
can be drawn so as to pass through a given fixed hyperbola, and prove
that the axis of the cone is always tangential to the locus.
16. An ellipse and an hyperbola are so situated that the vertices
of each curve are the foci of the other, and the curves are in planes at
right angles to each other. If P be a point on the ellipse, and 0 a
point on the hyperbola, S the vertex, and A the interior focus of that
branch ofthe hyperbola, then
AS + OP = AO + SP.
17. The latus rectum of any plane section of a given cone is pro-
portional to the perpendicular from the vertex on the plane.
18. If a sphere is described about the vertex of a right cone as
centre, the latera recta of all sections made by tangent planes to the
sphere are equal.
 EXAMPLES. 153

19. Different elliptic sections of a right cone are taken such that
their minor axes are equal ; shew that the locus of their centres is the
surface formed by the revolution of an hyperbola about the axis of the
cone.

20. If two cones be described touching the same two spheres, the
eccentricities of the two sections of them made by the same plane bear
to one another a ratio constant for all positions of the plane.
21. If elliptic sections of a cone be made such that the volume
between the vertex and the section is always the same, the minor axis
will be always of the same length.
22. The vertex of a cone and the centre of a sphere inscribed within
it are given in position : a plane section of the cone, at right angles to
any generating line of the cone, touches the sphere : prove that the
locus of the point of contact is a surface generated by the revolution of
a circle, which touches the axis of the cone at the centre of the sphere.
23. Given a right cone and a point within it, there are two sections
which have this point for focus ; and the planes of these sections make
equal angles with the straight line joining the given point and the
vertex of the cone.

24. Prove that the centres of all plane sections of a cone, for which
the distance between the foci is the same, lie on the surface of a right
circular cylinder.
 CHAPTER VII.

THE SIMILARITY OF CONICS , THE AREAS OF CONICS, AND

THE CURVATURES OF CONICS.

SIMILAR CONICS.

157. DEF. Conics which have the same eccentricity are

said to be similar to each other.

This definition is justified by the consideration that the

character of the conic depends on its eccentricity alone,
while the dimensions of all parts of the conic are entirely
determined by the distance of the focus from the directrix.

Hence, according to this definition, all parabolas are

similar curves.

PROP. I. If radii be drawn from the vertices of two

parabolas making equal angles with the axis, these radii are
always in the sume proportion.

Let AP, ap be the radii, PN and pn the ordinates, the

angles PAN, pan, being equal.
Then AP² : ap² :: PN² : pn² :: AS . AN : as • an.
But AP : ap :: AN : an ;
.. AP : ap :: AS : as.
It can also be shewn that focal radii making equal
angles with the axes are always in the same proportion.
 SIMILAR CONICS. 155

158. PROP. II. If two ellipses be similar their axes are

in the same proportion, and any other diameters, making
equal angles with the respective axes, are in the proportion of
the axes.

Let CA, CB be the semi-axes of one ellipse, ca, cb of the

other, and CP, cp two radii such that the angle PCA = pca.

Then, since the eccentricities are the same, we have, if

S, s be foci,
AC SC : ac : sc ;
.. AC² : AC² - SC² :: ac² : ac² -— sc²,
or AC2 : BC2 ::: ac² : bc².

Hence it follows, if PN, pn be ordinates, that

PN : AC - CN :: pn² : ac- cn² ;

but, by similar triangles,

PN : pn :: CN : cn,
therefore CN² : AC² - CN :: cn² : ac² - cn² ;
and CN2 : AC : cn* : ac².

Hence CN: cn
CP : cp
:: AC : ac.

So also lines drawn similarly from the foci, or any other

corresponding points of the two figures, will be in the ratio
of the transverse axes.

Exactly the same demonstration is applicable to the

hyperbola, but in this case, if the ratio of SC to AC in
two hyperbolas be the same, it follows from Art. ( 102 )
that the angle between the asymptotes is the same in both
curves.

In the case of hyperbolas we have thus a very simple test

of similarity .
156 AREAS.

The Areas bounded by Conics.

159. PROP. III. If AB, AC be two tangents to a para-

bola, the area between the curve and the chord BC is two- thirds
of the triangle ABC.
Draw the tangent DPE parallel to BC ; then
AP = PN,
and BC = 2.DE;

therefore the triangle BPC = 2ADE.

D
M

FL

P N

Again , draw the diameter DQM meeting BP in M.

By the same reasoning, FQG being the tangent parallel
to BP, the triangle PQB = 2FDG.
Through F draw the diameter FRL, meeting PQ in L,
and let this process be continued indefinitely.
Then the sum of the triangles within the parabola is
double the sum of the triangles without it.
 AREAS. 137

But, since the triangle BPC is half ABC, it is greater

than half the parabolic area BQPC ;
Therefore (Euclid, Bk. XII. ) the difference between the
parabolic area and the sum of the triangles can be made
ultimately less than any assignable quantity ;
And, the same being true of the outer triangles, it follows
that the area between the curve and BC is double of the
area between the curve and AB, AC, and is therefore two-
thirds of the triangle ABC.
COR. Since PN bisects every chord parallel to BC, it
bisects the parabolic area BPC ; therefore, completing the
parallelogram PNBU, the parabolic area BPN is two-thirds
of the parallelogram UN.

160. PROP. IV. The area of an ellipse is to the area of

the auxiliary circle in the ratio of the conjugate to the trans-
verse axis.
Draw a series of ordinates, QPN, Q'P'N',... near each
other, and draw PR, QR' parallel to AC.
RRR

Q
B P
P

୯ N' N

Then, since
PN : QN : BC : AC,
the area PN' : QN' :: BC : AC,
and, this being true for all such areas, the sum of the
parallelograms PN' is to the sum of the parallelograms
QN' as BC to AC.
But, if the number be increased indefinitely, the sums of
158 AREAS.

these parallelograms ultimately approximate to the areas of

the ellipse and circle.
Hence the ellipse is to the circle in the ratio of BC to
AC.
The student will find in Newton's 2nd and 3rd Lemmas
(Principia, Section 1. ) a formal proof of what we have here
assumed as sufficiently obvious, that the sum of the paral-
lelograms PN is ultimately equal to the area of the ellipse.

161 .
PROP. V. If P, Q be two points of an hyperbola,
and if PL, QMparallel to one asymptote meet the other in L
and M, the hyperbolic sector CPQ is equal to the hyperbolic
trapezium PLMQ.

Q
R

L M

For the triangles CPL, CQM are equal, and, if PL meet

CQ in R, it follows that the triangle CPR = the trapezium
LRQM ; hence, adding to each the area RPQ, the theorem
is proved.

162. PROP. VI. If points L, M, N, K be taken in an

asymptote of an hyperbola, such that
CL : CM :: CN : CK,

and if LP, MQ, NR, KS, parallel to the asymptote, meet the
curve in P, Q, R, S, the hyperbolic areas CPQ, CRS will be
equal.
Let QR and PS produced meet the asymptotes in F, F
",
G, G' ;
 AREAS. 159

then " and SG = PG' (Art. 121 ),

RF - QF
.. NF = CM and KG = CL.

Hence NF: KG :: CM : CL
:: CK : CN
:: RN : SK,
and therefore SP is parallel to QR.

G'
P
=

Q
U

C L M N F K G

The diameter CUV conjugate to PS bisects all chords

parallel to PS, and therefore bisects the area PQRS ;
also the triangle CPV = CSV,
and CQU = CUR;
therefore, taking from CPV and CSV the equal triangles
CQU, CRU, and the equal areas PQUV, SRUV, the re-
maining areas, which are the hyperbolic sectors CPQ, CRS,
are equal.
COR. Hence if a series of points, L, M, N,... be taken
such that CL, CM, CN, CK,... are in continued proportion, it
follows that the hyperbolic sectors CPQ, CQR, CRS, &c. will
be all equal.
It will be noticed in this case that the tangent at Q will
be parallel to PR, the tangent at R parallel to QS, and so
also for the rest.
160 CURVATURE.

The Curvature of Conics.

163. DEF. If a circle touch a conic at a point P, and

pass through another point Q of the conic, and if the point
Qmove near to, and ultimately coincide with P, the circle
in its ultimate condition is called the circle of curvature
at P.

PROP. VII. The chord of intersection of a conic with the

circle of curvature at any point is inclined to the axis at the
same angle as the tangent at the point.
It has been shewn that, if a circle intersect a conic in
four points P, Q, R, V, the chords PQ, RV are equally
inclined to the axis.
Let P and Q coincide with each other ; then the tangent
at P and the chord RV are equally inclined to the axis.
Let the point V now approach to and coincide with P ;
the circle becomes the circle of curvature at P, and the
chord VR becomes PRthe chord of intersection,
Hence PR and the tangent at P are equally inclined to
the axis.

164. PROP. VIII. If the tangent at any point P of a

parabola meet the axis in T, and if the circle of curvature at
P meet the curve in Q,
PQ = 4 . PT.
Draw the ordinate PNP' ; then taking the figure of the
next article, TP' is the tangent at P',
and the angle PTF = PTF = PFT ;

therefore PQ is parallel to TP', and is bisected by the

diameter P'E.
Hence PQ = 2. PE = 4PT = 4PT.

165. PROP. IX. To find the chord of curvature through

the focus and the diameter of curvature at any point of a
parabola.
Let the circle meet PS produced in V, and the normaľ
PG produced in 0.
 CURVATURE. 161

The angle PFS = PTS = SPT

=
= PQV,
since PT is a tangent to the circle.

Therefore QV is parallel to the axis,

and PV: SP :: PQ : PF.
Hence PV = 4. SP.

Again, the angle POQ = PVQ = PSN ;

S N F

pi E

.. PO : PQ :: SP : PN,
or PO: SP :: 4PT : PN
:: 4SP : SY,

if SY be perpendicular to PT.

COR. 1. Since the normal bisects the angle between SP

and the diameter through P, it follows that the chord of
curvature parallel to the axis is 4SP.
B. C. S. 11
162 CURVATURE.

COR. 2. The diameter of curvature, PO, may also be

expressed as follows :

Let GL be the perpendicular from G on SP;

then PL = the semi -latus rectum = 2AS.

Also PVO being a right angle ,

PO : PG :: PV : PL
:: 4SP : PL
:: 4SP . PL : PL² ;

but 4SP.PL = 8SP . AS = 8SY² = 2PG² ;

.. PO : PG :: 2PG² : PL2.

166. PROP. X. If the chord of intersection, PQ, of an

ellipse, or hyperbola , with the circle of curvature at P, meet
CD, the semidiameter conjugate to CP, in K,
PQ.PK = 2CD².

TI

K N

Drawing the ordinate PNP', the tangent at P' is parallel

to PQ, as in the parabola, and PQ is therefore bisected in V,
by the diameter CP'.

Let PQ meet the axes in U and U' ; then , U'C being

parallel to PP
',
 CURVATURE. 163

PV: PU' :: VP' : CP'

:: UT : CT,
U
since PU, PT are parallel.

Also K
UT: CT : PU : PK ;
.. PV : PU' :: PU: PK.

Hence C TNU

PV.PK PU. PU' P'

= PT . PT' = CD²,
observing that PU- PT, and T
PU ' = PT ", by the theorem of
Art. 163,

and .. PQ . PK - 2CD2.
Q

167. PROP. XI. If the chord of curvature PQ' , of an

ellipse or hyperbola in any direction, meet CD in K',

PQ . PK' = 2CD².

D
K
K F
C

Let PO be the diameter of curvature meeting CD in F:

11-2
164 CURVATURE.

then PQ0, PQ'O are right angles, and a circle can be drawn
through Q'K'FO ;
.. PQ . PK' PF . PO
= PK . PQ = 2 . CD².

COR. 1 . Hence PO being the diameter of curvature,

PF . PO = 2. CD².

COR. 2. If PQ' pass through the focus,

PK ' = AC,
and PQ . AC = 2. CD².

COR. 3. If PQ pass through the centre,

PQ.CP = 2.CD .

168. We can also express the diameter of curvature as

follows :

PG being the normal, let GL be perpendicular to SP,

and let PR be the chord of curvature through S.

Then GL is parallel to OR,

and PO : PG :: PR : PL
:: PR . PL : PL³.

But PR . AC 2. CD²;
: . PR : AC :: 2 . CD² : AC²
:: 2. PG : BC2,
and PR . PL : AC . PL :: 2. PG2 : BC².

But, PL being equal to the semi-latus rectum,

PL . AC - BC2 ;
.. PR . PL = 2 . PG ,
and PO : PG :: 2PG² : PL².

Hence, in any conic, the radius of curvature at any point

is to the normal at the point as the square of the normal to the
square ofthe semi-latus rectum.
 EXAMPLES. 165

169. PROP. XII. The chord of curvature through the

focus at any point is equal to the focal chord parallel to the
tangent at the point.
Since PQ . AC - 2CD2,
it follows that PQ . AA' = DD'².

But, if pp' is the focal chord parallel to the tangent at P,

pp' . AA' = DD'² ( Art. 81),
:. PQ' = pp'.

EXAMPLES.

1. The radius of curvature at the end of the latus rectum of a

parabola is equal to twice the normal.
2. The circle of curvature at the end of the latus rectum intersects
the parabola on the normal at that point.
3. If PV is the chord of curvature through the focus, what is the
locus of the point V?
4. An ellipse and a parabola, whose axes are parallel, have the
same curvature at a point P and cut one another in ; if the tangent
at P meets the axis of the parabola in T prove that PQ = 4.PT.
5. In a rectangular hyperbola, the radius of curvature at P varies
as CP3.
6. If P be a point of an ellipse equidistant from the axis minor
and one of the directrices, the circle of curvature at P will pass through
one ofthe foci.

7. If the normal at a point P of a parabola meet the directrix in

L, the radius of curvature at P is equal to 2. PL.
8. The normal at any point P of a rectangular hyperbola meets
the curve again in Q ; shew that PQ is equal to the diameter of curva-
ture at P.

9. In the rectangular hyperbola, if CP be produced to Q, so that

PQ - CP, and QO be drawn perpendicular to CQto intersect the normal
in 0, 0 is the centre of curvature at P.
166 EXAMPLES.

10. At any point of an ellipse the chord of curvature PV through

the centre is to the focal chord pp', parallel to the tangent, as the major
axis is to the diameter through the point.
11. If the common tangent of an ellipse and its circle of curvature
at P be bisected by their common chord, prove that
CD2 =AC.BC.

12. The tangent at a point P of an ellipse whose centre is C meets

the axes in T and t ; if CP produced meet in L the circle described
about the triangle TCt, shew that PL is half the chord of curvature at
P in the direction of C, and that the rectangle contained by CP, CL, is
constant.

13. If P be a point on a conic, Q a point near it, and if QE, per-

pendicular to PQ, meet the normal at P´in E, then ultimately when Q
coincides with P, PE is the diameter of curvature at P.
14. If a tangent be drawn from any point of a parabola to the
circle of curvature at the vertex, the length of the tangent will be equal
to the abscissa of the point measured along the axis.
15. The circle of curvature at a point where the conjugate diameters
are equal, meets the ellipse again at the extremity of the diameter.
16. The chord ofcurvature at P perpendicular to the major axis is
to PM, the ordinate at P, :: 2. CD² : BC².
17. Prove that there is a point P on an ellipse such that if the
normal at P meet the ellipse in Q, PQ is a chord of the circle of curva-
ture at P, and find its position.
18. The chord of curvature at a point P of a rectangular hyper-
bola, perpendicular to an asymptote, is to CD :: CD : 2. PN, where
PN is the distance of P from the asymptote.
19. If G be the foot of the normal at a point P of an ellipse, and
GK, perpendicular to PG, meet CP in K, then KE, parallel to the axis
minor, will meet PG in the centre of curvature at P.
20. The chord of curvature through the vertex at a point of a para-
bola is to 4PY :: PY : AP.

21. Prove that the locus of the middle points of the common
chords of a given parabola and its circles of curvature is a parabola, and
that the envelope of the chords is also a parabola.
22. The circles of curvature at the extremities P, D of two con-
jugate diameters of an ellipse meet the ellipse again in Q, R, respec-
tively, shew that PR is parallel to DQ.
23. The tangent at any point P in an ellipse, of which S and H
are the foci, meets the axis major in T, and TQR bisects HP in Q and
 EXAMPLES . 167

meets SP in R ; prove that PR is one-fourth of the chord of curvature

at P through S.
24. An ellipse, a parabola, and an hyperbola, have the same vertex
and the same focus ; shew that the curvature, at the vertex, of the
parabola is greater than that of the hyperbola, and less than that of
the ellipse.

25. The circle of curvature at a point of an ellipse cuts the curve

in ; the tangent at P is met by the other common tangent, which
touches the curves at E and F, in T; if PQ meet TEF in 0, TEOF is
cut harmonically.

26. If Eis the centre of curvature at the point P of a parabola,

SE2 + 3 . SP2= PE2.

27. Find the locus of the foci of the parabolas which have a given
circle as circle of curvature, at a given point of that circle.
28. Two parabolas, whose latera recta have a constant ratio, and
whose foci are two given points A , B, have a contact of the second
order at P. Shew that the locus of P is a circle.

29. If the fixed straight line PQ is the chord of an ellipse, and is

also the diameter of curvature at P, prove that the locus of the
centre of the ellipse is a rectangular hyperbola, the transverse axis of
which is coincident in direction with PQ, and equal in length to one-
half of PQ.
 CHAPTER VIII.

ORTHOGONAL PROJECTIONS.

170. DEF. The projection of a point on a plane is the

foot of the perpendicular let fall from the point on the plane.
If from all points of a given curve perpendiculars be let
fall on a plane, the curve formed by the feet of the perpen-
diculars is the projection of the given curve.
The projection of a straight line is also a straight line,
for it is the line of intersection with the given plane of a
plane through the line perpendicular to the given plane.
Parallel straight lines project into parallel lines, for the
projections are the lines of intersection of parallel planes
with the given plane.

171. PROP. I. Parallel straight lines, offinite lengths,

are projected in the same ratio.
That is, if ab, pq be the projections of the parallel lines
AB, PQ,
ab : AB :: pq : PQ.

For, drawing AC parallel to ab and meeting Bb in C, and

PR parallel to pq and meeting Qq in R, ABC and PQR are
similar triangles ; therefore
AC : AB :: PR : PQ,
and AC = ab, PR = pq.

172. PROP. II . The projection of the tangent to a curve

at any point is the tangent to the projection of the curve at the
projection of the point.
 PROJECTIONS. 169

For if p, q be the projections of the two points P, Q of a

curve, the line pq is the projection of the line P'Q, and when
the line PQ turns round P until Q coincides with P, pq
turns round Р until q coincides with p, and the ultimate
position of pq is the tangent at p.

173. PROP. III . The projection of a circle is an ellipse.

Let aba' be the projection of a circle ABA '.

N
B
P

n Sa

Take a chord PQ parallel to the plane of projection, then

its projection pq = PQ.
Let the diameter ANA' perpendicular to PQ meet in F
the plane of projection, and let aa'F be the projection of
AA'F.

Then aa' bisects pq at right angles in the point n, and

an : AN : aF : AF,
a'n A'N aF : AF ;
.. AN . NA' : an · na' :: AF² : aF² ;
but AN . NA' = PN² = pn³,
.. pn² : an . na' :: AF² : aF²,
and the curve apa' is an ellipse, having its axes in the ratio
of
aF : AF, or of aa' : AA ' .
170 PROJECTIONS.

Moreover, since we can place the circle so as to make the

ratio of aa' to AA' whatever we please, an ellipse of any
eccentricity can be obtained.
In this demonstration we have assumed only the pro-
perty of the principal diameters of an ellipse. Properties of
other diameters can be obtained by help of the preceding
theorems, as in the following instances.

174. PROP. IV . The locus ofthe middle points ofparallel

chords of an ellipse is a straight line.
For, projecting a circle, the parallel chords of the ellipse
are the projections of parallel chords of the circle, and as the
middle points of these latter lie in a diameter of the circle,
the middle points of the chords of the ellipse lie in the pro-
jection of the diameter, which is a straight line, and is a
diameter of the ellipse.
Moreover, the diameter of the circle is perpendicular to
the chords it bisects ; hence

Perpendicular diameters of a circle project into conjugate

diameters of an ellipse.

175. PROP. V. If two intersecting chords of an ellipse

be parallel to fixed lines, the ratio of the rectangles contained
by their segments is constant.
Let OPQ, ORS be two chords of a circle, parallel to fixed
lines, and opq, ors their projections.
Then OP . OQ is to op . oq in a constant ratio, and OR . OS
is to or . os in a constant ratio ; but
OP.OQ = OR.OS.
Therefore op.oq is to or . os in a constant ratio ; and
opq, ors are parallel to fixed lines.

176. PROP. VI. If qvq' be a double ordinate of a diameter

cp, and if the tangent at q meet cp produced in t,
cv . ct = cp².
The lines qug and cp are the projections of a chord QVQ'
of a circle which is bisected by a diameter CP, and t is the
 PROJECTIONS. 171

projection of T the point in which the tangent at Q meets

CP produced.
But, in the circle,
CV . CT = CP²,
or CV : CP :: CP : CT ;
and, these lines being projected in the same ratio, it follows
that
cv cp cp : ct,
or cv . ct = cp³.
Hence it follows that tangents to an ellipse at the ends
of any chord meet in the diameter conjugate to the chord.
The preceding articles will shew the utility of the method
in dealing with many of the properties of an ellipse.
The student will find it useful to prove, by orthogonal
projections, the theorems of Arts. 58, 69, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80,
82, 83, 89, 90, and 92.

