Lecture 2:
The Earth
System
The Earth as a system
Anthroposphere
(soil)
Magnetosphere
(ice)
A change in one sphere will have
flow on effects to ALL other spheres
Atmosphere
The air around us, and the
weather patterns around Earth
Changes rapidly (hourly/daily to
yearly cycles) – energy from Sun
Evaporation and
Precipitation
Warm moist air rises at
the equator - low
pressure.
Water vapor forms
clouds - Air cools =
precipitation.
Cold, dry air causes high
pressure systems as it
descends.
These “Cells” dominate
weather
Jet Streams and the Polar
Vortex
Jet streams are fast,
constant air currents which
separate warm and cool air
masses.
Polar vortex is constant low pressure system over poles
Jet Streams and weather
The position of the jet
stream between
atmospheric cells controls
the weather in Ontario
Any change to the
atmosphere that
impacts the jet
stream will have a
large impact to
weather in Ontario
Polar vortex
The jet stream separates a mass of cold air above the pole
– the Polar Vortex.
You will hear this term used during Winter to describe
particularly cold bouts of weather.
Warmer stratosphere leads to weaker polar vortex; jet
streams also weaken, and become more convoluted.
This brings wild swings in Winter weather across the
Northern Hemisphere.
Climate vs
weather
Long term
trends vs short
term
Earth’s climate is
controlled by
many factors, all
working at the
same time.
Hydrosphere
Ocean circulation driven at
surface by atmospheric
circulation; at depth by
temperature and salinity
differences.
Ocean holds
far more
heat than
atmosphere.
Thermohaline Circulation
The ‘warm’ and
‘cold’ are
relative; this
current is still
cold
Deeper circulation of currents driven by sinking of cold,
salty water
Cold, nutrient rich water upwells in east Pacific and south
Indian oceans.
Thermohaline Major driver of the Gulf Stream
Circulation
Antarctica ~100 million years ago:
Antarctica today:
Circumpolar current
The world ~100 million years ago:
What changed between the green Antarctica of ~100 Ma, and the
cold, frozen continent of today?
The connection between
ocean circulation and
weather: El Niño / La Niña
Cold phase and warm phase
of the ‘El Niño - Southern
Oscillation (ENSO)’
Changes in atmospheric
pressure which alter how
much deep, cold water
upwells in Pacific Ocean
Southern
Oscillation Index –
a measure of how
different pressure
is across Pacific
“Normal” conditions –
circulation of winds from east to
west at Earth’s surface help
drive warm water to the west
Pacific Ocean (also connected to
location of warmer water)
“El Niño” conditions –
Thermocline less
pronounced; warm water
moves east across Pacific
allows hot air to rise in
central Pacific and spread E
and W – warm water able to
travel much further east
“Normal” conditions –
circulation of winds from east to
west at Earth’s surface help
drive warm water to the west
Pacific Ocean (also connected to
location of warmer water)
“La Niña” conditions – warm
water gathers in W Pacific,
and cause hot air to rise
there – convection happens
similarly to “Normal”
conditions, but is much
stronger
‘ENSO Index v2’ uses
more inputs to
determine conditions
in real time.
Red colours indicate
El Niño conditions;
blue are La Niña
Moving into La Niña
conditions – more
hurricanes; colder winter?
Cryosphere
The storage of water in ice
caps or glaciers
Glaciers form when
the mass balance
between accumulating
snow and melting
snow
Ice flows as a ‘plastic’
Rocks trapped in the
base of the ice acts like
sandpaper on the
bedrock.
U-shaped valleys –
carved by glaciers
Canadian Shield –
smoothed by ice
sheets
Ice sheets during the post-
Ice Age retreat carved the
landscape and dumped
huge amounts of sediments
Also called
Glacial Lake
Whittlesey
The forests of Southern
Ontario are full of
boulders of granite –
from 100s km north
Biosphere
Respiration and photosynthesis have had drastic impacts on
Earth’s atmosphere and climate
The vast global forests of the Carboniferous era
More about the Biosphere in future lectures
Anthroposphere degassing
Human civilization
and all it entails
(the good and the
bad)
What is the lasting
impact of our
civilization on the
world?
More about the Anthroposphere in
future lectures
Pedosphere
Soil and weathered and loose
material on Earth’s surface
Store of organic material;
crucial for plant growth
Forested soil
Grassland soil
Permafrost
Forested soil
Peat bog
Forested soil
Exposed rock /
no soil
Melting permafrost
will change the
landscape –
damaging
infrastructure and
impacting waterways
Exposes organic material to
decay
Geosphere and
magnetosphere
The Geosphere
• Igneous – rocks from molten material
• Metamorphic - deformed rocks from immense stress
• Sedimentary - deposited rocks
The recycling of rock requires a very active geosphere
New rock formation
in action –
Sakurajima, Japan
Kagoshima – home
to 600,000
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Magnetosphere
The magnetic
field created by
Earth’s structure
More next lecture…
ERS111 will focus on the geosphere
What control does the geosphere have on Earth’s climate?
What is the evidence for this control?
The Earth as a system
Anthroposphere
(soil)
Magnetosphere
(ice)
A change in one sphere will have
flow on effects to ALL other spheres
The Earth System adjusts constant to
Feedback external forcings – increased CO2, changes
loops in Earth’s orbit, growth of mountain
ranges, biological innovations etc.
System
External Forcings Internal Interactions Response
Positive feedback loop
Note: ‘positive’ here does not mean the outcome is good
Negative feedback loop
Note: ‘negative’ here does not mean the outcome is bad
Increased Increased
Temp Evaporation
and
precipitation
Decrease
Temp Increased
Weathering
CO2 Decrease
forming
CaCO3 Increased
Ca+ in oceans
A typical external forcing
Earth’s orbital activity Milankovitch cycles
Orbital Eccentricity – a change from a circular to elliptical
orbit around the Sun – on a ~100,000 year cycle
Obliquity – a change in the extent of the tilt of Earth’s
axis – on a ~41,000 year cycle
Precession – a change in the direction that the North
Pole is facing (currently at the star Polaris); effectively
changes the time of year that the equinoxes land on – on
a ~26,000 cycle
Impact of Milankovitch cycles
Are the Milankovitch cycles part of a negative or
positive feedback loop?
Not really that simple…
This is the
Change in orbit leads to cooler Earth external forcing
Leads to more snow / ice
This is the
Reflects more solar radiation
feedback loop
Cools further
Milankovitch Cycles make both positive and negative loops
Add on
complexity from:
• Large volcanic
eruptions
• Changing plate
tectonics
• Ocean
circulation
patterns…
Key points to know:
- How to define each sphere
- How each sphere basically works (e.g. high / low
pressure zones in the atmosphere)
- What a positive and negative feedback loop is and how
they can be formed
- What the Milankovitch cycles are, and how they can
change the climate on a short time scale
Readings: No specific chapters in either book, but check
out sections on Ice Ages or ocean circulation.