177. PROP. VII. An ellipse can be projected into a

circle.

This is really the converse of Art. 173, but we give a

construction for the purpose.

Draw a plane through AA',

the transverse axis, perpendicular
to the plane of the ellipse, and in Do
this plane describe a circle on D
AA' as diameter. Also take the P
chord AD, equal to the conjugate
axis, and join A'D, which is per-
pendicular to AD. B
PI
Through AD draw a plane
perpendicular to A'D, and pro-
ject a principal chord PNP on
this plane.
Then PN : AN , NA' :: BC² : AC².
But PN = pn,
172 PROJECTIONS.

An AN AD : AA'
:: BC AC,
and Dn : A'N :: BC : AC.
Hence An nD : AN . NA' :: BC2 : AC²,
and therefore pn² = An . nD,
and the projection ApD is a circle.
This theorem, in the same manner as that of Art. 173,
may be employed in deducing properties of oblique diameters
and oblique chords of an ellipse.

178. Ifany figures in one plane be projected on another

plane, the areas of the projections will all be in the same ratio
to the areas ofthe figures themselves.

Let BAD be the plane of the figures, and let them be

projected on the plane CAD, C being the projection of the
point B, and BAD being a right angle.
Taking a rectangle EFGH, the sides of which are parallel
and perpendicular to AD, the projection is efgh, and it is
clear that the ratio of the areas of these rectangles is that
of AC to AB.

Now the area of any curvilinear figure in the plane BAD

is the sum of the areas of parallelograms such as EFGH,
which are inscribed in the figure, if we take the widths,
such as EF, infinitesimally small.
 PROJECTIONS. 173

It follows that the area of the projection of the figure is

to the area of the figure itself in the ratio of AC to AB.
As an illustration, let a square be drawn circumscribing
a circle, and project the figure on any plane. The square
projects into tangents parallel to conjugate diameters of the
ellipse which is the projection of the circle .
The area of the parallelogram thus formed is the same
whatever be the position of the square, and we thus obtain
the theorem of Art. 87.

179. It follows that maxima and minima areas project

into maxima and minima areas. For example, the greatest
triangle which can be inscribed in a circle is an equilateral
triangle.
Projecting this figure we find that the triangle of maxi-
mum area inscribed in an ellipse is such that the tangent at
each angular point is parallel to the opposite side, and that
the centre of the ellipse is the point of intersection of the
lines joining the vertices of the triangle with the middle
points of the opposite sides.

180. PROP. VII. The projection of a parabola is a

parabola.
For if PNP' be a principal chord , bisected by the axis
AN, the projection pnp will be bisected by the projection an.
Moreover pn : PN will be a constant ratio, as also will
be an AN.
And PN² = 4AS . AN.

Hence pn will be to 4AS . an in a constant ratio, and

the projection is a parabola, the tangent at a being parallel
to pn.

181. PROP. VIII. An hyperbola can be always projected

into a rectangular hyperbola.
For the asymptotes can be projected into two straight
lines cl, cl' at right angles, and if PM, PN be parallels to
the asymptotes from a point P of the curve, PM . PN is
constant.
174 EXAMPLES,

But pm : PM and pn : PN are constant ratios ;

.. pm . pn is constant .

And since pm and pn are perpendicular respectively to

el and cl', it follows that the projection is a rectangular
hyperbola.
The same proof evidently shews that any projection of
an hyperbola is also an hyperbola.

EXAMPLES.

1. A parallelogram is inscribed in a given ellipse ; shew that its

sides are parallel to conjugate diameters, and find its greatest area.
2. TP, TQ are tangents to an ellipse, and CP', CQ
' are parallel
semidiameters ; PQ is parallel to P'Q'.
3. If a straight line meet two concentric similar and similarly
situated ellipses, the portions intercepted between the curves are equal.
4. Find the locus of the point of intersection of the tangents at the
extremities of pairs of conjugate diameters of an ellipse.
5. Find the locus of the middle points of the lines joining the
extremities of conjugate diameters.
6. If a tangent be drawn at the extremity of the major axis meeting
two equal conjugate diameters CP, CD produced in T and t ; then
PD2 =2AT2.
7. If a chord 4Q drawn from the vertex be produced to meet
the minor axis in 0, and CP be a semidiameter parallel to it , then
AQ . AO = 2C'P².
8. OQ, OQ are tangents to an ellipse from an external point 0,
and OR is a diagonal of the parallelogram of which OQ, OQ' are adjacent
sides ; prove that if R be on the ellipse, O will lie on a similar and
similarly situated concentric ellipse.
9. ABis a given chord of an ellipse, and C any point in the ellipse ;
shew that the locus of the point of intersection of lines drawn from
A, B, C to the middle points of the opposite sides of the triangle ABC
is a similar ellipse .
10. CP, CD are conjugate semidiameters of an ellipse ; if an ellipse,
similar and similarly situated to the given ellipse, be described on PD
as diameter, it will pass through the centre of the given ellipse.
 EXAMPLES. 175

11. Parallelograms are inscribed in an ellipse and one pair of

opposite sides constantly touch a similar, similarly situated and con-
centric ellipse ; shew that the remaining pair of sides are tangents to a
third ellipse and the square on a principal semi-axis of the original
ellipse is equal to the sum of the squares on the corresponding semi-
axes of the other two ellipses.
12. Find the locus of the middle point of a chord of an ellipse
which cuts off a constant area from the curve.

13. Find the locus of the middle point of a chord of a parabola

which cuts off a constant area from the curve.

14. A parallelogram circumscribes an ellipse, touching the curve

at the extremities of conjugate diameters, and another parallelogram
is formed by joining the points where its diagonals meet the ellipse :
prove that the area of the inner parallelogram is half that of the outer
one.
If four similar and similarly situated ellipses be inscribed in the
spaces between the outer parallelogram and the curve, prove that their
centres lie in a similar and similarly situated ellipse.
15. About a given triangle PQR is circumscribed an ellipse, having
for centre the point of intersection (C) of the lines from P, Q, R
bisecting the opposite sides, and PC, QC, RC are produced to meet the
curve in P', Q' , R' ; shew that, if tangents be drawn at these points,
the triangle so formed will be similar to PQR, and four times as great.

16. The locus of the middle points of all chords of an ellipse which
pass through a fixed point in an ellipse similar and similarly situated
to the given ellipse, and with its centre in the middle point of the line
joining the given point and the centre of the given ellipse.

17. PT, pt are tangents at the extremities of any diameter Pp of

an ellipse ; any other diameter meets PTin T and its conjugate meets
pt in t ; also any tangent meets PT in T " and pt in t ; shew that
PT : PT' :: pť' : pt.

18. From the ends P, D of conjugate diameters of an ellipse lines

are drawn parallel to any tangent line ; from the centre C any line is
drawn cutting these lines and the tangent in p, d, t, respectively ; prove
that Cp² + Cd² = Ct².
19. If CP, CD be conjugate diameters of an ellipse, and if BP, BD
be joined, and also AD, A'P, these latter intersecting in O, the figure
BDOP will be a parallelogram.

20. T is a point on the tangent at a point P of an ellipse, so that

a perpendicular from T on the focal distance SP is of constant length ;
shew that the locus of T is a similar, similarly situated and concentric
ellipse.
176 EXAMPLES.

21. is a point in one asymptote, and q inthe other. If Qq move

parallel to itself, find the locus of intersection of tangents to the
hyperbola from Q and q.
22. Tangents are drawn to an ellipse from an external point T.
The chord of contact and the major axis, or these produced, intersect
in K, and TN is drawn perpendicular to the major axis. Prove that
CN.CK CA².

23. is a variable point on the tangent at a fixed point P of an

ellipse and R is taken so that PQ = QR. If the other tangent from Q
meet the ellipse in K, prove that RK passes through a fixed point.
24. If through any point on an ellipse there be drawn lines con-
jugate to the sides of an inscribed triangle they will meet the sides in
three points in a straight line.
25. PCP' is a diameter of an ellipse, and a chord PQ meets the
tangent at P
' in R. Prove that PQ, PR have the parallel diameter for
a mean proportional.
26. If AOA', BOB' are conjugate diameters of an ellipse, and if
AP and BQ are parallel chords, A'Q and B'P are parallel to conjugate
diameters.

27. If the tangents at the ends of a chord of an hyperbola meet in

T, and TM, TM' be drawn parallel to the asymptotes to meet them in
M, M', then MM' is parallel to the chord.
28. If a windmill in a level field is working uniformly on a sunny
day, the speed of the end of the shadow of one sail varies as the length
of the shadow of the next sail.

29. Spheres are drawn passing through a fixed point and touching
two fixed planes. Prove that the points of contact lie on two circles,
and that the locus of the centre of the sphere is an ellipse.
If the angle between the planes is the angle of an equilateral
triangle, prove that the distance between the foci of the ellipse is half
the major axis.
 CHAPTER IX.

OF CONICS IN GENERAL.

The Construction of a Conic.

182. The method of construction, given in Chapter I.,
can be extended in the following manner.
Let fSn be any straight line drawn through the focus
S, and draw Ax from the vertex parallel to fS, and meeting
the directrix in a.

F n

X
u

Divide the line ƒSn in a and a' so that

Sa af : Sa' a'ƒ :: SA : Ax ;
then a and a' are points on the curve, for, if ak be the
perpendicular on the directrix,
ak af AX Ax,
and therefore Sa ak :: SA : AX.
B. C. S. 12
178 OF CONICS IN GENERAL.

Take any point e in the directrix, draw the lines eSl, ea

through S and a, and draw SP making the angle PSI equal
to lSn.

Through P draw FPI parallel to ƒS, and meeting eS

produced in l,
then Pl = SP,
and Pl : PF : Sa : af;
: . SP : PF :: Sa : af,
and SP PK : Sa ak;

therefore P is a point in the curve .

183. The construction for the point a gives a simple

proof that the tangent at the vertex is perpendicular to the
axis. For when the angle ASa is diminished, Sa approaches
to equality with SA , and therefore the angle aAS is ulti-
mately a right angle.

184. PROP. I. To find the points in which a given

straight line is intersected by a conic of which the focus, the
directrix, and the eccentricity are given.

F
D

X
x

E
 OF CONICS IN GENERAL. 179

Let FPP' be the straight line, and draw Ax parallel to

it. Join FS, and find the points D and E such that
SD : DF :: SE : EF :: SA : Ax.

Describe the circle on DE as diameter, and let it inter-

sect the given line in P and P'.

Join DP, EP and draw SG, FH at right angles to EP.

Then DPE, being the angle in a semicircle, is a right

angle, and DP is parallel to SG and FH.
Hence SG : FH :: SE : EF
:: SD : DF
:: PG : PH;

therefore the angles SPG, FPH are equal, and therefore

PD bisects the angle SPF.
Hence SP PF : SD : DF :: SA : Ax,
and P is a point in the curve.

Similarly P' is also a point in the curve, and the per-

pendicular from O, the centre of the circle, on FPP' meets
it in V, the middle point of the chord PP'.
Since SE : EF :: SA : Ax
and SD : DF :: SA : Ax ;
.. SE - SD : DE :: SA : Ax,
or SO OD : SA : Ax,

a relation analogous to
SC : AC : SA : AX.

We have already shewn, for each conic, that the middle

points of parallel chords lie in a straight line ; the following
article contains a proof of the theorem which includes all
the three cases.

185. PROP. II. To find the locus of the middle points

of a system ofparallel chords.
12-2
180 OF CONICS IN GENERAL.

Let P'P one of the chords be produced to meet the

directrix in F, draw Ax parallel to FP, and divide FS so
that
SD : DF :: SE : EF :: SA : Ax ;
then, as in the preceding article, the perpendicular OV
upon PP' from O, the middle point of DE, bisects PP'.
Draw the parallel focal chord aSa' ; then Oc parallel to
the directrix bisects aa' in c. Also draw SG perpendicular
to the chords, and meeting the directrix in G.

P
P

X
2

Then, if OV meet aa′ in n,

Vn nO SF : SO,
:: Sf : Sc,
and, since ncO, SGƒ are similar triangles,
no nc :: SG : Sf;
. Vn nc :: SG : Sc,
and the line Vc passes through G.
The straight line Gc is therefore the locus of the middle
points of all chords parallel to aSa'.
The ends of the diameter GC may be found by the
construction of the preceding article.
 OF CONICS IN GENERAL. 181

186. When the conic is a parabola, SA = AX,

and Sa af : AX : Ax

:: SX : Sf.
So Sa' af SX : Sf;
.. Sc ac :: SX : Sƒ,
and ac : cf :: SX : Sf.
Hence
Sc cf : SX2 : Sf²
:: GX . Xƒ : Gƒ . ƒX
:: GX : Gf;

and therefore Gc is parallel to SX, that is, the middle points

of parallel chords of a parabola lie in a straight line parallel
to the axis.

187. PROP. III. To find the locus of the middle points

of all focal chords of a conic.

Taking the case of a central conic, and referring to the

figure of the preceding article, let Oc meet SC in N ;
then CN NS fX : SX,
and CN : NC : GX : CX ;

.. cN² : SN . NC :: ƒX . GX : SX . CX
:: SX2 : SX . CX.

Hence it follows that the locus of c is an ellipse of

which SC is the transverse axis, and such that the squares
of its axes are as SX : CX, or (Cor. Art. 63) as BC² : ˜AC².

Hence the locus of c is similar to the conic itself.

182 EXAMPLES.

EXAMPLES.

1. If an ordinate, PNP', to the transverse axis meet the tangent

at the end of the latus rectum in T,
SP = TN, and TP . TP' = SN².
2. A focal chord PSQ of a conic section is produced to meet the
directrix in K, and KM, KN are drawn through the feet of the
ordinates PM, QN of P and Q. If KN produced meet PN produced
in R, prove that
PR= PM.
3. The tangents at P and Q, two points in a conic, intersect in T;
if through P, Q, chords be drawn parallel to the tangents at Q and P,
and intersecting the conic in p and q respectively, and if tangents at
P and q meet in t, shew that Tt is a diameter.
4. Two tangents TP, TP' are drawn to a conic intersecting the
directrix in F, F".
If the chord PP ' cut the directrix in R, prove that
SF SF " :: RF : RF" .
5. The chord of a conic PP' meets the directrix in K, and the
tangents at P and P' meet in T ; if RKR', parallel to ST, meet the
tangents in R and R',
KR= KR'.

6. The tangents at P and P' , intersecting in T, meet the latus

rectum in D and D' ; prove that the lines through D and D', re-
spectively perpendicular to SP and SP', intersect in ST.

7. If P, Q be two points on a conic, and p, q two points on the

directrix such that pq subtends at the focus half the angle subtended
by PQ, either Pp and Qq or Pq and Qp meet on the curve.
8 A chord PP' of a conic meets the directrix in F, and from
any point T in PP', TLL' is drawn parallel to SF and meeting SP,
SP' in L and L' ; prove that the ratio of SL or SL to the distance of
T from the directrix is equal to the ratio of SA : AX.
9. If an ellipse and an hyperbola have their axes coincident and
proportional, points on them equidistant from one axis have the sum
of the squares on their distances from the other axis constant.
10. If be any point in the normal PG, QR the perpendicular on
SP, and QM the perpendicular on PN,
QR PM :: SA : AX,
 EXAMPLES. 183

11. Given a focus of a conic section inscribed in a triangle, find

the points where it touches the sides.
12. PSQ is any focal chord of a conic section ; the normals at P
and intersect in K, and KN is drawn perpendicular to PQ; prove
that PV is equal to SQ, and hence deduce the locus of N.
13. Through the extremity P, of the diameter PQ of an ellipse,
the tangent TPT is drawn meeting two conjugate diameters in T, T'.
From P, Q the lines PR, QR are drawn parallel to the same conjugate
diameters. Prove that the rectangle under the semiaxes of the ellipse
is a mean proportional between the triangles PQR and CTT'.
14. Shew that a conic may be drawn touching the sides of a
triangle, having one focus at the centre of the circumscribing circle,
and the other at the orthocentre.

15. The perpendicular from the focus of a conic on any tangent,

and the central radius to the point of contact, intersect on the
directrix.
16. AB, AC are tangents to a conic at B, and C, and DEGF is
drawn from a point D in AC, parallel to AB and cutting the curve in
E and F, and BC in G ; shew that
DG2 DE . DF.

17. A diameter of a parabola, vertex F, meets two tangents in D

and E and their chord of contact is G, shew that
FG2 = ED . FE.

18. P and Q are two fixed points in a parabola, and from any
other point R in the curve, RP, RQ are drawn cutting a fixed diameter,
vertex E, in B and C' ; prove that the ratio of EB to EC is constant.
19. If the normal at P meet the conjugate axis in g, and gk be
perpendicular to SP, Pk is constant ; and if kl, parallel to the trans-
verse axis, meet the normal at P in l, kl is constant.
20. A system of conics is drawn having a common focus S and a
common latus rectum LSL. A fixed straight line through S intersects
the conics, and at the points of intersection normals are drawn. Prove
that the envelope of each of these normals is a parabola whose focus
lies on LSL, and which has the given line as tangent at the vertex.
21. If V is the middle point of a chord of a conic, and g is
drawn at right angles to the chord, meeting the axis at g, and if VĨ is
perpendicular to the directrix, prove that
Sg: VI : SA2 : AX2.
[Mr Roseveare, London Mathematical Society, April 1899. ]
 CHAPTER X.

ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

188. If a circle rolls on the inside of the circumference

of a circle of double its radius, any point in the area of the
rolling circle traces out an ellipse.

Let C be the centre of the rolling circle, E the point of

contact.

Then, if the circle meet in Q a fixed radius OA of the

fixed circle, the angle ECQ is twice the angle EOA, and
therefore the arcs EQ, EA are equal.

Hence, when the circles touch at A, the point Q of the

rolling circle coincides with A, and the subsequent path of
Q is the diameter through A.

Let P be a given point in the given radius CQ, and draw

RPN perpendicular to OA , and PR' parallel to OA.

Then, OQE being a right angle, EQ is parallel to RP

and therefore CR - CPCR', so that OR and OR are
constant.
 ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES. 185

Also PN : RN : PQ : OR;
therefore, the locus of R being a circle, the locus of P is
an ellipse, whose axes are as PQ : OR.

But OR is clearly the length of one semi -axis, and PQ

or OR' is therefore the length of the other, OR, OR′ being
equal to OC + CP and OC - CP.

189. Properties of the ellipse are deducible from this

construction.

Thus, as the circle rolls, the point E is instantaneously

at rest, and the motion of P is therefore at right angles to
EP, i.e. producing EP to F, in the direction FO.
Therefore, drawing PT parallel to OF, PT is the tangent,
and PF the normal.

E
a

R P

GN
Q A T
F

The angles EPT, EQT being right angles, the points

E, P, Q, T are concyclic ; but the circle through QPE clearly
passes through R; therefore the angle ERT and consequently
the angle ORT is a right angle,
and ON : OR OR OT,
or ON . OTOR²,

which is the theorem of Art. 74.

Again, since EQ't and EPt are right angles, E, Q, t, P

are concyclic ; but the circle through EQP clearly passes
186 ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

through R' ; therefore the angle ER't and consequently the

angle OR′t is a right angle, and
PN OR OR
' : 0,
or PN . Ot = OR" ,
which is the theorem of Art. 75.

E
al

R
10

R P

G N
Q T

Further, if PF meet OQ in G, the angles PQG, PFQ are

equal, being on equal bases EQ, OQ' ;
.. PG : PQ :: PQ : PF,
or PG . PFPQ² = OR",
which is the first of theorems of Art. 77.

And again, if PGF produced meet Q'O produced in g,

the angles PQ'g, PFQ are equal, being on equal bases QO,
EQ ; and the angle Q'Pg is common to the two triangles
PQ'g, PFQ.
Therefore these triangles are similar, and

Pg PQ ' : PF,
PQ
or Pg . PFPQ" .
But PQER' = OR ;

.. Pg . PFOR",
which is the second theorem of Art. 77.
 ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES. 187

190. If the carried point P is outside the circle the line

PNR, perpendicular to OA, will meet OE produced in R,
and CR will be equal to CP, so that OR will be constant
and the locus of R will be a circle.
Also, the triangles PQN, RON being similar, we shall
have
PN RN : PQ : OR,
so that the locus of P will be an ellipse, the semi-axes of
which will be CP + OC and CP- OC.

191. The fact that a point on the circumference of the rolling

circle oscillates in a straight line is utilized in the construction of
Wheatstone's Photometer.
By help of machinery a metallic circle, about an inch in diameter,
is made to roll rapidly round the inside of a circle of double this
diameter, and carries a small bright bead which is fastened to its
circumference.
If this machine is held between two candles or other sources of
light, so that the line of oscillation of the bead is equidistant from the
candles, two bright lines will be seen in close contiguity, and it is easy
to form an estimate of their comparative brightnesses.
If bright beads are fastened to points in the area of the rolling
circle not on the circumference, and the machine be held near sources
of light, the appearance, when the circle is made to rotate rapidly, will
be that of a number of bright concentric ellipses.

192. A given straight line has its ends moveable on two

straight lines at right angles to each other ; the path of any
given point in the moving line is an ellipse.

G N
188 ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

Let P be the point in the moving line AB, and C the

middle point of AB.
Let the ordinate NP, produced if necessary, meet OC in
Q ; then CQ = CP and OQ = AP, so that the locus of Q is a
circle.
Also PN : QN :: PB : 0Q
:: PB : PA ;
therefore the locus of P is an ellipse, and its semi-axes are
equal to AP and BP.

193. The theorem of Art. 188 is at once reducible to

this case, for, taking the figure of Art. 189 , QPQ' is a diameter
of the rolling circle and is therefore of constant length , and
the points and Q' move along fixed straight lines at right
angles to each other ; the locus of P is therefore an ellipse
of which Q'P and PQ are the semi-axes.

194. From this construction also properties of the tan-

gent and normal are deducible.

Complete the rectangle OAEB ; then, since the direc-

tions of motion of A and B are respectively perpendicular
to EA and EB, the state of motion of the line AB may be
represented by supposing that the triangle EAB is turning
round the point E.
Hence it follows that EP is the normal to the locus of P,
and that PT perpendicular to EP is the tangent.
Let OF, parallel to PT, meet EP in F ; then O, F, B, E
are concyclic ;
.. the angle PFB = E0B = PBG,
and the triangles PGB, PBF are similar.
Hence PG : PB :: PB : PF,
or PG . PFPB2,
where PB is equal to the semi -conjugate axis.
Similarly, by joining AF, it can be shewn that
Pg . PF = PA²,
g being the point of intersection of PG and 40.
 ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES. 189

are
Again, since EPT, EBT are right angles, B, T, P, E
concyclic, and Q is clearly concyclic with B, P, E; so that
TQE is a right angle.

G N

Hence OQN and OQT are similar triangles, and

ON : OQ :: OQ : OT,
or ON . OT = PA²,
where PA is equal to the semi-transverse axis.

195. Observing that F, 0, A, E, B are concyclic, we

have PF . PE = PA . PB ;
.. PE is equal to the semi-diameter conjugate to OP.
This suggests a construction for the solution of the
problem,
Having given a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse,
it is required to determine the position and magnitudes of the
principal axes.
Taking OP and OD as the given semi-conjugate diameters,
draw PF perpendicular to OD, and, in FP produced , take
PE equal to OD.
Join OE, bisect it in C, and in CE take CQ equal to CP.
Then OB, OA, drawn perpendicular and parallel to PQ,
and meeting CP in B and Â, will be the directions of the
axes, and their lengths will be AP and PB.
190 ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES.

196. If a given triangle AQB move in its own plane so

that the extremities A, B, of its base AB move on two fixed
straight lines at right angles to each other, the path of the
point Q is an ellipse.
If O be the point of intersection of the
fixed lines, and C the middle point of AB,
the angles COB, CBO are equal, so that, as
AB slides, the line CB, and therefore also
the line CQ, turns round as fast as CO, but .
in the contrary direction.
Produce OC to P, making CP = CQ ;
A then the locus of P is a circle the radius of
which is equal to OC + CQ.

There is clearly one position of AB for which the points

O, C, and Q are in one straight line.
Let OX be this straight line,
and let OC, CQ, be any other
corresponding positions of the
lines ;
Q
then, if CE is parallel to OX, CE
Ꮮ NX bisects the angle PCQ, and , draw-
ing PQN and CL perpendicular
to OX,
QN - CL - PE, PN = CL + PE,
hence QN PN : OC- CP : OC + CP
:: OC- CQ : OC + CQ,
and the locus of Q is an ellipse of which the semi -axes
are OC + CQ and OC - CQ.
If the straight lines through A and B perpendicular to
OA and OB meet in K, the point K is the instantaneous
centre of rotation. The normal to the path of Q is therefore
QK and the tangent is the straight line through Q perpen-
dicular to QK,

197. Elliptic Compasses. If two fine grooves, at right angles to

each other, be made on the plane surface of a plate of wood or metal,
and if two pegs, fastened to a straight rod, be made to move in these
 ELLIPSES AS ROULETTES AND GLISSETTES. 191

grooves, then a pencil attached to any point of the rod will trace out an
ellipse.
By fixing the pencil at different points of the rod, we can obtain
ellipses of any eccentricity, but of dimensions limited by the lengths of
the rod and the grooves .

Burstow's Elliptograph.

OE is a groove in a stand which can be fixed to the paper or

drawing board, and OA, AB are rods jointed at A, so that the end B
can slip along the groove, while AO turns round the fixed end 0.
C is the middle point of AB, CD is a rod, the length of which is
half that of AB, and the end D can slide along the groove.

BE

It follows that the angle ADBis always a right angle.

A rod DP is taken of any convenient length, and, by means of a
chain round the triangle ADC, is made to move so as to be always
parallel to OA.
If the end B be moved along the groove, the end P will trace out an
ellipse of which O is the centre, and the lengths of its semi-axes will be.
the length of DP and of the difference between the lengths of OA and
DP. This can be seen by drawing a line OK perpendicular to OE, and
producing DP to meet it in F. The motion will be that of a rod of
length OA sliding between OE and OK. See Dyck, Katalog der
mathematischen Instrumente, München, 1892.
192 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. I.

1. On a plane field the crack of the rifle and the thud of the ball
striking the target are heard at the same instant ; find the locus of the
hearer.
2. PQ, P'Q ' are two focal chords of a parabola, and PR, parallel to
PQ, meets in R the diameter through Q ; prove that
PQ.P'Q = PR².
3. CP and CD are conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse ; PQ
is a chord parallel to one of the axes ; shew that DQ is parallel to one of
the straight lines which join the ends of the axes.
4. A line cuts two concentric, similar and similarly situated
cllipses in P, Q, q, p. If the line move parallel to itself, PQ . Qp is
constant.
5. The portion of a tangent to an hyperbola intersected between
the asymptotes subtends a constant angle at the focus.
6. If a circle be described passing through any point P of a given
hyperbola and the extremities of the transverse axis, and the ordinate
NP be produced to meet the circle in Q, the locus of Q is an hyperbola.
7. PQ is one of a series of chords inclined at a constant angle
to the diameter AB of a circle ; find the locus of the intersection of
AP, BQ.
8. If from a point 7 in the director circle of an ellipse tangents
TP, TP be drawn, the line joining T with the intersection of the
normals at P and P' passes through the centre.
9. The points, in which the tangents at the extremities of the
transverse axis of an ellipse are cut by the tangent at any point of the
curve, are joined, one with each focus ; prove that the point of intersec-
tion of the joining lines lies in the normal at the point.
10. Having given a focus, the eccentricity, a point of the curve,
and the tangent at the point, shew that in general two conics can be
described.
11. A parabola is described with its focus at one focus of a given
central conic, and touches the conic ; prove that its directrix will
touch a fixed circle.
12. The extremities of the latera recta of all conics which have a
common transverse axis lie on two parabolas.
13. The tangent at a moveable point P of a conic intersects a
fixed tangent in Q, and from S a straight line is drawn perpendicular
to SQ and meeting in R the tangent at P; prove that the locus of R is
a straight line.
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. 193

14. On all parallel chords of a circle a series of isosceles triangles

are described, having the same vertical angle, and having their planes
perpendicular to the plane of the circle. Find the locus of their
vertices ; and find what the vertical angle must be in order that the
locus may be a circle.
15. A series of similar ellipses whose major axes are in the same
straight line pass through two given points. Prove that the major
axes subtend right angles at four fixed points.
16. From the centre of two concentric circles a straight line is
drawn to cut them in P and Q ; through P and Q straight lines are
drawn parallel to two given lines at right angles to each other. Shew
that the locus of their point of intersection is an ellipse.
17. A circle always passes through a fixed point, and cuts a given
straight line at a constant angle, prove that the locus of its centre is an
hyperbola.
18. The area of the triangle formed by three tangents to a parabola
is equal to one half that of the triangle formed by joining the points of
contact.
19. If a parabola be described with any point on an hyperbola for
focus and passing through the foci of the hyperbola, shew that its axis
will be parallel to one of the asymptotes.
20. S and H being the foci, P a point in the ellipse, if HP be
bisected in L, and AL be drawn from the vertex cutting SP in Q, the
locus of Q is an ellipse whose focus is S.
21. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral circumscribing an ellipse
meet in the centre the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
22. A series of ellipses pass through the same point, and have a
common focus, and their major axes of the same length ; prove that
the locus of their centres is a circle. What are the limits of the
eccentricities of the ellipses, and what does the ellipse become at the
higher limit?
23. If S, H be the foci of an hyperbola, LL ' any tangent inter-
cepted between the asymptotes, SL.HL= CL . LL '.
24. Tangents are drawn to an ellipse from a point on a similar
and similarly situated concentric ellipse ; shew that if P, Q be the
points of contact, A, A' the ends of a fixed chord of the first ellipse, the
foci of the intersections of AP, A'Q, and of AQ, A'P are two ellipses
similar to the given ellipses.
25. Draw a parabola which shall touch four given straight lines.
Under what condition is it possible to describe a parabola touching
five given straight lines ?
26. A fixed hyperbola is touched by a concentric ellipse. If the
curvatures at the point of contact are equal the area of the ellipse is
constant.
B. C. S. 13
194 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

27. A circle passes through a fixed point, and cuts off equal chords
AB, CD from two given parallel straight lines ; prove that the en-
velope of each of the chords AD, BC is a central conic having the fixed
point for one focus.
28. A straight line is drawn through the focus parallel to one
asymptote and meeting the other ; prove that the part intercepted
between the curve and the asymptote is one-fourth the transverse axis,
and the part between the curve and the focus one-fourth the latus-
rectum .
29. PQ is any chord of a parabola, cutting the axis in L ; R, R' are
the two points in the parabola at which this chord subtends a right
angle : if RR
' be joined, meeting the axis in L
' , LL' will be equal to the
latus-rectum.
30. If two equal parabolas have the same focus, tangents at points
angularly equidistant from the vertices meet on the common tangent.
31. A parabola has its focus at S, and PSQ is any focal chord,
while PP', QQ are two chords drawn at right angles to PSQ at its
extremities ; shew that the focal chord drawn parallel to PP' is a mean
proportional between PP' and QQ'.
32. With the orthocentre of a triangle as centre are described two
ellipses, one circumscribing the triangle and the other touching its
sides ; prove that these ellipses are similar, and their homologous axes
at right angles.
33. ABCD is a quadrilateral, the angles at A and C being equal ; a
conic is described about ABCD so as to touch the circumscribing
circle of ABC at the point B ; shew that BD is a diameter of the
conic.
34. The volume of a cone cut off by a plane bears a constant
ratio to the cube, the edge of which is equal to the minor axis of the
section.
35. A tangent to an ellipse at P meets the minor axis in t, and tQ
is perpendicular to SP ; prove that SQ is of constant length, and that
if PMbe the perpendicular on the minor axis, QM will meet the major
axis in a fixed point.
36. Describe an ellipse with a given focus touching three given
straight lines, no two of which are parallel and on the same side of the
focus.
37. Prove that the conic which touches the sides of a triangle,
and has its centre at the centre of the nine-point circle, has one focus
at the orthocentre, and the other at the centre of the circumscribing
circle.
38. From Q, the middle point of a clord PP' of an ellipse whose
focus is S, QG is drawn perpendicular to PP to meet the major axis in
G; prove that 2. SG : SP+ SP' :: SA : AX.
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. 195

39. A straight rod moves in any manner in a plane ; prove that, at

any instant, the directions of motion of all its particles are tangents to
a parabola.
40. If from a point T on the auxiliary circle, two tangents be
drawn to an ellipse touching it in P and Q, and when produced meeting
the circle again in p, q ; shew that the angles PSP and QSq are together
equal to the supplement of PTQ.
41. Tangents at the extremities of a pair of conjugate diameters
of an ellipse meet in T ; prove that ST, ST meet the conjugate
diameters in four concyclic points.
42. From the point of intersection of an asymptote and a directrix
of an hyperbola a tangent is drawn to the curve ; prove that the line
joining the point of contact with the focus is parallel to the asymptote.
43. If a string longer than the circumference of an ellipse be
always drawn tight by a pencil, the straight portions being tangents
to the ellipse, the pencil will trace out a confocal ellipse.
44. Dis any point in a rectangular hyperbola from which chords
are drawn at right angles to each other to meet the curve . If P, Q be
the middle points of these chords, prove that P, Q, D and the centre of
the hyperbola are concyclic .
45. From a point T in the auxiliary circle tangents are drawn to
an ellipse, touching it in P and Q, and meeting the auxiliary circle again
in P and q shew that the angle pCq is equal to the sum of the angles
PSQ and PS'Q.
46. The angle between the focal distance and tangent at any point
of an ellipse is half the angle subtended at the focus by the diameter
through the point.
47. His a fixed point on the bisector of the exterior angle A of the
triangle ABC ; a circle is described upon HA as chord cutting the lines
AB, AC in P and Q ; prove that PQ envelopes a parabola which has H
for focus, and for tangent at the vertex the straight line joining the feet
of the perpendiculars from H on AB and AC.
48. Tangents to an ellipse , foci S and H, at the ends of a focal
chord PHP' meet the further directrix in Q, Q. The parabola , whose
focus is S, and directrix PP', touches PQ, P'Q
' , in Q, Q' ; it also touches
the normals at P, P', and the minor axis, and has for the tangent at its
vertex the diameter parallel to PP'.
49. Sis a fixed point, and E a point moving on the arc of a given
circle ; prove that the envelope of the straight line through E at right
angles to SE is a conic.
50. A circle passing through a fixed point S cuts a fixed circle in P,
and has its centre at 0 ; the lines which bisect the angle SOP all touch
a conic of which S' is a focus.
13-2
196 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

51. The tangent to an ellipse at Pmeets the directrix, corresponding

to S, in Z: through Z a straight line ZQR is drawn cutting the ellipse
in Q, R; and the tangents at Q, R intersect (on SP) in T. Shew that
a conic can be described with focus S, and directrix PZ, to pass through
Q, R and T; and that TZ will be the tangent at 7.
52. TP, TQ are tangents to an ellipse at P and Q; one circle
touches TP at P and meets TQ in Q and Q ; another touches TQ at
Qand meets TP in P and P' ; prove that PQ' and QP' are divided in
the same ratio by the ellipse.
53. If a chord RPQV meet the directrices of an ellipse in R and V,
and the circumference in P and Q, then RP and QV subtend, each at
the focus nearer to it, angles of which the sum is equal to the angle
between the tangents at P and Q.
54. Two tangents are drawn to the same branch of a rectangular
hyperbola from an external point ; prove that the angles which these
tangents subtend at the centre are respectively equal to the angles
which they make with the chord of contact.
55. If the normal at a point P of an hyperbola meet the minor
axis in g, Pg will be to Sg in a constant ratio.
56. An ordinate NP of an ellipse is produced to meet the auxiliary
circle in Q, and normals to the ellipse and circle at P and Q meet in R;
RK, RL are drawn perpendicular to the axes ; prove that KPL is a
straight line, and also that KP- BC and LP= AČ.
57. If the tangent at any point P cut the axes of a conic, produced
if necessary, in T and T" , and if C be the centre of the curve, prove that
the area of the triangle TCT " varies inversely as the area of the triangle
PCN, where PN is the ordinate of P.
58. The circle of curvature of an ellipse at P passes through the
focus S, SM is drawn parallel to the tangent at P to meet the diameter
PCP in M; shew that it divides this diameter in the ratio of 3 : 1 .
59. Prove the following construction for a pair of tangents from
any external point T to an ellipse of which the centre is C: join CT,
let TPCPT a similar and similarly situated ellipse be drawn, of which
CTis a diameter, and P, P ' are its points of intersection with the given
ellipse ; TP, TP' will be tangents to the given ellipse.
60. Through a fixed point a pair of chords of a circle are drawn at
right angles : prove that each side of the quadrilateral formed by
joining their extremities envelopes a conic of which the fixed point and
the centre of the circle are foci.
61. Any conic passing through the four points of intersection of
two rectangular hyperbolas will be itself a rectangular hyperbola.
62. R is the middle point of a chord PQ of a rectangular hyperbola
whose centre is C. Through R, RQ, RP' are drawn parallel to the
tangents at P and Q respectively, meeting CQ, CP in Q, P. Prove
that C, P', R, Q
' are concyclic.
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. 197

63. The tangents at two points Q, Q of a parabola meet the

tangent at P in R, R' respectively, and the diameter through their
point of intersection T meets it in K ; prove that PR = KR', and that,
if QM, QM, TN be the ordinates of Q, Q, T respectively to the
diameter through P, PN is a mean proportional between PM and PM '.
64. Common tangents are drawn to two parabolas, which have a
common directrix, and intersect in P, Q: prove that the chords
joining the points of contact in each parabola are parallel to PQ, and
the part of each tangent between its points of contact with the two
curves is bisected by PQ produced.
65. An ellipse has its centre on a given hyperbola and touches the
asymptotes. The area of the ellipse being always a maximum, prove
that its chord of contact with the asymptotes always touches a similar
hyperbola.
66. A circle and parabola have the same vertex A and a common
axis. BA'C is the double ordinate of the parabola which touches the
circle at A' , the other extremity of the diameter which passes through
A; PP is any other ordinate of the parabola parallel to this, meeting
the axis in N and the chord AB produced in R : shew that the rectangle
between RP and RP is proportional to the square on the tangent
drawn from Nto the circle.

67. Tangents are drawn at two points, P, P' on an ellipse. If any

tangent be drawn meeting those at P, P' in R, R', shew that the line
bisecting the angle RSR intersects RR' on a fixed tangent to the
ellipse. Find the point of contact of this tangent.
68. Having given a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse, PCP',
DCD, let PF be the perpendicular from P on CD, in PH take PÉ
equal to CD, bisect CE in O, and on CE as diameter describe a circle ;
prove that PO will meet the circle in two points Q and R such that
CQ, CR are the directions of the semi-axes, and PQ, PR their lengths.
69. A straight line is drawn through the angular point A of a
triangle ABC to meet the opposite side in a ; two points O, O' are taken
on Aa, and CO, CO ' meet ABin c and c', and BO, BO' meet CA in b, b
shew that a conic passing through abb'cc' will be touched by BC.
70. If TP, TP' are two tangents to a parabola, and any other
tangent meets them in and R, the middle point of QR describes a
straight line.

71. Lines from the centre to the points of contact of two parallel
tangents to a rectangular hyperbola and concentric circle make equal
angles with either axis of the hyperbola.
72. A line moves between two lines at right angles so as to sub-
tend a right angle and a half at a fixed point on the bisector of the
right angle ; prove that it touches a rectangular hyperbola,
198 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

73. Two cones, whose vertical angles are supplementary, are placed
with their vertices coincident and their axes at right angles, and are
cut by a plane perpendicular to a common generating line ; prove that
the directrices of the section of one cone pass through the foci of the
section of the other.

74. The normal at a point P of an ellipse meets the curve again in

P, and through 0, the centre of curvature at P, the chord QOQ is
drawn at right angles to PP
' ; prove that
QO . OQ : PO . OP :: 2. PO : PP.
75. From an external point T, tangents are drawn to an ellipse,
the points of contact being on the same side of the major axis. If the
focal distances of these points intersect in M and N, TM, TN are
tangents to a confocal hyperbola, which passes through M and N.
76. Two tangents to an hyperbola from 7 meet the directrix in F
and F ; prove that the circle, centre T, which touches SF, SF
" , meets
the directrix in two points the radii to which from the point T are
parallel to the asymptotes.

77. QR, touching the ellipse at P, is one side of the parallelogram

formed by tangents at the ends of conjugate diameters ; if the normal
at P meet the axes in G and g, prove that QG and Rg are at right
angles.
78. If PP be a double ordinate of an ellipse, and if the normal at
P meet CP in O, prove that the locus of O is a similar ellipse, and that
its axis is to the axis of the given ellipse in the ratio
AC2 - BC2 : AC² + BC².

79. A chord of a conic whose pole is T meets the directrices in

R and R' ; if SR and S'R' meet in Q, prove that the minor axis bisects
TQ.
80. On a parabola, whose focus is S, three points Q, P, Q'are taken
such that the angles PSQ, PSQ' are equal ; the tangent at P' meets the
tangents at Q, Qin T, T' : shew that TQ : TQ :: SQ : SQ'.
81. If from any point P of a parabola perpendiculars PN, PL are
let fall on the axis and the tangent at the vertex, the line LN always
touches another parabola.

82. PQis any diameter of a section of a cone whose vertex is V ;

prove that IP+ IQ is constant.
83. If SY, SK are the perpendiculars from a focus on the tangent
and normal at any point of a conic, the straight line YK passes through
the centre of the conic.
84. If the axes of two parabolas are in the same direction, their
common chord bisects their common tangents.
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. 199

85. Find the position of the normal chord which cuts off from a
parabola the least segment.
86. From the point L, in which the tangent at any point P of an
hyperbola meets either asymptote perpendiculars LM, LN are let fall
upon the axes. Prove that MN passes through P.
87. If two parabolas whose latera recta have a constant ratio, and
whose foci are two given points S, S", have a contact of the second order
at P, the locus of P is a circle.
88. Find the class of plane curves such that, if from a fixed point
in the plane, perpendiculars are let fall on the tangent and normal at
any point of any one of the curves, the join of the feet of the perpen-
diculars will pass through another fixed point.
89. If two ellipses have one common focus S and equal major axes,
and if one ellipse revolves in its own plane about S, the chord of
intersection envelopes a conic confocal with the fixed ellipse.
90. The tangent at any point P of an ellipse meets the axis minor
in T and the focal distances SP, HP meet it in R, r. Also ST, IIT,
produced if necessary, meet the normal at P in Q, q, respectively.
Prove that Qr and qR are parallel to the axis major.
91. Two points describe the circumference of an ellipse, with
velocities which are to one another in the ratio of the squares on the
diameters parallel to their respective directions of motion. Prove that
the locus of the point of intersection of their directions of motion will
be an ellipse, confocal with the given one.
92. If AA' be the axis major of an elliptic section of a cone, vertex
V , and if AG, A'G' perpendicular to AV, A' V meet the axis of the cone
in G and G' , and GU, G'U' be the perpendiculars let fall on AA' , prove
that U and U ' are the centres of curvature at A and A'.

93. By help of the geometry of the cone, or otherwise, prove that

the sum of the tangents from any point of an ellipse to the circles of
curvature at the vertices is constant.

94. If two tangents be drawn to a section of a cone, and from

their intersection two straight lines be drawn to the points where the
tangent plane to the cone through one of the tangents touches the focal
spheres, prove that the angle contained by these lines is equal to the
angle between the tangents.
95. If CP, CD are conjugate semi-diameters and if through C
is drawn a line parallel to either focal distance of P, the perpendicular
from D upon this line will be equal to half the minor axis.
96. The area of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at the
ends of any pair of diameters of a central conic varies inversely as the
area of the parallelogram formed by joining the points of contact.
200 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.

97. Shew how to draw through a given point a plane which will
have the given point for (1 ) focus, ( 2) centre, of the section it makes
of a given right circular cone : noticing any limitations in the position
of the point which may be necessary.
98. In the first figure of Art. 148, if a plane be drawn inter-
secting the focal spheres in two circles and the cone in an ellipse, the
sum or difference of the tangents from any point of the ellipse to the
circles is constant.

99. If sections of a right cone be made, perpendicular to a given

plane, such that the distance between a focus of a section and that
vertex which lies on one of the generating lines in the given plane be
constant, prove that the transverse axes, produced if necessary, of all
sections will touch one of two fixed circles.

100. A sphere rolls in contact with two intersecting straight wires ;

prove that its centre describes an ellipse.
 CHAPTER XI.

HARMONIC PROPERTIES, POLES AND POLARS .

198. DEF. A straight line is harmonically divided in

two points when the whole line is to one ofthe extreme parts
as the other extreme part is to the middle part.

Thus AD is harmonically divided in C and B, when

AD AC : BD : BC.
A C B D

This definition may also be presented in the following

form .

The straight line AB is harmonically divided in C and D,

when it is divided internally in C, and externally in D, in the
same ratio.
Under these circumstances the four points A, C, B, D
constitute an Harmonic Range, and if through any point O
four straight lines OA, OC, OB, OD be drawn , these four
lines constitute an Harmonic Pencil.

PROP. I. If a straight line be drawn parallel to one of

the rays of an harmonic pencil, its segments made by the other
three will be equal, and any straight line is divided harmoni-
cally by the four rays.
Let ACBD be the given harmonic range, and draw ECF
through C parallel to ŎD, and meeting OA, OB in E and F.
Then AD AC : OD : EC,
and BD : BC : OD : CF ;
202 HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

but from the definition

AD AC : BD : BC ;
.. EC = CF,

and any other line parallel to ECF is obviously bisected

by OC.

Next, let acbd be any straight line cutting the pencil,

and draw ecf parallel to Od ; so that ec = cf.

E a

Then ad ac Od : ec,
and bd bc Od : cf;
.. ad ac :: bd bc ;
that is , acbd is harmonically divided.
If the line cẞdz be drawn cutting AO produced,
then αδ : ac :: Οδ : ec,
and BS : Bc 08 : cf;
.. αδ : ac :: βδ : βε,
or ας : αδ :: βc : βδ,
and similarly it may be shewn in all other cases that the
line is harmonically divided.
 HARMONIC PROPERTIES. 203

199. PROP. II . The pencil formed by two straight lines

and the bisectors of the angles between them is an harmonic
pencil.
For, if OA, OB be the lines, and OC, OD the bisectors,
draw KPL parallel to OC and meeting OA , OD, OB. Then
the angles OKL, OLK are obviously equal,

a
L

and the angles at P are right angles ; therefore KP = PL,

and the pencil is harmonic.

200. PROP. III. If ACBD, Acbd be harmonic ranges,

the straight lines Cc, Bb, Dd will meet in a point, as also Cd,
cD, Bb.

୯ B

/M
204 HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

For, if Cc, Dd meet in F, join Fb ; then the pencil

F (Acbd) is harmonic, and will be cut harmonically by AD.
Hence Fb produced will pass through B.
Similarly, if Cd, CD meet in E,
E (Acbd) is harmonic, and therefore bE produced will pass
through B.

Harmonic Properties of a Quadrilateral.

In the preceding figure, let CcdD be any quadrilateral ;

and let dc, DC meet in A, Cd, cD in E, and Cc, Dd in F.
Then taking b and B so as to divide Acd and ACD har-
monically, the ranges Acbd and ACBD are harmonic, and
therefore Bb passes through both E and F.
Similarly it can be shewn that AF is divided harmonically
in L and M, by Dc and dC.
For E (Acbd) is harmonic and therefore the transversal
ALFM is harmonically divided.

201. PROP. IV. If ACBD be an harmonic range, and

E the middle point of CD,
EA . EB = EC².
C B E D
For AD AC : BD : BC,
or AE + EC AE - EC :: EC + EB : EC - EB ;
.. AE EC :: EC : EB,
or AE . EB = EC² = ED².

Hence also, conversely, if EC2 = ED² = AE . EB, the

range ACBD is harmonic, C and D being on opposite sides
of E.

Hence, if a series of points A , a, B, b, ... on a straight line

be such that
EA . Ea := EB . Eb = EC . Ec…….
=
= EP',
 HARMONIC PROPERTIES. 205

and if EQ EP, then the several ranges (APaQ), (BPbQ),

&c. are harmonic.

202. DEF. A system of pairs of points on a straight

line such that
EA . Ea = EB . Eb:= ... = EP² = EQ³,
is called a system in Involution, the point E being called the
centre and P, Q the foci of the system .
Any two corresponding points A, a, are called conjugate
points, and it appears from above that any two conjugate
points form , with the foci of the system, an harmonic range.
It will be noticed that a focus is a point at which conju-
gate points coincide, and that the existence of a focus is only
possible when the points A and a are both on the same side
of the centre.

203. PROP. V. Having given two pairs ofpoints, A and

a, B and b, it is required to find the centre and foci of the
involution.
If E be the centre,
EA : EB :: Eb : Ea ;
P
Q EA B a
.. EA AB :: Eb : ab,
or EA : Eb :: AB : ab.
This determines E, and the foci P and Q are given by
the relations
EP² = EQ² = EA , Ea.
We shall however find the following relation useful.
Since EA Eb : EB : Ea ;
.. EA : Ab :: EB : aB,
or EA EB :: Ab : aB ;
but Eb EA : ab : AB;
.. Eb : EB :: Ab , ba : AB , Ba.
Again, Qb : Pb :: QB : PB ;
Qb - Pb Pb :: QB - PB PB,
206 HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

or 2. EP : Pb :: 2 、 EB : BP ;
.. Pb² : PB² :: EP2 : EB2,
:: Eb : EB
:: Ab . ba : AB . Ba,

This determines the ratio in which Bb is divided by P.

204. If QA Pa be an harmonic range and E the middle

point of PQ, and if a circle be described on PQ as diameter,
the lines joining any point R on this circle with P and Q
will bisect the angles between AR and aR.
For EA . Ea = EP² = ER² ;

E A

.. EA : ER :: ER : Eu,

and the triangles ARE, aRE are similar.

Hence AR aR : EA : ER
:: EA : EP.

But Ea : EP : EP : EA ;
.. aP : EP :: AP : EA.
Hence AR aR AP : aP,

and A Ra is bisected by RP.

Hence, if A and a, B and b be conjugate points of a

system in involution of which P and Q are the foci , it follows
that AB and ab subtend equal angles at any point of the
circle on PQ as diameter.

This fact also affords a means of obtaining the relations

of Art. 203.
 HARMONIC PROPERTIES. 207

We must observe that if the points A , a are on one side

of the centre and B, b on the other, the angles subtended by
AB, ab are supplementary to each other.

205. PROP. VI. Iffour points form an harmonic range,

their conjugates also form an harmonic range.
Let A, B, C, D be the four points,
a, b, c, d their conjugates.
dc ba ABCD
Q E P

Then, as in the eighth line of Art. 203,

EA : Ed : AD : ad,
or ED : Ea : AD : ad ;
... AD . Ea = ED . ad.

Similarly AC . Ea = EC . ac,
BD . EbED . bd,
BC . Eb = EC , bc.

But, ABCD being harmonic,

AD AC : BD : BC ;
:. ED . ad : EC . ac :: ED.bd : EC , bc.
Hence ad ac :: bd : bc,
or the range of the conjugates is harmonic.

206. PROP. VII. If a system of conics pass through four

given points, any straight line will be cut by the system in a
series ofpoints in involution.
The four fixed points being C, D, E, F, let the line meet
one of the conics in A and a , and the straight lines CF, ED,
in B and b.
Then the rectangles AB . Ba, CB . BF are in the ratio
of the squares on parallel diameters, as also are Ab . ba and
Db . bE.
But the squares on the diameters parallel to CF, ED
are in the constant ratio KF . KC : KE . KD ; and, the
208 HARMONIC PROPERTIES.

line Bb being given in position, the rectangles CB . BF and

Db . bE are given ; therefore the rectangles AB . Ba, Ab . ba
are in a constant ratio.
K
F
E

B α

But (Art. 203 ) this ratio is the same as that of PB² to

Pb , if P be a focus of the involution A, a, B, b.
Hence P is determined , and all the conics cut the line
Bb in points which form with B, b a system in involution.
We may observe that the foci are the points of contact of
the two conics which can be drawn through the four points
touching the line, and that the centre is the intersection of
the line with the conic which has one of its asymptotes
parallel to the line.

207. PROP. VIII . If through any point two tangents

be drawn to a conic, any other straight line through the point
will be divided harmonically by the curve and the chord of
contact.

Let AB, AC be the tangents, ADFE the straight line.

Through D and E draw GDHK, LEMN parallel to BC.
Then the diameter through A bisects DH, and BC,
and therefore bisects GK ; hence GD = HK, and similarly
LE = MN.
Also LE EN : GD : DK;
.. LE . EN : LE :: GD . DK GD ,
or LE . LM : GD . GH :: LE² : GD²
:: LA GA .
 HARMONIC PROPERTIES. 209

But LE . LM : GD . GH :: LB2 : BG²;

hence ᎪᏞ : ᎪᏀ :: BL : BG,

H K
D
C

L E
N
M

and therefore AE : AD :: FE : FD,

that is, ADFE is harmonically divided.

208. PROP. IX. If two tangents be drawn to a conic,

any third tangent is harmonically divided by the two tangents,
the curve, and the chord of contact.

F G
E
H
D
B K T

R
P
1

B. C. S.
14
210 HARMONIC PROPERTIES .

Let DEFG be the third tangent, and through G, the

point in which it meets AC, draw GHKL parallel to AB,
cutting the curve and the chord of contact in H, K, L.
Then GH . GL : GC² :: AB² : AC²
:: GK² : GC² ;
:. GH . GL = GK².
Hence DG : DE2 :: GK² : EB²
:: GH . GL : EB²
:: FG FE ;
that is, DEFG is an harmonic range.

209. PROP. X. If any straight line meet two tangents to

a conic in P and Q, the chord of contact in T and the conic in
R and V
PR . PV QR . QV :: PT² : QT².
Taking the preceding figure, draw the tangent DEFG
parallel to PQ.
Then PR . PV : EF2 :: PB2 : BE
:: PT2 : DE ;
and QR . QV GF :: QC² : GC²
:: QT² : DG² ;
but EF : DE GF : DG ;
.. PR . PV : PT :: QR . QV : QT".

210. PROP. XI. If chords of a conic be drawn through

a fixed point the pairs of tangents at their extremities will
intersect in a fixed line.
Let B be the fixed point and C the centre, and let CB
meet the curve in P.
Take A in CP such that
CA : CP :: CP : CB ;
then B is the middle point of the chord of contact of the
tangents AQ, AR.
 HARMONIC PROPERTIES. 211

Draw any chord EBF, and let the tangents at E and F

meet in G also join CG and draw PN parallel to EF.

བ
B

Ꭱ
R

Then if CG meet EF in K and the tangent at P in T,

CK . CG = CN . CT ;
.. CG : CT :: CN : CK
:: CP : CB
:: CA : CP ;
hence AG is parallel to PT, and the point & therefore lies
on a fixed line.

If the conic be a parabola, we must take AP equal to

BP: then, remembering that KG and NT are bisected by
the curve, the proof is the same as before.

211. If A be the fixed point, let CA meet the curve in

P, and take B in CP such that
CB : CP :: CP : CA ;
then B is the middle point of the chord of contact of the
tangents AQ, AR.
14-2
212 POLES AND POLARS.

Draw any chord AEF, and let the tangents at E and F

meet in G ; also join CG and draw PN parallel to EF.

B E
К

H E

Then CK . CG = CN.CT ;
.. CG : CT :: CN : CK
:: CP : CA
:: CB : CP ;
.. BG is parallel to PT and coincides with the chord of
contact QR.

Hence, conversely, if from points on a straight line pairs

of tangents be drawn to a conic, the chords of contact will
pass through a fixed point.

Poles and Polars.

212. DEF. The straight line which is the locus of the

points of intersection of tangents at the extremities of chords
through a fixed point is called the polar of the point.
Also, if from points in a straight line pairs of tangents be
drawn to a conic, the point in which all the chords of contact
intersect is called the pole of the line.
If the pole be without the curve the polar is the chord of
contact of tangents from the pole.
 POLES AND POLARS. 213

If the pole be on the curve the polar is the tangent at

the point.
It follows at once from these definitions that the focus of
a conic is the pole of the directrix, and that the foot of the
directrix is the pole of the latus rectum .

213. PROP. XII . A straight line drawn through any

point is divided harmonically by the point, the curve, and the
polar ofthe point.

If the point be without the conic this is already proved

in Art. 207.

If it be within the conic, as B in the figure of Art. 210,

then, drawing any chord FBEV meeting in V the polar of
B, which is AG, the chord of contact of tangents from V
passes through B, by Art. 211 , and the line VEBF is there-
fore harmonically divided.

Hence the polar may be constructed by drawing two

chords through the pole and dividing them harmonically ;
the line joining the points of division is the polar.

Or, in the figure of Art. 210 ,

CB . CA = CP2,

so that the polar of B is obtained by taking the point A on

the diameter through B, at the distance from C given by the
above relation, and then drawing AG parallel to the diameter
which is conjugate to CP.

COR. Hence it follows that the centre of a conic is the

pole of a line at an infinite distance.
For, if CB is diminished indefinitely, CA is increased
indefinitely.

214. PROP. XIII. The polars of two points intersect in

the pole ofthe line joining the two points.

For, if A, B be the two points and O the pole of AB, the

line AO is divided harmonically by the curve, and therefore
the polar of A passes through the point 0 .
214 POLES AND POLARS.

Similarly the polar of B passes through 0 ;

That is, the polars of A and B intersect in the pole
of AB.

215. PROP. XIV. If a quadrilateral be inscribed in a

conic, its opposite sides and diagonals will intersect in three
points such that each is the pole of the line joining the other
two.

Let ABCD be the quadrilateral, F and G the points of

intersection of AD, BC, and of DC, AB.

E
M

A B

Let EG meet FA, FB, in L and M.

Then (Art. 200) FDLA and FCMB are harmonic ranges ;
Therefore L and M are both on the polar of F (Art. 213),
and EG is the polar of F.
Similarly, EF is the polar of G, and therefore E is the
pole of FG (Art. 214).

216. DEF. If each of the sides of a triangle be the

polar, with regard to a conic, of the opposite angular point,
the triangle is said to be self- conjugate with regard to the
conic.

Thus the triangle EGF in the above figure is self-conju-

gate.
 POLES AND POLARS. 215

To construct a self- conjugate triangle, take a straight

line AB and find its pole C.

Draw through C any straight line CD cutting AB in D,

and find the pole E of CD, which lies on AB : then CDE is
self- conjugate.

217. PROP. XV. If a quadrilateral circumscribe a conic,

its three diagonals form a self- conjugate triangle.

Let the polar of F (that is, the chord of contact P′P),

meet FG in R ; then, since R is on the polar of F, it follows
that F is on the polar of R.

Now F (AEBG) is harmonic (Art. 200) , and, if FE meet

PP in T, PTPR is an harmonic range ; hence, by the
theorem of Art. 213, FT, i.e. FE, is the polar of R.

F
R
K

Similarly, if the other chord of contact QQ' meet FG in

R' , GE is the polar of R' ;
.. E is the pole of RR', that is, of LK.

Again, DEBK is harmonic, and therefore the pencil

C (QEPK) is harmonic.

Hence, if QP meet AC in S and CK in V, QSPV is

harmonic, and therefore S is on the polar of V.
216 POLES AND POLARS.

But S is on the polar of C ; therefore CV, that is, CK, is

the polar of S.

Similarly, if P'Q' meet AC in S', AK is the polar of S.

Hence it follows that K is the pole of SS " , that is, of EL ;

ELK is therefore a self-conjugate triangle.

218. PROP. XVI. If a system of conics have a common

self-conjugate triangle, any straight line passing through one
of the angular points of the triangle is cut in a series ofpoints
in involution.

For, if ABC be the triangle, and a line APDQ meet BC

in D, and the conic in P and Q, APDQ is an harmonic range,
and all the pairs of points P, Q form with A and D an har-
monic range.

Hence the pairs of points form a system in involution, of

which A and D are the foci.

219. PROP. XVII. The pencil formed by the polars of

the four points of an harmonic range is an harmonic pencil.
Let ABCD be the range, O the pole of AD.

Let the polars Oa, Ob, Oc, Od meet AD in a, b, c, d, and

let AD meet the conic in P and Q.
d b са
જે P A C B D

Then APaQ, CPCQ, &c. are harmonic ranges ; and there-

fore (Arts. 201 , 202) a, c, b, d are the conjugates of A, C, B, D.

Hence (Art. 205) the range acbd is harmonic, and there-

fore the pencil O (acbd) is harmonic.
 EXAMPLES. 217

EXAMPLES.

1. If PSP' is a focal chord of a conic, any other chord through S

is divided harmonically by the directrix and the tangents at P and P'.
2. If two sections of a right cone be taken, having the same
directrix, the straight line joining the corresponding foci will pass
through the vertex.
3. If a series of circles pass through the same two points, any
transversal will be cut by the circles in a series of points in involution.
4. If O be the centre of the circle circumscribing a triangle ABC,
and B'C', C'A', A'B', the respective polars with regard to a concentric
circle of the points A, B, C, prove that O is the centre of the circle
inscribed in the triangle A'B'C'.
5. OA, OB, OC being three straight lines given in position, shew
that there are three other straight lines each of which forms with
OA, OB, OC an harmonic pencil ; and that each of the three OA, OB, OC
forms with the second three an harmonic pencil.
6. The straight line ACBD is divided harmonically in the points
C, B ; prove that if a circle be described on CD as diameter, any circle
passing through A and B will cut it at right angles.
7. Three straight lines AD, AE, AF are drawn through a fixed
point A, and fixed points C, B, D are taken in AD, such that ACBD is
an_harmonic range. Any straight line through B intersects AE and
AF in E and F, and CE, DF intersect in P; DE, CF in Q. Shew
that P and Q always lie in a straight line through A, forming with
AD, AE, AF an harmonic pencil.
8. CA, CB are two tangents to a conic section, O a fixed point in
AB, POQ any chord of the conic ; prove that the intersections of
AP, BQ, and also of AQ, BP lie in a fixed straight line which forms
with CA, CO, CB an harmonic pencil.
9. If three conics pass through the same four points, the common
tangent to two of them is divided harmonically by the third.
10. Two conics intersect in four points, and through the intersection
of two of their common chords a tangent is drawn to one of them ;
prove that it is divided harmonically by the other.
11. Prove that the two tangents through any point to a conic, any
line through the point and the line to the pole of the last line, form an
harmonic pencil .
218 EXAMPLES.

12. The locus of the poles, with regard to the auxiliary circle, of
the tangents to an ellipse, is a similar ellipse.
13. The asymptotes of an hyperbola and any pair of conjugate
diameters form an harmonic pencil.
14. PSQ and PS'R are two focal chords of an ellipse ; two other
ellipses are described having P for a common focus, and touching the
first ellipse at Q and R respectively. The three ellipses have equal
major axes. Prove that the directrices of the last two ellipses pass
through the pole of QR.
15. Tangents from T touch an ellipse in P and Q, and PQ meets
the directrices in R and R' ; shew that PR and QR subtend equal
angles at T.

16. The poles of a given straight line, with respect to sections

through it of a given cone, all lie upon a straight line passing through
the vertex of the cone.

17. If from a given point in the axis of a conic a chord be drawn,

the perpendicular from the pole of the chord upon the chord will meet
the axis in a fixed point.

18. Q is any point in the tangent at a point P of a conic ; QG per-

pendicular to CP meets the normal at P in G, and QE perpendicular
to the polar of Q meets the normal at Pin E; prove that EG is con-
stant and equal to the radius of curvature at P.
19. The line joining two fixed points A and B meets the two fixed
lines OP, OQ in P and Q.
A conic is described so that OP and OQ are the polars of A and B
with respect to it. Prove that the locus of its centre is the line OR,
where R divides AB so that
ᎪᎡ : ᎡᏴ :: ᎾᎡ : ᎡᏢ.
20. If from a point 0 in the normal at a point R of an ellipse
tangents OP, OQ are drawn, the angles PRO, QRÒ are equal.
21. The focal distances of a point on a conic meet the curve again
in Q, R; shew that the pole of QR will lie upon the normal at the first
point.
22. The tangent at any point A of a conic is cut by two other
tangents and their chord of contact in B, C, D ; shew that (ABDC) is
harmonic.

23. A rectangular hyperbola circumscribes a triangle ABC ; if

D, E, F be the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B, C on the opposite
sides, the loci of the poles of the sides of the triangle ABC are the lines
EF, FD, DE.
 EXAMPLES. 219

24. Two common chords of a given ellipse and a circle pass through
a given point ; shew that the locus of the centres of all such circles is
a straight line through the given point.

25. If ABCD is a quadrilateral inscribed in a conic, and if AD,

BC meet in P, and AC, BD in Q, PQ passes through the pole of AB.
26. PCP' is any diameter of an ellipse. The tangents at the points
D, E intersect in F, and PE, P'D intersect in G. Shew that FG is
parallel to DCD
'.

27. PP' is a chord of a conic, QQ' any chord through its pole.
Prove that lines drawn from P parallel to the tangents at Q and Q' to
meet P'Q, and P'Q' respectively are bisected by QQ
'.

28. If the pencil joining four fixed points on a conic to any one
point on the conic is harmonic, the pencil joining the fixed points to
any point on the conic is harmonic.
29. If PQ is the chord of a conic having its pole on the chord AB
or AB produced, and if Qq is the chord parallel to AB, then Pq bisects
AB.

30. If a quadrilateral circumscribe a conic, the intersection of the

lines joining opposite points of contact is the same as the intersection
of the diagonals .
 CHAPTER XII.

RECIPROCAL POLARS.

220. The pole of a line with regard to any conic being

a point and the polar of a point a line, it follows that any
system of points and lines can be transformed into a system
of lines and points.

This process is called reciprocation, and it is clear that

any theorem relating to the original system will have its
analogue in the system formed by reciprocation.
Thus, if a series of lines be concurrent, the corresponding
points are collinear ; and the theorem of Art. 219 is an
instance of the effect of reciprocation.

221. DEF. If a point move in a curve ( C) , its polar will

always touch some other curve (C') ; this latter curve is called
the reciprocal polar of ( C ) with regard to the auxiliary conic.

PROP. I. If a curve C' be the polar of C, then will C be

the polar ofC'.
For, if P, P' be two consecutive points of C, the intersec-
tion of the polars of P and P' is a point Q, which is the pole
of the line PP'.

But the point Q is ultimately, when P and P' coincide,

the point of contact of the curve which is touched by the
polar of P.

Hence the polar of any point Q of C' is a tangent to the

curve C.
 RECIPROCAL POLARS. 221

222. So far we have considered poles and polars gene-

rally with regard to any conic ; we shall now consider the
case in which a circle is the auxiliary curve.

In this case, if AB be a line, P its pole, and CY the per-

pendicular from the centre of the circle on AB, the rectangle
CP . CY is equal to the square on the radius of the circle.
A simple construction is thus given for the pole of a line,
or the polar of the point.
As an illustration take the theorem of the existence of
the orthocentre in a triangle.

Let AOD, BOE,. COF be the perpendiculars, O being the

orthocentre.

The polar reciprocal of the line BC is a point A' , and of

the point A a line B'C'.
To the line AD corresponds a point P on B'C' , and since
ADB is a right angle, it follows that PSA' is a right angle,
S being the centre of the auxiliary circle.
And, similarly, if SQ, SR, perpendiculars to SB', SC',
meet C'A' and A'B' in Q and R, these points correspond to
BE and CF.

But AD, BE, CF are concurrent ;

...
.. P, Q, R are collinear.

Hence the reciprocal theorem ,

Iffrom any point S lines be drawn perpendicular respect-

ively to SA', SB , SC ', and meeting B'C' , Ñ'A ', A'B' in P, Q,
and R, these points are collinear.
As a second illustration take the theorem,

If A, B be two fixed points, and AC, BC at right angles to

each other, the locus of C is a circle.

Taking O, the middle point of AB, as the centre of the

auxiliary circle, the reciprocals of A and B are two parallel
straight lines, PE, QF, perpendicular to AB ; the reciprocals
of AC, BC are points PQ on these lines such that POQ is a
right angle, and PQ is the reciprocal of C.
222 RECIPROCAL POLARS.

Hence, the locus of C being a circle , it follows that PQ

always touches a circle.

The reciprocal theorem therefore is,

If a straight line PQ, bounded by two parallel straight

lines, subtend a right angle at a point O, halfway between the
lines, the line PQ always touches a circle, having O for its
centre.

223. PROP. II. The reciprocal polar of a circle with

regard to another circle, called the auxiliary circle, is a conic,
a focus of which is the centre of the auxiliary circle, and the
corresponding directrix the polar of the centre of the recipro-
cated circle.

Let S be the centre of the auxiliary circle, and KX the

polar of C, the centre of the reciprocated circle.

X S N

Then, if P be the pole of a tangent QY to the circle C,

SP meeting this tangent in Y,
SP.SY = SX . SC.

Therefore, drawing SL parallel to QY,

SP :SC :: SX : QL.
 RECIPROCAL POLARS. 223

But, by similar triangles,

SP :: SC : SN : CL;
.. SP : SC : NX : CQ,
or SP: PK :: SC : CQ.

Hence the locus of P is a conic, focus S, directrix KX,

and having for its eccentricity the ratio of SC to CQ.

The reciprocal polar of a circle is therefore an ellipse ,

parabola, or hyperbola, as the point S is within, upon, or
without the circumference of the circle.

224. PROP. III. To find the latus rectum and axes of

the reciprocal conic.

The ends of the latus rectum are the poles of the tan-
gents parallel to SC.

Hence, if SR be the semi-latus rectum,

SR.CQ - SE",
SE being the radius of the auxiliary circle.

E
R
D
G M F
AOAS

The ends of the transverse axis A, A' are the poles of the
tangents at F and G;
... SA . SG = SE2,
and SA' . SF - SE².
224 RECIPROCAL POLARS.

Let SU, SU' be the tangents from S, then

SG . SF = SU²,
.. SA' : SG :: SE2 : SU*)
and SA : SF :: SE2 : SU²)
Hence AA' : FG :: SE² : SU²,

or, if O be the centre of the reciprocal,

AO : CQ :: SE² : SU².

Again, if BOB' be the conjugate axis,

BO² = SR . AO ;
therefore , since SE = SR . CQ,
BOSE : AO : CQ
:: SE2 : SU²
and BO . SU = SE².

The centre O, it may be remarked, is the pole of UU'.

For, from the relations (a),

SE² : SU² :: SA + SA' : SF + SG
:: SO : SC
:: SO . SM : SC . SM;
.. SO . SM = SE".

225. In the figures drawn in the two preceding articles,

the reciprocal conic is an hyperbola ; the asymptotes are
therefore the lines through O perpendicular to SỬ and SU',
the poles of these lines being at an infinite distance.

The semi-conjugate axis is equal to the perpendicular

from the focus on the asymptote ( Art. 103) , i.e. if OD be the
asymptote, SD is equal to the semi-conjugate axis.

Further, since OD is perpendicular to SU, and O is the

pole of UU', it follows that D is the pole of CU, and that
SD . SU = SE ,
as we have already shewn.
 RECIPROCAL POLARS. 225

Again, D, being the intersection of the polars of C and U,

is the intersection of SU and the directrix.

226. If the point S be within the circle, so that the

reciprocal is an ellipse, the axes are given by similar rela-
tions.
Through S draw SV perpendicular to FG, and let UMU
be the polar of S with regard to the circle.

I U

M
G CASO AF

U'

Then SM.SC = SC . CM - SC - CF2- SC² = SV2 ;

also, SE being the radius of the auxiliary circle,
SA.SF = SE = SA' . SG,
and SF.SG = SV2 ;

.. SA : SG :: SE² : SV²)
SA' : SF :: SE SV
Hence SO : SC :: SE² : SV²,
and SO.SM: SC . SM :: SE2 : SV²;
..SO . SM = SE²,

so that O is the pole of UU

'.
Again SA + SA' : SF + SG :: SE² : SV²,
.. AO : CQ :: SE² : SV².
If RSR' is the latus-rectum,

SR . CQ = SE²,
' B. C. S. 15
226 RECIPROCAL POLARS.

and if BOB' is the minor axis

SR . AO = B02;
.. BO2 : SE2 :: SE2 : SV2,
and BO . SV = SE².

227. The important Theorem we have just considered

enables us to deduce from any property of a circle a cor-
responding property of a conic, and we are thus furnished
with a method, which may serve to give easy proofs of
known properties, or to reveal new properties of conics.
In the process of reciprocation we observe that points
become lines and lines points ; that a tangent to a curve
reciprocates into a point on the reciprocal, that a curve
inscribed in a triangle becomes a curve circumscribing a
triangle, and that when the auxiliary curve is a circle, the
reciprocal of a circle is a conic, the latus rectum of which
varies inversely as the radius of the circle.
Also, conversely, the reciprocal of a conic with regard to
a circle having its centre at a focus of the conic is a circle
the centre of which is the reciprocal of the directrix of the
conic.

For an ellipse the centre of reciprocation is within the

circle, for a parabola it is upon the circle, and for an
hyperbola it is outside the circle.

228. We give some transformations of theorems as

illustrations of the preceding articles.
THEOREM. RECIPROCAL.
The line joining the points of The tangents at the ends of a
contact of parallel tangents of a focal chord intersect in the direc-
circle passes through the centre. trix.
The angles in the same seg- If a moveable tangent of a
ment of a circle are equal. conic meet two fixed tangents, the
intercepted portion subtends a
constant angle at the focus.
Two of the common tangents If two conics have the same
of two equal circles are parallel. focus, and equal latera recta, the
straight line joining two of their
common points passes through the
focus.
 RECIPROCAL POLARS. 227

THEOREM. RECIPROCAL.
The tangent at any point of a The portion of the tangent to
circle is perpendicular to the a conic between the point of con-
diameter through the point. tact and the directrix subtends a
right angle at the focus.
A chord of a circle is equally The tangents drawn from any
inclined to the tangents at its point to a conic subtend equal
ends. angles at a focus.
If a chord of a circle subtend If two tangents of a conic move
a constant angle at a fixed point so that the intercepted portion of
on the curve, the chord always a fixed tangent subtends a con-
touches a circle. stant angle at the focus, the locus
of the intersection of the moving
tangents is a conic having the
same focus and directrix.
If a chord of a circle pass The rectangle contained by the
through a fixed point, the rect- perpendiculars from the focus on
angle contained by the segments two parallel tangents is constant.
is constant.
If two chords be drawn from If two tangents of a conic
a fixed point on a circle at right move so that the intercepted por-
angles to each other, the line tion of a fixed tangent subtends a
joining their ends passes through right angle at the focus, the two
the centre. moveable tangents meet in the di-
rectrix .
If a circle be inscribed in a If a triangle be inscribed in a
triangle, the lines joining the ver- conic the tangents at the vertices
tices with the points of contact meet the opposite sides in three
meet in a point. points lying in a straight line.
The sum of the reciprocals of With a given point as focus,
the radii of the escribed circles of four conics can be drawn circum-
a triangle is equal to the reciprocal scribing a triangle, and the latus
of the radius of the inscribed circle. rectum of one is equal to the sum
of the latera recta of the other
three.
The common chord of two in- If two parabolas have a com-
tersecting circles is perpendicular mon focus, the line joining it to
to the line joining their centres. the intersection of the directrices
is perpendicular to the common
tangent.
If circles pass through two If conics have a fixed focus and
fixed points, the locus of their a pair of fixed tangents in common,
centres is a straight line. the corresponding directrices alí
pass through a fixed point.
Two tangents to a conic at Chords of a circle which sub-
right angles to each other inter- tend a right angle at a fixed point
sect on a fixed circle. all touch a conic of which that
point is a focus.

15-2
228 RECIPROCAL POLARS .

229. PROP. IV. A system of coaxal circles can be

reciprocated into a system ofconfocal conics.
Let X be the point at which the radical axis crosses the
line of centres, and let E and S be the limiting points of the
system.
Then XE is equal to the length of the tangent XD to
any one of the circles, and , therefore, if A is the centre of
this circle, AD is the tangent at D to the circle whose centre
is X and radius XE.
Hence it follows that AE . AS = AD², shewing that UU,
the polar of S with regard to the circle A , passes through E.
Reciprocating with regard to S, the centre of the re-
ciprocal curve is the pole of UU', and is consequently fixed ;
and the conics are therefore confocal .

Hence, if we reciprocate with regard to either limiting

point, we obtain confocal conics.
In the particular case in which the circles all touch the
radical axis, we obtain confocal and coaxial parabolas.

230. PROP. V. The reciprocal polar of a conic with

regard to a circle, or with regard to any conic, is a conic.
Taking any two tangents of the conic, their reciprocal
polars are points on the reciprocal curve, and the reciprocal
polar of their point of intersection is the chord joining the
points.
Since only two tangents can be drawn from a point to a
conic, it follows that the reciprocal curve is always intersected
by a straight line in two points only.
It follows therefore that the reciprocal curve is a conic.
In reciprocating a conic with regard to a circle, the
reciprocal polar is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, according
as the centre S of the circle is inside, upon , or outside the
conic.
In the second case the axis of the parabola is parallel to
the normal at the point S, and in the third case the
asymptotes are perpendicular to the tangents which can be
drawn from the point S to the conic.
 RECIPROCAL POLARS. 229

When the auxiliary curve is a conic, centre S, the first

of the preceding statements holds good.
When the point S'is on the conic, the axis of the parabola
is parallel to the diameter of the auxiliary conic, which is
conjugate to the tangent at S.
When the point S is outside the conic, the asymptotes of
the hyperbola are parallel to those diameters of the auxiliary
conic which are conjugate to the straight lines through S
touching the conic to be reciprocated.
The following cases will serve to illustrate the theorem
of this article.

231. The reciprocal polar of a parabola with regard to a

point on the directrix is a rectangular hyperbola.
For the two tangents from the point are at right angles
to each other, and therefore the asymptotes are at right angles
to each other.

232. The reciprocal polar of an ellipse or hyperbola, with

regard to its centre, is a similar curve turned through a right
angle about the centre.

If CY is the perpendicular on the tangent at P, and Q

the reciprocal of the tangent, CQ . CY is constant.
But CY . CD is constant ;

.. CQ varies as CD,
and the reciprocal curve is the same as the original curve, or
similar to it.

233. The chords of a conic which subtend a right angle

at a fixed point P of a conic all pass through a fixed point
in the normal at P.

Reciprocating with regard to P, the reciprocal curve is a

parabola, the axis of which is parallel to the normal to the
conic, and the reciprocal of the chord is the point of inter-
section of tangents at right angles to each other.
The locus of this point is the directrix of the parabola,
and, being at right angles to the normal, it follows, on
230 RECIPROCAL POLARS .

reciprocating backwards, that the chord passes through a

fixed point E in the normal.

To find the position ofthe point E,

let C be the centre of the conic, CA , CB its semi-axes, and
PNP' the double ordinate, and let the normal meet the
axes in G and g.

Since CA and CB bisect the angle PCP

' and its
supplement,
C
' (BPAP') is an harmonic pencil ;
.. PGEg is an harmonic range, so that PE is the
harmonic mean between PG and Pg.

In the case of an hyperbola EGPg is an harmonic range.

In the case of a parabola, E is the point of intersection of
the normal with the diameter through P'.

234. The chords of a conic which subtend a right angle

at a fixed point O not on the conic all touch a conic of which
that point is a focus.
Reciprocating with regard to 0, the reciprocal of the
envelope of the chords is the director circle of a conic, and
therefore, reciprocating backwards, it follows that the en-
velope of the chords is a conic of which O is a focus. This
of course includes the preceding theorem as a particular case,
the fact being that when O is on the conic the envelope of the
chords is a conic, with a vertex and focus at E, flattened
into a straight line.

235. Ifthe sides of a triangle are tangents to a parabola,

the orthocentre of the triangle is on the directrix ofthe parabola.
This theorem is at once obtained by reciprocating, with
regard to the orthocentre of the triangle, the theorem, proved
in Art. 143, that, if a rectangular hyperbola passes through
the angular points of a triangle, it also passes through the
orthocentre of the triangle.
 EXAMPLES. 231

EXAMPLES.

1. If any triangle be reciprocated with regard to its orthocentre,

the reciprocal triangle will be similar to the original one and will have
the same orthocentre.
2. If two conics have the same focus and directrix, and a focal
chord be drawn, the four tangents at the points where it meets the
conics intersect in the same point of the directrix.
3. An ellipse and a parabola have a common focus ; prove that the
ellipse either intersects the parabola in two points, and has two common
tangents with it, or else does not cut it.

4. Prove that the reciprocal polar of the circumscribed circle of a

triangle with regard to the inscribed circle is an ellipse, the major axis
of which is equal in length to the radius of the inscribed circle.
5. Reciprocate with respect to any point S the theorem that, if
two points on a circle be given, the pole of PQ with respect to that
circle lies on the line bisecting PQ at right angles.
6. If two parabolas whose axes are at right angles have a common
focus, prove that the part of the common tangent intercepted between
the points of contact subtends a right angle at the focus.
7. The tangent at a moving point P of a conic intersects a fixed
tangent in Q, and from S a straight line is drawn perpendicular to SQ
and meeting in R the tangent at P ; prove that the locus of R is a
straight line.
8. Four parabolas having a common focus can be described touching
respectively the sides of the triangles formed by four given points.
9. A triangle ABC circumscribes a parabola, focus S; through
ABC lines are drawn respectively perpendicular to SA, SB, SC ; shew
that these lines are concurrent.
10. Prove that the distances, from the centre of a circle, of any
two poles are to one another as their distances from the alternate
polars.
11. Reciprocate the theorems,
(1) The opposite angles of any quadrilateral inscribed in a
circle are equal to two right angles.
(2 ) If a line be drawn from the focus of an ellipse making a
constant angle with the tangent, the locus of its intersection
with the tangent is a circle.
232 EXAMPLES.

12. The locus of the intersection of two tangents to a parabola

which include a constant angle is an hyperbola, having the same focus
and directrix.

13. Two ellipses having a common focus cannot intersect in more

than two real points, but two hyperbolas, or an ellipse and hyperbola,
may do so.
14. ABC is any triangle and P any point : four conic sections
are described with a given focus touching the sides of the triangles
ABC, PBC, PCA, PAB respectively ; shew that they all have a common
tangent.
15. TP, TQ are tangents to a parabola cutting the directrix
respectively in X and Y ; ESF is a straight line drawn through the
focus S perpendicular to ST, cutting TP, TQ respectively in E, F;
prove that the lines EY, XF are tangents to the parabola.
16. With the orthocentre of a triangle as focus, two conics are
described touching a side of the triangle and having the other two sides
as directrices respectively ; shew that their minor axes are equal.
17. Two parabolas have a common focus S ; parallel tangents are
drawn to them at P and Q intersecting the common tangent in P' and
Q' ; prove that the angle PSQ is equal to the angle between the axes,
and the angle P'SQ' is supplementary.
18. ABC is a given triangle, S a given point ; on BC, CA, AB
respectively, points A', B', C' are taken, such that each of the angles
ASA', BSB', CSC' , is a right angle. Prove that A', B', C' lie in the
same straight line, and that the latera recta of the four conics, which
have S for a common focus, and respectively touch the three sides of
the triangles ABC, AB'C', A'BC ', A'B'C' are equal to one another.
19. A parabola and hyperbola have the same focus and directrix,
and SPQ is a line drawn through the focus Sto meet the parabola in P,
and the nearer branch of the hyperbola in Q ; prove that PQ varies as
the rectangle contained by SP and SQ.

20. If two equal parabolas have the same focus, the tangents at
points angularly equidistant from the vertices meet on the common
tangent.
21. If an ellipse and a parabola have the same focus and directrix,
and if tangents are drawn to the ellipse at the ends of its major axis,
the diagonals of the quadrilateral formed by the four points where
these tangents cut the parabola intersect in the focus.
22. Find the reciprocals of the theorems of Arts. 215 and 217.
23. If a conic be reciprocated with regard to a point, shew that
there are only two positions of the point, such that the conic may be
similar and similarly situated to the reciprocal.
 EXAMPLES. 233

24. Conics are described having a common focus and equal latera
recta. Also the corresponding directrices envelope a fixed confocal
conic. Prove that these conics all touch two fixed conics, and that the
reciprocals of the latera recta of these fixed conics are equal to the sum
and difference of the latera recta of the variable conics and of the fixed
confocal.

25. Given a point, a tangent, and a focus of a conic, prove that the
envelope of the directrix is a conic passing through the given focus.
26. Two conics have a common focus : their corresponding direc-
trices will intersect on their common chord, at a point whose focal
distance is at right angles to that of the intersection of their common
tangents.
If the conics are parabolas, the inclination of their axes will be the
angle subtended by the common tangent at the common focus.
27. If the intercept on a given straight line between two variable
tangents to a conic subtends a right angle at the focus of the conic, the
tangents intersect on a conic.

28. The tangent at P to an hyperbola meets the directrix in Q ;

another point R is taken on the directrix such that QR subtends at the
focus an angle equal to that between the transverse axis and an
asymptote ; prove that RP envelopes a parabola.
29. S is the focus of a conic ; P, Q two points on it such that
the angle PSQ is constant ; through S, SR, ST are drawn meeting the
tangents at P, Q in R, Trespectively, and so that the angles PSR, QST
are constant ; shew that RT always touches a conic having the same
focus and directrix as the original conic.
30. OA, OB are common tangents to two conics having a common
focus S, CA, CB are tangents at one of their points of intersection,
BD, AE tangents intersecting CA, CB, in D, E. Prove that SDE is a
straight line..
31. An hyperbola, of which S is one focus, touches the sides of
a triangle ABC ; the lines SA, SB, SC are drawn, and also lines
SD, SE, SF respectively perpendicular_to_the former three lines,
and meeting any tangent to the curve in D, E, F ; shew that the lines
AD, BE, CF are concurrent.
32. If a conic inscribed in a triangle has one focus at the centre of
the circumscribed circle of the triangle, its transverse axis is equal
to the radius of that circle.

33. If any two diameters of an ellipse at right angles to each other

meet the tangent at a fixed point P in Q and R, the other two tangents
through and R intersect on a fixed straight line which passes through
a point T on the tangent at P, such that PCTis a right angle.
 CHAPTER XIII.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS.

236. IT will be found that, in general, five conditions.

are sufficient to determine a conic, but it sometimes happens
that two or more conics can be constructed which will satisfy
the given conditions. We may have, as given conditions,
points and tangents of the curve, the directions of axes or
conjugate diameters, the position of the centre, or any
characteristic or especial property of the curve.
PROP. I. To construct a parabola, passing through three
given points, and having the direction ofits axis given.
In this case the fact that the conic is a parabola is one of
the conditions.

E S

R'

Let P, Q, R be the given points, and let RE parallel to

the given direction meet PQ in E.
CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 235

If E be the middle point of PQ, R is the vertex of the

diameter RE ; but, if not, bisecting PQ in V, draw the
diameter through V and take A such that

AV RE : QV² : QE . EP.

Then A is the vertex of the diameter AV.

If the point E do not fall between P and Q, A must be

taken on the side of PQ which is opposite to R.
The focus may then be found by taking AU such that

QV² = 4A V. AU,

and by then drawing US parallel to QV and taking AS

equal to AU.

237. PROP. II. To describe a parabola through four

given points.

First, let ABCD be four points in a given parabola, and

let the diameter CF meet AD in F.

Draw the tangents PT, QT parallel to AD, BC, and the

diameter QV meeting PT in V.
236 CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC

Then ED . EA : EC.EB :: TP² : TQ²

:: TV² : TQ²
:: EF² : EC².
Hence the construction ; in EA take EF such that
EF EC :: ED . EA : EC . EB,
then CF is the direction of the axis, and the problem is
reduced to the preceding .

If the point F be taken in AE produced, another para-

bola can be drawn, so that, in general , two parabolas can be
drawn through four points.

238. This problem may be treated differently by help

of the theorem of Art. 52, viz.;

If from a point O, outside a parabola, a tangent OM,

and a chord OAB be drawn, and if the diameter MĚ meet the
chord in E,
OE = OA.OB.

F E N

ME F

Let A, B, C, D be the given points, and let E, E',

F, F' , be so taken that
OE = OE" = OA . OB,
and OF = OF" = OC.OD.
 FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 237

Then EF and E'F ' are diameters, and KL, the polar
of O, will meet EF and E'F" in M, N, the points of contact
of tangents from 0.

The second parabola is obtained by taking for diameters

EF' and E'F.

239. PROP. III . Any conic passing through four points

has a pair of conjugate diameters parallel to the axes of the
two parabolas which can be drawn through the four points.

Let TP, TQ be the tangents parallel to OAB and OCD,

and such that the angle PTQ is equal to AOC.

Then, if OE = OA . OB, and OF² = OC . OD,

OE OF OA.OB : OC.OD
:: TP : TQ * ;

.. EF is parallel to PQ.

Hence, if R and V be the middle points of EF and PQ,

OR is parallel to TV ;

But, taking OF' equal to OF, OR is parallel to EF',

.. TV and PQ are parallel to EF

" and EF;
i.e. the conjugate diameters parallel to TV and PQ are
parallel to the axes of the two parabolas.
238 CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC

240. PROP. IV. Having given a pair of conjugate dia-

meters, PCP', DCD' , it is required to construct the ellipse.
In CP take E such that PE . PC = CD2, draw PF per-
pendicular to CD, and take FC' equal to FC.

P
D E

About CEC' describe a circle, cutting PF in G and G' ;

then
PG.PG' = PE. PC = CD2,

and GCG is a right angle ; therefore CG and CG' are the

directions of the axes and their lengths are given by the
relations,
PG.PFBC ,
PG' . PFAC².

We may observe that, O being the centre of the circle,

AC2 + BC2 = PF.PG + PF.PG
'
= 2 . PF . PO
= 2. PC . PN,
if N be the middle point of CE,
= PC2 + PC.PE
= CP ? + CD .
 FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 239

If PE' be taken equal to PE in CP produced, and the

same construction be made, we shall obtain the axes of an
hyperbola having CP, CD for a pair of conjugate semi-
diameters.

241. This problem may be treated also as follows.

In PF, the perpendicular on CD, take

PK = PK' = CD;
then PKPG.PG',

and therefore K'GKG' is an harmonic range ; and GCG'

being a right angle, it follows (Art. 199), that CG and CG'
are the bisectors of the angles between CK and CK'.
Hence, knowing CP and CD, G and G' are determined .

242. PROP. V. Having given the focus and three points

of a conic, to find the directrix.

Let A, B, C, S be the three points and the focus.

Produce BA to D so that

BD : AD : SB : SA,

and CB to E, so that

BE : CE SB : SC;
then DE is the directrix .

The lines BA, BC may be also divided internally in the

same ratio, so that four solutions are generally possible.

Conversely, if three points A , B, C and the directrix are

given, let BA, BC meet the directrix in D and E; then S
lies on a circle, the locus of a point, the distances of which
from A and B are in the ratio of AD to DB.

S lies also on a circle, similarly constructed with regard

to BCE; the intersection of these circles gives two points,
either of which may be the focus.
240 CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC

243. PROP. VI. Having given the centre, the directions

of a pair of conjugate diameters, and two points of an ellipse,
to describe the ellipse.

If C be the centre, CA, CB the given directions, and

B
P
P LD

Α' C N M A

Q'

P, Q the points, draw QMQ , PLP' parallel to CB and CA,

and make Q'M = QM and P'L = PL.

Then the ellipse will evidently pass through P' and Q',
and if CA, CB be the conjugate radii , their ratio is given by
the relation
CA2 CB2 : EP . EP EQ . EQ,

E being the point of intersection of P'P and Q'Q.

Set up a straight line ND perpendicular to CA and such

that
ND : NP2 : EP . EP' : EQ . EQ,

and describe a circle, radius CD and centre C, cutting CA in

A, and take
CB : CA : NP : ND.

Then AN.NA'ND²,

and PN : AN . NA' :: CB2 : CA².

Hence CA, CB are determined, and the ellipse passes

through P and Q.
 FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 241

244. PROP. VII. To describe a conic passing through

a given point and touching two given straight lines in given
points.
Let OA , OB be the given tangents, A and B the points of
contact, N the middle point of AB.

IN

E
M G

1st. Let the given point D be in ON; then, if ND = OD,

the curve is a parabola.
But if ND < OD, the curve is an ellipse, and, taking C
such that OC . CN = CD², the point C is the centre.
If ND > OD, the curve is an hyperbola, and its centre
is found in the same manner.

2nd. If the given point be E, not in ON, draw GEF

parallel to AB, and make FL equal to EL.
Take K such that
GK2 = GE.GF;

then AK produced will meet ON in D, and the problem is

reduced to the first case.

To justify this construction, observe that, if DM be the

tangent at D,
GE . GF GA :: DM2 : MA²
:: GK2 : GA²,
so that GE . GF - GK².
B. C. S. 16
242 CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC

245. PROP. VIII . To draw a conic through five given

points.
Let A, B, C, D, E be the five points, and F the inter-
section of DE, AB.

੧੨
G

F H
A B

E Q

Draw CG, CH, parallel respectively to AB and ED, and

meeting ED, AB in G and H.

If F and G fall between D and E, and F and H between

A and B, take GP in CG produced and HQ in CH produced,
such that

CG.GP : DG.GE : AF.FB : DF.FE,

and CH.HQ : AH.HB :: DF . FE : AF . FB ;

Then (Arts. 92 and 134) P and Q are points in the

conic.

Also PC, AB being parallel chords, the line joining their

middle points is a diameter, and another diameter is ob-
tained from CQ and DE.

If these diameters are parallel, the conic is a parabola,

and we fall upon the case of Prop . II.; but if they intersect
in a point O, this point is the centre of the conic, and,
having the centre, the direction of a diameter, and two
ordinates of that diameter, we fall upon the case of Prop. VI.
 FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 243

The figure is drawn for the case in which the pentagon

AEBCD is not re-entering, in which case the conic may be
an ellipse, a parabola, or an hyperbola.

If any one point fall within the quadrilateral formed by

the other four, the curve is an hyperbola.

In all cases the points P, Q must be taken in accordance

with the following rule.

The points C, P, or C, Q must be on the same or different

sides of the points G, or H, according as the points D, E, or
B, A are on the same or different sides of the points G or H.

Thus, if the point E be between D and F, and if G be

between D and E, and H between A and B, the points P
and C will be on the same side of G, and C, Q on the same
side of H, but if H do not fall between A and B, C and Q
will be on opposite sides of H.

Remembering that if a straight line meet only one

branch of an hyperbola, any parallel line will meet only one
branch, and that if it meet both branches, any parallel will
meet both branches, the rule may be established by an
examination of the different cases.

246. The above construction depends only on the ele-

mentary properties of Conics, which are given in Chapters
I, II, III, and IV. For some further constructions we shall
adopt another method depending on harmonic properties.

PROP. IX. Having given two pairs of lines OA , OA ',

and OB, OB', to find a pair of lines OC, OC' , which shall
make with each of the given pairs an harmonic pencil.

This is at once effected by help of Art. 203.

For, if any transversal cut the lines in the points c, a, b,

c' , b' , a' , the points c, c' are the foci of the involution , in
which a, a' are conjugate, and also b, b' , the centre of the
involution being the middle point of cc'.
16-2
244 CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC

247. PROP. X. If two points and two tangents of a

conic be given, the chord of contact intersects the given chord
in one of two fixed points *.
Let OP, OQ be the given tangents, A and B the given

G-

points, and C the intersection of AB and the chord of con-

tact.

Let OC' be the polar of C, and let AB meet OC′ in D.

Then C is on the polar of D, and therefore DBCA is an
harmonic range.

Also, C being on the polar of C' , C'QCP is an harmonic

range.
Hence if two lines OC, OC' be found, which are har-
monic with OA , OB, and also with OP, OQ, these lines
intersect AB in two points C and D, through one of which
the chord of contact must pass.
Or thus, if the tangents meet AB in a and b, find the
foci C and D of the involution AB, ab ; the chord of contact
passes through one of these points.

* I am indebted to Mr Worthington for much valuable assistance in this

chapter, and especially for the constructions of Articles 247, 249, 250,
and 253.
 FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 245

248. PROP. XI. Having given three points and two

tangents, to find the chord of contact.

In the preceding figure let OP, OQ be the tangents, and

A, B, E the points.
Find OC, OD harmonic with OA , OB, and OP, OQ ; also
find OF, OG harmonic with OA , OE and OP, OQ.

Then any one of the four lines joining C or D to For G

is a chord of contact, and the chord of contact and points of
contact being known, the case reduces to that of Art. 244 .
Hence four such conics can in general be described .

249. PROP. XII . To describe a conic, passing through

two given points, and touching three given straight lines.
Let AB, the line joining the given points, meet the given
tangents QR, RP, PQ, in N, M, L.

U
A X

E N
B
M T
Y R

Find the foci C, D of the involution A, B and L, M;

Then YZ, the polar of P, passes through C or D,

Art. 247.

Also find the foci, E, F, of the involution A, B, and

M, N; then XY, the polar of R, passes through For E.

Let ZX meet PR in T ; then Tis on the polar of Q, and

QY is the polar of T.
Hence TXUZ is harmonic ;
therefore MEVC is harmonic.
246 CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC

This determines V, and, joining QV, we obtain the point

of contact Y.

Then, joining YC and YE, Z and X are obtained, and

X, Y, Z being points of contact, we have five points , and
can describe the conic by the construction of Art. 245 ,
or by that of Art. 252.

Since either C or D may be taken with E or F, there are

in general four solutions of the problem.

250. PROP. XIII . To describe a conic, having given

four points and one tangent.

Let A, B, C, D be the given points, and complete the

quadrilateral.

K
B

D)

Then E is the pole of FG, and if the given tangent KL

meet FG in K, E is on the polar of K ; therefore the other
tangent through K forms an harmonic pencil with KF, KL,
KE.

Hence two tangents being known, and a point E in the

chord of contact, if we find two points P, P'in A, B, such
that KP, KP ' are harmonic with KA, KB, and also with
KL, KL , we shall have two chords of contact EP, EP',
and therefore two points of contact for KL and also for KL.
Hence two conics can be described.

We observe that if two conics pass through four points,

their common tangents meet on one of the sides of the self-
conjugate triangle EFG.
 FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 247

251. PROP. XIV. Given four tangents and one point, to

construct the conic.

Let ABCD be the given circumscribing quadrilateral,

and E the given point. Completing the figure, draw LEF

K
E

through E and F, and complete the harmonic range LEFE' ;

then, since F is the pole of HG (Art. 217), E' is a point in
the conic.

Also, since K is the pole of FA (Art. 217), the chord of

contact of the tangents AB, AD, passes through K.

Hence the construction is the same as that of Art. 250,

and there are two solutions of the problem.

252. PROP. XV. Given five points, to construct the conic.

Let A, B, C, D, E be the five points, and complete the
quadrilateral ABCD.
Then H is the pole of FG, and FG passes through the
points of contact P, Q of the tangents from H.

Join HE, cutting FG in K, and complete the harmonic

range HEKE' ; then E' is a point in the conic.
Also AE, BE' will intersect FG in the same point F',
and E'A, EB will also intersect FG in the same point G.
248 CONSTRUCTION OF A CONIC

But GPFQ and G'PF'Q are both harmonic ranges, there-

fore P and Q are the foci of an involution of which F, G and
F" , G' are pairs of conjugate points.

K E

Hence, finding these foci , P and Q, the tangents HP, HQ

are known, and the case is reduced to that of Prop. VII.

Hence only one conic can be drawn through five points.

253. PROP. XVI. Given five tangents, to find the points

of contact.
Let ABCDE be the circumscribing pentagon. Con-

M
B

E L

G D N

sidering the quadrilateral FBCD, join FC, BD, meeting

in K.
 FROM GIVEN CONDITIONS. 249

Then (Art. 217) K is the pole of the line joining the

intersections of FB, CD, and of FD, BC ; that is, the chords
of contact of BF, CD, and of BC, FD meet in K.
Similarly if BG, AC meet in L, the chords of contact of
AB, CG, and of BC, AG meet in L.

Hence KL is the chord of contact of AB, CD, and there-

fore determines M, N the points of contact.

Hence it will be seen that only one conic can be drawn

touching five lines.
 CHAPTER XIV.

THE OBLIQUE CYLINDER, THE OBLIQUE COne, and the

CONOIDS.

254. DEF. If a straight line, which is not perpendicular

to the plane of a given circle, move parallel to itself, and
always pass through the circumference of the circle, the
surface generated is called an oblique cylinder.
The line through the centre of the circular base, parallel
to the generating lines, is the axis of the cylinder.
It is evident that any section by a plane parallel to the
axis consists of two parallel lines , and that any section by a
plane parallel to the base is a circle.

The plane through the axis perpendicular to the base is

the principal section.
The section of the cylinder by a plane perpendicular to
the principal section, and inclined to the axis at the same
angle as the base , is called a subcontrary section .

255. PROP. I. The subcontrary section of an oblique

cylinder is a circle.

The plane of the paper being the principal plane and

APB the circular base, a subcontrary section is DPE, the
angles BAE, DEA being equal .
Let PQ be the line of intersection of the two sections ;
then
PN. NQ or PN² = BN . NA.
 OBLIQUE CYLINDER. 251

But NB = ND, and NA = NE;

B
A

.. PN. NQ = DN .NE,
and DPE is a circle .

256. PROP. II . The section of an oblique cylinder by

a plane which is not parallel to the base or to a subcontrary
section is an ellipse .

Let the plane of the section, DPE, meet any circular

section in the line PQ, and let AB be that diameter of the

BA F A
P
G

circular section which is perpendicular to PQ, and bisect PQ

in the point F.

Let the plane through the axis and the line AB cut the
section DPE in the line DFE.

Then PF2 = AF . FB.

252 OBLIQUE CYLINDER.

But if DE be bisected in C, and GKC be the circular

section through C parallel to APB,
AF FD : CG : CD,

and FB : FE CG : CD;

.. AF . FB : DF . FE :: CG² : CD² ;

hence, observing that CG = CK,

PF2 : DF.FE :: CK² : CD².

But, if a series of parallel circular sections be drawn, PQ

is always parallel to itself and bisected by DE ;

Therefore the curve DPE is an ellipse, of which CD, CK

are conjugate semi-diameters.

257. DEF. If a straight line pass always through a fixed

point and the circumference of a fixed circle, and if the fixed
point be not in the straight line through the centre of the
circle at right angles to its plane, the surface generated is
called an oblique cone.

The plane containing the vertex and the centre of the

base, and also perpendicular to the base, is called the principal
section.

The section made by a plane not parallel to the base, but

perpendicular to the principal section, and inclined to the
 OBLIQUE CONE. 253

generating lines in that section at the same angle as the

base, is called a subcontrary section.

258. PROP. III. The subcontrary section of an oblique

cone is a circle.

The plane of the paper being the principal section, let

APB be parallel to the base and DPE a subcontrary section,

so that the angle

ODE = OAB,
and OED = OBA.

The angles DBA, DEA being equal to each other, a

circle can be drawn through BDAE.

Hence, if PNQ be the line of intersection of the two

planes APB and EPD,
DN.NE = BN.NA,
= PN . NQ;
therefore DPE is a circle.

And all sections by planes parallel to DPE are circles.

Planes parallel to the base, or to a subcontrary section ,

are called also Cyclic Planes.
254 OBLIQUE CONE.

259. PROP. IV. The section of a cone by a plane not

parallel to a cyclic plane is an Ellipse, Parabola, or Hyper-
bola.

(1 ) Let the section, DPE, meet all the generating lines

on one side of the vertex.

Let any circular section cut DPE in PQ, and take AB

the diameter of the circle which bisects PQ.

The plane OAB will cut the plane of the section in a line
DNE.

Draw OK parallel to DE and meeting in K the plane of

the circular section through D parallel to APB, and join
DK, meeting OE in F.

Then AN : ND :: KD : OK,

and BN : NE : KF : OK;

therefore AN . NB : DN . NE :: KD . KF : 0K²,

or PN2 DN. NE :: KD.KF : OK².

But if a series of circular sections be drawn the lines PQ

will always be parallel, and bisected by DE ;
 OBLIQUE CONE, 255

Therefore the curve DPE is an ellipse, having DE for

a diameter, and the conjugate diameter parallel to PQ, and
the squares on these diameters are in the ratio of KD . KF
to OK².

(2) Let the section be parallel to a tangent plane of the

cone.

If OB be the generating line along which the tangent

plane touches the cone, and BT the tangent line at B to a

Q
A
N
P

circular section through B, the line of intersection PQ will

be parallel to BT, and therefore perpendicular to the diameter
BA through B.

Let the plane BOA cut the plane of the section in DN.

Then, drawing DK parallel to AB,

BN = KD,
and AN : ND : KD : OK ;
therefore AN.NB ND.KD :: KD : OK,
or PN² : ND.KD :: KD : OK,

and KD, OK being constant, the curve is a parabola having

the tangent at D parallel to PQ.

If the plane of the section meet both branches of the

256 CONOIDS.

cone, make the same construction as before, and we shall

obtain, in the same manner as for the ellipse,

F
K

Q
B N A

PN : DN. NE :: DK.KF : OK ,

OK being parallel to DE.

Therefore, since the point N is not between the points
D and E, the curve DP is an hyperbola.

Conoids.

260. DEF. If a conic revolve about one of its principal

axes, the surface generated is called a conoid.
If the conic be a circle, the conoid is a sphere.

If the conic be an ellipse, the conoid is an oblate or a

prolate spheroid according as the revolution takes place
about the conjugate or the transverse axis.
If it be an hyperbola the surface is an hyperboloid of one
or two sheets, according as the revolution takes place about
the conjugate or transverse axis, and the surface generated
by the asymptotes is called the asymptotic cone.
If the conic consist of two intersecting straight lines, the
limiting form of an hyperbola, the revolution will be about
one of the lines bisecting the angles between them, and the
conoid will then be a right circular cone.
 CONOIDS. 257

261. PROP. V. A section of a paraboloid by a plane

parallel to the axis is a parabola equal to the generating
parabola, and any other section not perpendicular to the axis
is an ellipse.
Let PVN be a section parallel to the axis, and take the

A
n

P
B
E D

plane of the paper perpendicular to the section and cutting

it in VN.

Take any circular section DPE, cutting the section PVN

in PNP'.

Then PN is perpendicular to DE,

and PNDN.NE
= DC2 - NC2
= 4AS . AC - 4AS . An
= 4AS . VN ;

therefore the curve VP is a parabola equal to EAD.

Again, let BPF be a section not parallel or perpendicular

to the axis, but perpendicular to the plane of the paper ;
Then, BN.NF = 4SG . VN, OG being the diameter
bisecting BF (Art. 51 ) ;
therefore PN2 : BN.NF :: AS : SG,

and the curve BPN is an ellipse.

B. C. S. 17
258 CONOIDS .

Moreover if the plane BF move parallel to itself, SG

is unaltered, and the sections by parallel planes are similar
ellipses.
In exactly the same manner, it may be shewn that the
oblique sections of spheroids are ellipses, and those of hyper-
boloids either ellipses or hyperbolas.

262. PROP. VI. The sections of an hyperboloid and its

asymptotic cone by a plane are similar curves.
Taking the case of an hyperboloid of two sheets, let
DPF, dP'ƒ, be the sections of the hyperboloid and cone,

D B

P'PN the line in which their plane is cut by a circular sec-

tion GPK or gP'k.

Through D draw LDI perpendicular to the axis ; then,

since
PN² = GN.NK, and P'N' = gN . Nk,
P'N' : dN . Nƒ :: gN . Nk : dN . Nƒ,
:: LD . ID : Dd . Df,
:: BC2 : CE
if CE be the semidiameter parallel to DF;
 CONOIDS. 25.9

and PN2 : DN.NF :: GN . NK : DN.NF

:: BC2 : CE (Art. 134);

therefore the curves DPF, dP'ƒ have their axes in the same
ratio, and are similar ellipses.

In the same manner the theorem can be established if

the sections be hyperbolic, or if the hyperboloid be of one
sheet.

263. PROP. VII . If an hyperboloid of one sheet be cut

by a tangent plane of the asymptotic cone, the section will
consist of two parallel straight lines.

Let AQ, A'Q' be a section through the axis, CN the

generating line, in the plane CAQ, along which the tangent

R
M L
R

C
B

plane touches the cone ; and PNP' the section with this.
tangent plane of a circular section QPQ'.

Then PN² = QN . NQ'

= AC (Art. 106 ) = BC²,

therefore, if BCB' be the diameter, perpendicular to the

plane CAQ, of the principal circular section,
PN = BC and P'N = B'C ;

therefore PB and P'B' are each parallel to CN; that is, the
section consists of two parallel straight lines.
17-2
260 CONOIDS.

264. PROP. VIII . The section of an hyperboloid of one

sheet by a plane parallel to its axis, and touching the central
circular section , consists of two straight lines.

Let the plane pass through A, and be perpendicular to

the radius CA of the central section (fig. Art. 263).

The plane will cut the circular section QPQ' in a line

RLR', and

RL² = QL . LQ = QM² — AC²,

if M be the middle point of QQ'.

But QM² - AC² : CM² :: AC² : BC² ;

therefore RL : AL :: AC : BC ;

hence it follows that AR is a fixed line ; and similarly AR'

is also a fixed line .

It will be seen that these lines are parallel to the section

of the cone by the plane through the axis perpendicular
to CA.

265. PROP. IX. If a conoid be cut by a plane, and

if spheres be inscribed in the conoid touching the plane, the
points of contact of the spheres with the plane will be the foci
of the section, and the lines of intersection of the planes of
contact with the plane ofsection will be the directrices.

In order to establish this statement, we shall first demon-

strate the following theorem ;

If a circle touch a conic in two points, the tangent from

any point of the conic to the circle bears a constant ratio
to its distance from the chord of contact.

Take the case of an ellipse, the chord of contact being

perpendicular to the transverse axis.

If EME be this chord, the normal EG is the radius of

 CONOIDS. 261

the circle, and if PT be a tangent from a point P of the

ellipse,
PT² = PG² - GE²

= PN + NG ^ -
_ EM – MG .

L E
M
m

But EM² - PN² : CN² – CM² :: BC² : AC²,

and CN² – CM² = MN (CM + CN).

Let the normal at P meet the axis in G' ;

then NG : CN : BC : AC²,
and MG CM :: BC² : AC² ;
therefore NG' MG : CN + CM :: BC² : AC².
Hence EM _ PN = MN (NG + MG ).
Also - MG² = MN (NG + MG) ;
NG² —
therefore PT² = MN (NG + MG) – MN (NG' + MG)
= MN.GG'.
But CG : CM SC² : AC²,
and CG : CN : SC2 : AC² ;
therefore GG' : MN :: SC² : AC².
262 CONOIDS.

Hence PT : PL :: SC² : AC ,

PL being equal to MN.

This being established let the figure revolve round the

axis AC, and let a plane section ap of the conoid, perpen-
dicular to the plane of the paper, touch the sphere at S and
cut the plane of contact EE in lk.

From a point p of the section let fall the perpendicular

pm on the plane EE ', draw mk perpendicular to lk, and
join pk.
Then pm : pk is a constant ratio.

Also taking the meridian section through p, pS is equal

to the tangent from p to the circular section of the sphere,
and is therefore in a constant ratio to pm ;

Hence Sp is to pk in a constant ratio,

and therefore S is the focus and kl the directrix of the
section ap.

266. If the curve be a parabola focus S', the proof is as

follows :

PT2 = PG2 – EG²

= PN + NG – EM – MG
=· MN (NG + MG) – 4AS' . MN

= MN (NG + MG) -2MG . MN

= MN2.

It will be found that the theorem is also true for an

hyperboloid of two sheets, and for an hyperboloid of one
sheet, but that in the latter case the constant ratio of PT to
PL is not that of SC to AC.

267. The geometrical enunciation of the theorem also

requires modification in several cases. To illustrate the
difficulty, take the paraboloid, and observe that if the normal
 CONOIDS. 263

at E cuts the axis in G, and if O be the centre of curvature

at A ,
AG > AO,
and the radius of the circle is never less than 40.

This shews that a circle the radius of which is less than

AO cannot be drawn so as to touch the conic in two points.

We may mention one exceptional case in which the

theorem takes a simple form.

In general
EGEM²
= + MG² = 4AS' (AM + AS')
= 4AS' . S'G.

Taking the point g between S and O, describe a circle

centre g and such that the square on its radius = 4AS' . S'g.

Also take a point F in the axis produced such that

AF = 0g ;

it will then be found that the tangent from P to the circle

will be equal to NF. *

When g coincides with S' , the circle becomes a point,

and AF- AS' ;

we thus fall back on the fundamental definition of a parabola.

It will be found that if the plane section of the conoid

pass through S , the point S
" is a focus of the section.
 CHAPTER XV.

CONICAL PROJECTION .

268. IF from any fixed point straight lines are drawn

to all the points of a figure, the section by any plane of the
lines thus drawn is the conical projection of the figure upon
that plane.
The fixed point is called the vertex of projection, and the
plane is called the plane of projection.
Taking the eye as the vertex of projection , the conical
projection of any figure upon a plane is a perspective drawing
of that figure as seen by the eye.
A straight line is projected into a straight line, for the
plane through the vertex and the straight line intersects the
plane of projection in a straight line.
A tangent to a curve is projected into a tangent to the
projection of the curve, for two consecutive points of a curve
project into two consecutive points.
Hence it follows that a pole and polar project into a pole
and polar.
Again, the degree of a curve is unaltered by projection, for
any number of collinear points project into the same number
of collinear points.
In particular, the projection of a conic on any plane is a
conic.

269. Any straight line in a figure can be projected to an

infinite distance.
This is effected by taking the plane of projection parallel
to the plane through the vertex of projection and the straight
line.
 CONICAL PROJECTION. 265

270. A system of concurrent straight lines in a plane can

be projected into a system of parallel straight lines, and a
system ofparallel straight lines can be projected into a system
of concurrent straight lines.
The first of these is effected by taking for plane of pro-
jection any plane parallel to the straight line joining the
vertex of projection and the point of concurrence.
The second is effected by taking for plane of projection
any plane not parallel to the direction of the parallel straight
lines.

271. Any angle in a plane can be projected, on any other

plane, into any other angle.
Let ACB be the angle to be projected, and let DEF be
the plane upon which it is to be projected.
Take any plane parallel to DEF, intersecting in A and B
the lines forming the angle ACB, and take any point 0 in
the plane.

Eb

Then, if CA, CB, CO, meet the plane of projection in

a, b, c, the angle acb is the projection of the angle ACB from
the vertex O upon the plane DEF.
266 CONICAL PROJECTION.

Now OA, OB are parallel to ca, cb ; therefore the angle

acb is equal to the angle AOB.
If then we describe on AB an arc of a circle containing
an angle equal to any given angle, and take any point 0 on
the arc as vertex of projection, the angle ACB will be pro-
jected into the given angle.

It will be seen that the arc of a circle may be described

on the other side of the plane CAB, so that the locus of O
on the plane OAB consists of two equal arcs on the same
base.

If the plane of projection be assigned , it follows, since

the plane OAB may be taken at any distance from C, that
the locus of O consists of portions of two oblique cones
having their common vertex at C.

If the plane of projection be not assigned, but if the line

AB be assigned, the locus of O will be the surface generated
by the revolution , about AB, of the arc of the circle.

If the angle ACB is to be projected into a right angle ,

the locus of O will be the sphere described upon AB as
diameter.

If the assigned plane, DEF, be parallel to CA, the locus

of O on the plane OBA will be the straight line BO making
with BA the angle OBA equal to the supplement of the
angle into which ACB is to be projected.
In the particular case in which this angle is a right angle
the locus of O will be the straight line BO perpendicular to
BA.

If it be required to project two given angles in a plane

into two other given angles in any other plane, we can con-
struct two arcs of circles in a plane parallel to this other
plane, and, if these arcs intersect, the position of O is de-
termined.

272. To project a given quadrilateral into a square.

Let ABCD be the quadrilateral, and let AC, BD intersect
in E, AD, BC in F, and BA, CD in G.
 CONICAL PROJECTION. 267

Then if O is the vertex of projection, taken anywhere,

the quadrilateral will be projected into a parallelogram on
any plane parallel to OFG.
If O be taken on the sphere of which FG is diameter,
the projection on any plane parallel to OFG will be a
rectangle, for the angles subtended by FG at A, B, C, D
project into right angles.
If AC and BD meet FG in L and M, and if O be taken
on the circle which is the intersection of the spheres on FG
and LM as diameters, the angle LEM will be projected into
a right angle, so that the projection of ABCD will be a
rectangle, the diagonals of which are at right angles, and
therefore will be a square.

273. The projection of an harmonic range is an harmonic

range.
This is proved in Art. 198.

The projection of a circle is a conic.

This is proved in Art. 259 .
As an illustration it is easily shown for a circle that, if a
diameter pP passes through an external point T' and intersects
in V the polar of T, pVPT is an harmonic range.
By projection we at once obtain the theorems of Art. 78
and of Art. 117 .

274. To project a conic into a circle, so that the projection

of a given point inside the conic shall be the centre of the
projection.
Let E be the given point, AEB the chord bisected at
E and PEp the diameter passing through E.
Then, if we project the polar of E to an infinite distance,
and the angles AEP, APB into right angles, the projection
of the conic will be a circle, the centre of which is the pro-
jection of the point E.
For the centre is the pole of a line at an infinite distance ,
and, the projection of AEP being a right angle, the projec-
tions of AB and Pp are the principal axes of the projection.
268 CONICAL PROJECTION.

Also, the projection of APB being a right angle , it follows

that the projection of the conic is a circle.

Another method will be to take points C, C', D, D' on the

polar of E, such that CED, C'ED' are self- conjugate triangles,
and then to project CD to an infinite distance and the angles
CED, C'ED' into right angles.

The projection will be a conic, having the projection of E

for its centre, and also having two pairs of conjugate diameters
at right angles to each other ; that is, it will be a circle.

In a subsequent article this question will be treated in a

different manner.

If the point E is outside the conic, we can project the

conic into a rectangular hyperbola, of which the projection of
E is the centre.

For, if PQ is the chord of contact of tangents from E, all

we have to do is to project PQ to an infinite distance, and
PEQ into a right angle.

We can also project the conic into an hyperbola of any

given eccentricity.

For, if the eccentricity is given, the angle between the

asymptotes is given, and we can project PQ to an infinite.
distance and PEQ into the given angle.

275. To project a conic on a given plane so that the

projection of a point S inside the conic shall be a focus of the
projection .

Let the tangent at any point P and any straight line

through S meet the polar of S in F and X.

Then, if we project the angles SXF, FSP into right

angles, the projections of S and FX are the focus and
directrix of the projection.

If at the same time we project to an infinite distance the

polar of any point E on XS, the projection of E will be the
centre of the projection of the conic.
 CONICAL PROJECTION. 269

276. If two conics in different planes have two points

in common, two cones ofthe second order can be drawn passing
through them, or, in other words, each can be projected into
the other.
Let AB be the common chord, F and D its poles with
regard to the conics.
Take any point Ein AB, and let the plane FED meet the
conics in the points P, p, Q, q, and let pq intersect DF in O.

P P
E

If from the conic BPAp be projected on to the plane

of the other conic, the projection will be a conic touching the
conic BQAq at A and B, so that it will have four points in
common with BQAq, and will also have the point q in
common with BQAq.
Now it is proved in Art. 252, that only one conic can be
drawn through five points.

Hence the projection , having five points in common with

BQAq, coincides with it entirely.
It will be observed that OPQ is a straight line, Pp being
projected into Qq.
270 CONICAL PROJECTION.

The point is therefore the vertex of a quadric cone

which passes through the two conics.
The vertex of another such cone is obtained by producing
qP or pQ to meet DF. *

277. A conic can be projected into a circle so that the

projection of any point inside the conic shall be the centre of
the circle.

Let E be the point inside the conic and let AB be the

chord of which E is the middle point.
Describe a circle on AB as diameter in any plane passing
through AB.
Observing that the pole of AEB with regard to the circle
is at an infinite distance, draw through F, the pole of AB
with regard to the conic, the line FL parallel to that diameter,
QEq, of the circle which is perpendicular to AB.
* I am indebted to Mr H. F. Baker, Fellow and Lecturer of St John's
College, for having called my attention to this theorem and to the mode of
proof which is here given. The theorem is given in Poncelet's Treatise, and
also in the article on Projections in the last edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
 CONICAL PROJECTION. 271

The plane EFL will cut the conic in the diameter Pp, and
the circle in the diameter Qq.

If pq, qP intersect FL in 0 and O' , these two points will

be vertices from which the conic can be projected into a
circle, the centre of which is the projection of the point E.
Since FO : Fp :: Eq : Ep :: EA : Ep,

it follows that, for different positions of the plane through

AB, FO is constant, so that O may be taken anywhere on
the circle, centre F, in the plane through F perpendicular to
the chord AEB.

Further, FO : FP :: EQ : EP :: EA : EP,

.. FO² : FP . Fp :: EA² : EP . Ep :: CD² : CP²,

DCd being the semidiameter of the conic which is conju-
gate to CP.

The length FO is thus determined when the position of

the point E, inside the conic, is given, and, if we take as the
vertex of projection any point 0 on the circle, centre F, as
described above, the projection of the conic on any plane
parallel to AEB and FO will be a circle.

If the conic is an ellipse, it follows that FO is equal to

the ordinate FR, conjugate to Pp, of the hyperbola in the
plane of the ellipse which has the same conjugate diameters
PCp and DCd.

P P

If the conic is an hyperbola, FO is equal to the ordinate

FR of an ellipse in the plane of the hyperbola which has the
same conjugate diameters PCp and DCd.
This hyperbola or this ellipse constructed outside the
given conic may be called the associated conic.
272 CONICAL PROJECTION.

If the conic is a parabola, the points O and O' are obtained

by drawing lines through q and Q parallel to the axis of the
parabola.
In this case ,

FO² = Eq² = EA² = 4SP . PE = 4SP . PF,

so that the associated conic is a parabola.
If the conic is a circle , the associated conic is a rectangular
hyperbola.
If the conic is an ellipse, the axes of which are indefinitely
small, that is, if it is reduced to a point, the associated conic
lapses into two straight lines, which are at right angles to
each other if the point is the limit of a circle.

278. If the point E be outside the conic, or, in other

words, if the polar of E intersect the conic, it is not possible
to project the conic into a circle, so that the projection of E
shall be the centre of the circle.

In this case the conic can be projected into a rectangular

hyperbola, having the projection of the point E for its centre.
Let RU be the chord of contact of the tangents from E,
and take any point O on the surface of the sphere of which
RU is a diameter.

Then the projection of the conic from the vertex 0 on

any plane parallel to ROU will be an hyperbola, and, since
ROUis a right angle, it will be a rectangular hyperbola.

279. Iftwo conics in a plane are entirely exterior to each

other, they can in general be projected, from the same vertex,
into circles on the same plane.
Draw four parallel tangents to the conics, and let F
' be the
point of intersection of the diameters, PCp and QGq, joining
the points of contact.
Also, let FR, FR' be the ordinates through F, parallel to
the tangents, of the associated conics.
If F is so situated that these ordinates are equal , the
locus of the vertices from which the two conics can be pro-
 CONICAL PROJECTION. 273

jected into circles will be the same, that is, it will be the
circle of which F is the centre, and FR the length of the
radius, in the plane through F perpendicular to FR.

In this case, taking any point 0 on the circle as the

vertex, the two conics will be projected into circles on any
plane parallel to the plane OFR, and the centres of the
circles will be the projections of E and E', the respective
poles of FR with regard to the conics.

280. For different directions of the tangents, the points,

F, R, R', will take up different positions, and for all directions
of the tangents the loci of these points will be continuous
curves.

The loci of R and R' will, in general, intersect each other ;

that is to say, there will be, in general, positions of F such
that FR and FR' are equal.
Taking a particular case, let F be so situated that FR' is
greater than FR ; then taking Fat the point where its locus
meets the conic G, FR' vanishes, and therefore, between
these two positions of F, there must be some position such
that FR' is equal to FR.
B. C. S. 18
274 CONICAL PROJECTION.

We may observe that the locus of F passes through C and

G, the centres of the two conics.

For, if CG is conjugate to the parallel tangents of the

conic G, the point F is at C, and, if CG is conjugate to the
parallel tangents of the conic C, the point F is at G.

When FR' is equal to FR, the line thus obtained is called

by Poncelet the Ideal Secant of the two conics.

281. In a similar manner if one conic is entirely inside

another they can, in general, be projected into circles, one of
which will be inside the other.

Also two conics intersecting in two points may be pro-

jected into two intersecting circles.

Two conics intersecting in four points, or having contact

at two points, cannot be projected into circles, but they can
be projected into rectangular hyperbolas.

282. The method of projections enables us to extend to

conics theorems which have been proved for a circle, and
which involve, amongst other ideas, harmonic ranges, poles
and polars, systems of collinear points, and systems of con-
current lines.

For instance, the theorems of Arts. 208 and 210 are easily
proved for a circle, and by this method are at once extended
to conics.

Take as another instance Pascal's theorem, that the opposite

sides of any hexagon inscribed in a conic intersect in three
collinear points.

If this be proved for a circle, the method of conical

projection at once shews that it is true for any conic.
The following very elementary proof of the theorem for
a circle is given in Catalan's Théorèmes et Problèmes de
Géométrie Elémentaire.

Let ABCDEF be the hexagon, and let AB and ED meet

in G, BC and FE in H, FA and DC in K.
 CONICAL PROJECTION. 275

Also let ED meet BC in M and AF in N, and let BC

meet AF in L.
Then we have the relations,

LA . LF = LB. LC, MC . MB = MD . ME,

NE.ND = NF . NA.
R

18-2
276 CONICAL PROJECTION.

Also, the triangle LMN being cut by the three trans-

versals AG, DK, FH, we have the relations ,
LB.MG.NA = LA . MB.NG
LC.MD.NK = LK . MC.ND
LH.ME.NF = LF . MH.NE.
Multiplying together these six equalities, taking account
of the relations previously stated, and cutting out the factors
common to the two products, we obtain
LH.MG.NK = LK.MH. NG;
G, H, K are collinear.
Brianchon's theorem that, if a hexagon circumscribe a
conic, the three opposite diagonals are concurrent is proved at
once by observing that it is the reciprocal polar of Pascal's
theorem .

283. Euclidean Proof of Pascal's Theorem . By R. F.

DAVIS, M.A.
Let ABCDEF be a cyclic hexagon. Produce AB, DE
to meet in G, and AF, CD in K. Let BC and the circum-
circle of DFK intersect GK in H, P respectively.

B F
K
A

Then (1) P, D, B, G are concyclic, for

180° DPG = DPK = DFK
= 180 ° — DFA
= DBG.
 CONICAL PROJECTION. 277

Also (2) P, F, B, H are concyclic, for

FPH = 180° – FPK
= FDK = FBC
= 180° - FBH.
From (2)
BFHBPH
=- BPG
= BDE
-
from ( 1 ) = 180 ° – BFE ; therefore EF passes through H.
[In most geometrical conics Pascal's theorem for the
conic is derived from the theorem for the circle by conical
projection. The above proof is strictly Euclidean : it neither in-
volves anharmonic ratios (Casey's Sequel, Nixon's Geometry
Revised, &c.) nor Menelaus' Transversal Theorem , which is
employed by Catalan. ] -Educational Times.

284. Stereographic and Gnomonic Projections.

If a point on the surface of a sphere be taken as the
vertex of projection , and if the plane of projection be parallel
to the tangent plane at the point, the projection of any
figure drawn on the surface of the sphere is called its
stereographic projection.
If however the centre of the sphere be taken as the
vertex of projection, and any plane be taken as the plane of
projection, the projection of any figure drawn on the surface
of the sphere is called its gnomonic projection.
The stereographic projection of a circle drawn on the
surface of the sphere is a circle ; for it can be easily shewn
that it is a subcontrary section of the oblique cone formed by
the vertex of projection and the circle on the sphere.
The gnomonic projection of a circle on the sphere is
obviously a conic.

These projections are sometimes described in treatises on

Astronomy, and in these treatises the vertex for stereographic
projection is taken at the south pole of the earth, and, for
gnomonic projection, at the centre of the earth ; and, in both
278 CONICAL PROJECTION .

cases, the plane of projection is taken parallel to the plane of

the equator.

284. It will be seen that the discussions which are given

in this chapter are confined entirely to cases of real projection.
The chapter is intended to be simply an introduction to a
large and important subject.
The method of conical projections is due to Poncelet, and
is worked out with great fulness and elaboration in his work
entitled, Traité des Propriétés Projectives des Figures ( Second
edition, 1865, in two quarto volumes).
In this work Poncelet extends the domain of pure geometry
by the interpretation and use of the law of continuity, and,
as one of its applications, by the introduction of the imaginary
chord of intersection, or, as it is called by Poncelet, the ideal
secant of two conics.
Amongst English writers, the student will find valuable
chapters on projections in Salmon's Conics, and in the large
work on the Geometry of Conics, by Dr C. Taylor, the Master
of St John's College, Cambridge.
There is also an important work by Cremona, on Projective
Geometry, which has been translated by Leudesdorf (Second
edition, 1893 ) .
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II.

1. If two conics have the same directrix, their common points are
concyclic.
2. If a focal chord of a parabola is bisected in V and the line
perpendicular to it through V meets the axis in G, SG is half the
chord.

3. If the perpendicular to CP from a point P of an ellipse meets

the auxiliary circle in Q, PQ varies as PN.
4. AA' and BB' are the axes, and Sis one of the foci of an ellipse ;
if a parabola is described with S as focus and passing through B and B',
its vertex bisects SA or SA'.

5. Tangents to an ellipse at P, p_intersect on an axis ; if the

perpendicular from p on the tangent at P intersects CP in L, the locus
of L is a similar ellipse.
6. The normal to a hyperbola at P meets the axes in G and g
respectively. Prove that the circle circumscribing SPG is touched
by Sg.
7. If a tangent to an ellipse meets a pair of conjugate diameters in
points equidistant from the centre, the locus of the points is a circle.
8. If ellipses are described on AB as diameter, touching BC, the
points of contact of tangents from C are on a straight line.
9. If from a point P of an hyperbola, Pl, Pm be drawn perpen-
dicular to the asymptotes, the centre of the circle Plm lies on a fixed
hyperbola.
10. PSQ, PHR are focal chords of an ellipse, QT, RT the tangents
at Q and R. Shew that PT is the normal at P.
11. A, B are two fixed points. Through them a system of circles
is drawn. Through A draw any two lines meeting the circles in the
points CD1 , C2D2 , &c. Shew that the lines CD all touch a parabola,
focus B, which also touches the lines AC, AD.
280 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II.

12. From any two points A, B on an ellipse four lines are drawn to
the foci S, H. Shew that SA . HB and SB . HA are to one another as
the squares of the perpendiculars from a focus on the tangents at A
and B.

13. If two points of a conic and the angle subtended by these points
at the focus are given, the line joining the focus with the intersection
of the tangents always passes through a fixed point.
14. If normals to an ellipse are drawn at the extremities of chords
parallel to one of the equi-conjugate diameters, pairs of such normals
intersect on the line through the centre perpendicular to the other
diameter.

15. From the point in which the tangent at any point P of a

hyperbola cuts either asymptote perpendiculars are dropped upon the
axes. Prove that the line joining the feet of these perpendiculars
passes through P.

16. Tangents are drawn to an ellipse parallel to conjugate diameters

of a second given ellipse. Shew that the locus of their intersection is
an ellipse similar and similarly situated to the second ellipse.

17. A focus of a conic inscribed in a triangle being given, find the

points of contact.

18. The normals at P and Q, the ends of a focal chord PSQ, intersect
in K, and KNis perpendicular to PQ ; prove that NP and SQ are equal.
19. If CR, SY, HZ be perpendiculars upon the tangent at a point
P such that CR= CS, prove that R lies on the tangent at B, and that
the perpendicular from R on SH will divide it into two parts equal to
SY, HZ respectively.

20. If a parabola, having its focus coincident with one of the foci of
an ellipse, touches the conjugate axis of the ellipse, a common tangent
to the ellipse and parabola will subtend a right angle at the focus.
21. Two tangents TP and TQ are drawn to an ellipse, and any
chord TRS is drawn, V being the middle point of the intercepted part ;
QV meets the ellipse in P' ; prove that PP' is parallel to ST.
22. If S, S' are the foci of an ellipse and SY, S'Y' the perpendiculars
on any tangent, XY, X'Y' meet on the minor axis, and, if PN is the
ordinate of P, NÝ and NY' are perpendicular to X and X'Y'
respectively.

23. A circle through the centre of a rectangular hyperbola cuts the

curve in the points A, B, C, D. Prove that the circle circumscribing
the triangle formed by the tangents at A, B, C passes through the
centre of the hyperbola.
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II. 281

24. If the tangent at a point P of an ellipse meets any pair of

parallel tangents in M, N, and if the circle on MN as diameter meets
the normal at P in K, L, then KL is equal to DCD', and CK, CL are
equal to the sum and difference of the semi-axes.
25. From a point 0 two tangents OA, OB are drawn to a parabola
meeting any diameter in P, Q. Prove that the lines OP, OQ are similarly
divided by the points of contact, but one internally, the other externally.
26. If S, H be the foci of an ellipse, and SP, HQ be parallel radii
vectores drawn towards the same parts, prove that the tangents to the
ellipse at P, Q intersect on a fixed circle.
27. If an ellipse be inscribed in a quadrilateral so that one focus S
is equidistant from the four vertices, the other focus must be at the
intersection H of the diagonals.

28. P is a point on a circle whose centre is Q; through P a series

of rectangular hyperbolas are described having for their centre of
curvature at P. Prove that the locus of their centres is a circle with
diameter of length PQ.

29. Two cones which have a common vertex, their axes at right
angles, and their vertical angles supplementary, are intersected by a
plane at right angles to the plane of their axes. Prove that the dis-
tances of either focus of the elliptic section from the foci of the
hyperbolic section are equal respectively to the distance from the
vertex of the ends of the transverse axis of each, and that the sum of
the squares on the semi-conjugate axes is equal to the rectangle con-
tained by those distances.
30. Two plane sections of a cone which are not parallel are such
that a focus of each and the vertex of the cone lie on a straight line.
Shew that the angle included by any pair of focal chords of one section
is equal to that contained by the corresponding focal chords ofthe other
section, corresponding chords being the projections of each other with
respect to the vertex.

31. If PP', QQ be chords normal to a conic at P and Q, and also

at right angles to each other, then will PQ be parallel to P'Q'.
32. A system of conics have a common focus S and a common
directrix corresponding to S. A fixed straight line through S intersects
the conics, and at the points of intersection normals are drawn. Prove
that these normals are all tangents to a parabola.

33. Two parabolas having a common directrix meet in P, Q. The

normals to one parabola at P, Q meet its axis in F, H ; the normals to
the other parabola at P, Q meet its axis in G, K. Prove that
PF: PG::QH : QK.
34. A chord of a conic whose pole is O meets the directrices in R
and R' ; if SR and HR′ meet in O′ , prove that the minor axis bisects 00'.
282 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II.

35. TQ and TR, tangents to a parabola, meet the tangent at P in

X and Y, and TU is drawn parallel to the axis, meeting the parabola in
U. Prove that the tangent at U passes through the middle point of
XY, and that, if S is the focus,
XY2 =4SP . TU.

36. The foot of the directrix which corresponds to S is X, and XY

meets the minor axis in T; CV is the perpendicular from the centre on
the tangent at P. Prove that, if CP=CS, then CV = VT.

37. A is a given point in the plane of a given circle, and ABC a

given angle. If B moves round the circumference of the circle, prove
that, for different values of the angle ABC, the envelopes of BC are
similar conics, and that all their directrices pass through one or other
of two fixed points.
38. If AA' is the transverse axis of an ellipse, and if Y, Y ' are the
feet of the perpendiculars let fall from the foci on the tangent at any
point of the curve, prove that the locus of the point of intersection of
AY and A'Y' is an ellipse.
39. The tangent at a point P of an hyperbola cuts the asymptotes
in L and L', and another hyperbola having the same asymptotes bisects
PL and PL. Prove that it intersects CP in a point p such that
Cp2 : CP2 : 34.
The chord QR, joining a point R on an asymptote with a point Q on
the corresponding branch of the first hyperbola, intersects the second
hyperbola in E; if QR move off parallel to itself to infinity, prove that,
ultimately RE: EQ :: 3 : 1.
40. Tangents are drawn to a rectangular hyperbola from a point T
in the transverse axis, meeting the tangents at the vertices in Q and Q.
Prove that QQ touches the auxiliary circle at a point R such that RT
bisects the angle QTQ'.
41. Tangents from a point T touch the curve at P and Q ; if PQ
meet the directrices in R and R', PR and QR' subtend equal angles
at T.
42. The straight lines joining any point to the intersections of its
polar with the directrices touch a conic confocal with the given one.
43. If a point moves in a plane so that the sum or difference of its
distances from two fixed points, one in the given plane and the other
external to it, is constant, it will describe a conic, the section of a right
cone whose vertex is the given external point.
44. In the construction of Art. 241 prove that CK ' and CK are
respectively equal to the sum and difference of the semi-axes.
45. Given a tangent to an ellipse, its point of contact, and the
director circle, construct the ellipse.
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II. 283

46. If the tangent at any point P of an ellipse meet the auxiliary

circle in ' , R', and if Q, R be the corresponding points on the ellipse,
the tangents at Q and R pass through the point P' on the auxiliary
circle corresponding to P.
47. In the ellipse PDP'D', P'HCSPX and DCD' are conjugate
diameters ; CH is equal to CS, and the polar of S passes through a
point X on PP produced. If DX is drawn cutting the ellipse in Q,
prove that HD is parallel to SQ.
48. If T is the pole of a chord of a conic, and F the intersection of
the chord with the directrix, TSF is a right angle.
49. The polar of the middle point of a normal chord of a parabola
meets the focal vector to the point of intersection of the chord with the
directrix on the normal at the further end of the chord.

50. OP, OQ touch a parabola at P, Q; the tangent at R meets

OP, OQ in S, T; if V is the intersection of PT, ŠQ, 0, R, V are
collinear.

51. If from any point A a straight line AEK be drawn parallel to

an asymptote of an hyperbola, and meeting the polar of A in K and the
curve in E, shew that AE = EK.

52. If a chord PQ of a parabola, whose pole is T, cut the directrix

in F, the tangents from F bisect the angle PFT and its supplement.
53. A parabola, focus S, touches the three sides of a triangle ABC,
bisecting the base BC
' in D ; prove that AS is a fourth proportional to
AD, AB, and AC.
54. A focal chord PSQ is drawn to a conic of which C is the
centre ; the tangents and normals at P and Q intersect in T and K
respectively ; shew that ST, SP, SK, SC form an harmonic pencil.
55. PCP' is any diameter of an ellipse. The tangents at any two
points D and E intersect in F. PE, P'D intersect in G. Shew that
FG is parallel to the diameter conjugate to PCP'.
56. A conic section is circumscribed by a quadrilateral ABCD : A
is joined to the points of contact of CB, CD ; and C to the points of
contact of AB, AD : prove that BD is a diagonal of the interior quadri-
lateral thus formed.

57. A parabola touches the three lines CB, CA, AB in P, Q, R, and

through Ra line parallel to the axis meets RQ in E; shew that ABEC
is a parallelogram .
58. If a series of conics be inscribed in a given quadrilateral, shew
that their centres lie on a fixed straight line.
Shew also that this line passes through the middle points of the
diagonals .
284 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II.

59. Four points A, B, C, D are taken, no three of which lie in a

straight line, and joined in every possible way ; and with another point
as focus four conics are described touching respectively the sides of the
triangles BCD, CDA, DAB, ABC; prove that the four conics have a
common tangent.
60. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral circumscribing a conic
intersect in a focus, they are at right angles to one another, and the
third diagonal is the corresponding directrix.
61. An ellipse and parabola have the same focus and directrix ;
tangents are drawn to the ellipse at the extremities of the major axis :
shew that the diagonals of the quadrilateral formed by the four points
where these tangents cut the parabola intersect in the common focus,
and pass through the extremities of the minor axis of the ellipse.
62. Three chords of a circle pass through a point on the circum-
ference ; with this point as focus and the chords as axes three parabolas
are described whose parameters are inversely proportional to the chords ;
prove that the common tangents to the parabolas, taken two and two,
meet in a point.
63. A circle is described touching the asymptotes of an hyperbola
and having its centre at the focus. A tangent to this circle cuts the
directrix in F. and has its pole with regard to the hyperbola at T.
Prove that TF touches the circle.
64. Two conics have a common focus : their corresponding direc-
trices will intersect on their common chord, at a point whose focal
distance is at right angles to that of the intersection of their common
tangents. Also the parts into which either common tangent is divided
by their common chord will subtend equal angles at the common focus.
If the conics are parabolas, the inclination of their axes will be the
angle subtended by the common tangent at the common focus.
65. The tangent at the point P of an hyperbola meets the directrix
in Q; another point R is taken on the directrix such that QR subtends
at the focus an angle equal to that between the transverse axis and an
asymptote ; prove that the envelope of RP is a parabola.
66. If an hyperbola passes through the angular points of an
equilateral triangle and has the centre of the circumscribing circle as
focus, its eccentricity is the ratio of 4 to 3, and its latus rectum is one-
third of the diameter of the circle.
67. An isosceles triangle is circumscribed to a parabola ; prove that
the three sides and the three chords of contact intersect the directrix in
five points, such that the distance between any two successive points
subtends the same angle at the focus.
68. Tangents are drawn at two points P, P on an ellipse. If any
tangent be drawn meeting those at P, P in R, R', shew that the line
bisecting the angle RSR intersects RR on a fixed tangent to the
ellipse.
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II. 285

69. The chords of a conic which subtend the same angle at the
focus all touch another conic having the same focus and directrix.
70. Two conics have a common focus S and a common directrix,
and tangents TP, TP' are drawn to one from any point on the other
and meet the directrix in F and F". Prove that the angles PSF ",
PSF are equal and constant.
71. A rectangular hyperbola circumscribes a triangle ABC ; if
D, E, F are the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B, C on the opposite
sides, the loci of the poles of the sides of the triangle ABC are the lines
EF, FD, DE.
72. If two of the sides of a triangle, inscribed in a conic, pass
through fixed points, the envelope of the third side is a conic.
73. If two circles be inscribed in a conic, and tangents be drawn
to the circles from any point in the conic, the sum or difference of these
tangents is constant, according as the point does or does not lie between
the two chords of contact.

74. The four common tangents of two conics intersect two and two
on the sides of the common self-conjugate triangle of the conics.
75. Prove that a right cylinder, upon a given elliptic base, can be
cut in two ways so that the curve of section may be a circle ; and that
a sphere can always be drawn through any two circular sections of
opposite systems.
76. An ellipse revolves about its major axis, and planes are drawn
through a focus cutting the surface thus formed. Prove that the locus
of the centres of the different sections is a surface formed by the
revolution of an ellipse about CS where C or S are respectively the
centre and focus of the original ellipse.
77. Given five tangents to a conic, find, by aid of Brianchon's .
theorem, the points of contact.
78. The alternate angular points of any pentagon ABCDE are
joined, thus forming another pentagon whose corresponding angular
points are a, b, c, d, e ; Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee are joined and produced to
meet the opposite sides of ABCDE in a, ß, y, d, e ; shew that if A be
joined with the middle point of yd, B with the middle point of de, &c.,
these five lines meet in a point.
79. If a conic be inscribed in a triangle, the lines joining the
angular points to the points of contact of the opposite sides are con-
current.

80. If a quadrilateral circumscribe a conic, the intersection of the

lines joining opposite points of contact is the same as the intersection
of the diagonals.
286 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II.

81. ABC is a triangle, and D, E, Fthe middle points of the sides.

Shew that any two similar and similarly situated ellipses one circum-
scribing DEF and the other inscribed in ABC will touch each other.
82. AB is a chord of a conic. The tangents at A and B meet in T.
Through B a straight line is drawn meeting the conic in C and AT in
P. The tangent to the conic at C meets AT in Q. Prove that TPQA
is a harmonic range .
83. Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss are four concurrent chords of a conic ; shew that
a conic can be drawn touching SR, RQ, QP, sr, rq, qp.
84. If two sections of a right cone have a common directrix, the
latera recta are in the ratio of the eccentricities.
85. ABCD is a parallelogram and a conic is described to touch its
four sides. If S is a focus of this conic and if with S as focus a para-
bola is described to touch AB and BC, the axis of the parabola passes
through D.
86. If from a point 0 O tangents be drawn to two conics S and S",
and if the tangents to S be conjugate with respect to S ' , prove that the
tangents to S' are conjugate with respect to S.
87. If a triangle is self-conjugate with respect to each of a series
of parabolas, the lines joining the middle points of its sides will be
tangents ; all the directrices will pass through 0, the centre of the
circumscribing circle ; and the focal chords, which are the polars of 0,
will all touch an ellipse inscribed in the given triangle which has the
nine-point circle for its auxiliary circle.
88. If a triangle can be drawn so as to be inscribed in one given
conic and circumscribed about another given conic, an infinite number
of such triangles can be drawn.
89. Prove that the stereographic projection of a series of parallel
circles on a sphere is a series of coaxal circles, the limiting points of
which are the projections of the poles of the circles.
90. Through the six points of intersection of a conic with the sides
of a triangle straight lines are drawn to the opposite angular points ; if
three of these lines are concurrent the other three are also concurrent.
91. Prove that the asymptotes of an hyperbola, and a pair of con-
jugate diameters form an harmonic range, and that the system of pairs
of conjugate diameters is a pencil in involution.
92. If two concentric conics have the directions of two pairs of
conjugate diameters the same, then the directions are the same for
every pair.
93. If two concentric conics have all pairs of conjugate diameters
in the same directions, and have a common point, they coincide en-
tirely.
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. II. 287

94. If two conics have two common self-conjugate triangles with

the same vertex, which is interior to both, they cannot intersect in any
point without entirely coinciding.
95. If two conics in space whose planes intersect in a line which
does not cut either conic, and if on this line there are four points ,
P, P', Q, Q', such that the polars of P with regard to the conics both
pass through P ', and that the polars of both pass through Q' , then
either conic can be projected into the other in two ways.

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