Dynamics (AE1130-II) summary

by Selim Kazanci

1
 Table of contents
Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 3
Particle dynamics-------------------------------------------------------------------Page 4
Rectilinear motion------------------------------------------------------------------Page 5
Curvilinear motion-----------------------------------------------------------------Page 9
Normal&Tangential and polar coordinate systems---------------------------Page 12
Dependent and relative motion--------------------------------------------------Page 18
FBD, KD and EOM---------------------------------------------------------------Page 23
EOM on n-t c.s--------------------------------------------------------------------Page 29
EOM on polar c.s-----------------------------------------------------------------Page 33
Work, energy and power---------------------------------------------------------Page 36
Linear momentum and impulse-------------------------------------------------Page 41
Angular momentum--------------------------------------------------------------Page 45
Rigid body dynamics-------------------------------------------------------------Page 50
Rigid body kinematics, general plane motion---------------------------------Page 51
Absolute motion and relative velocity analysis-------------------------------Page 58
Instantaneous center of zero velocity and relative acceleration analysis--Page 64
EOM, translation------------------------------------------------------------------Page 70
Kinetics of a rigid body, Rotation about a fixed axis-------------------------Page 74
Rigid body kinematics, general plane motion---------------------------------Page 77
Rigid body energy----------------------------------------------------------------Page 81
Rigid body momentum and impulse-------------------------------------------Page 84
Conservation of momentum in rigid body dynamics------------------------Page 86

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 Introduction
Dynamics is known for being one of the harshest subjects in the entire BSc, however, the
theories and the concepts are in fact pretty basic and intuitive since dynamics is a branch of
classical mechanics. Therefore, it is easy to visualize and hence understand the concepts. The
hard part of dynamics is solving problems. In order to master problem-solving skills, a person
must understand the theory very well with the small details since the path that leads to the
solution to the problems is usually going through these small details. Then, the student should
have the right thought method to be able to combine different concepts and finally solve
many problems. In this summary, I will explain the theory in details and solve some hard
questions to show the reader how to think while solving problems.

All the images, figures and information are taken from Engineering Mechanics Dynamics
14th SI edition by R.C. Hibbeler.

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 Particle dynamics
We divide our dynamics course into two broad categories. Particle and rigid body dynamics.

In particle dynamics, we treat our objects as a single point, a particle therefore their shape
does not matter, we treat all the shapes as a particle. For certain situations, this is a valid
assumption, but not always, thats why we have rigid body dynamics and further but we won’t
go further than rigid body dynamics.

The situations where we can make particle assumptions are usually the situations where our
objects is much smaller than the environment it is interacting with, however, when to make
this assumption will be clearer when we solve questions. It can be said that the distinction can
be made by intuition.

4
1.2: Rectilinear motion
Rectilinear motion refers to motion where the motion cannot be described by a single
function, instead, multiple functions are needed to describe the motion. An example to this
situation would be a in real life car trip.

Before starting, basic relationships should be known. They are:

𝑑𝑠
• 𝑣= 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
• 𝑎= 𝑑𝑡

Where 𝒔 stands for displacement, t stands for time, 𝒗 for velocity and 𝒂 for acceleration.
Remember that they are vectors.

However, we could also write a relationship that depends on displacement instead of time,
since for certain situations we are more interested in how velocity and acceleration change
depending on the displacement -such as simple harmonic motion.

These relationships are:

𝑑𝑣
• 𝑎 = 𝑣 (𝑑𝑠) hence, acceleration at a specific position(displacement) can be found in

velocity-displacement graph by multiplying the velocity by the gradient of this graph.

1 𝑠
• (𝑣12 − 𝑣02 ) = ∫𝑠 1 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 by rearranging this formula the final velocity could be found
2 0

𝑠
𝑣1 = √∫𝑠 1 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 + 2𝑣02 hence, we would need the acceleration-displacement graph as
0

well as the initial velocity of our particle to find the final velocity

There is not much about rectilinear motion, the formulas given above should be applied
directly. Let’s show some examples.

5
Problem solving:

1) First thing we should always do is determine a coordinate system. For this question,
we choose positive direction to be downwards and negative direction upwards.
2) Second thing that we should look for is the small hints in the text, for this question, it
is that we started from rest and at a very high altitude
𝑑𝑣
3) We are asked to find the velocity at 5 seconds after the drop and we know that 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
hence the given expression could be written as = 9.81(1 − 𝑣 2 ∙ 10−4 ) and hence,
𝑑𝑡

the differential equation can be solved with basic calculus knowledge

100(𝑒 0.1962𝑡 −1)
4) The final equation is found to be 𝑣 = 𝑒 0.1962𝑡 +1

5) Thus, plugging in t = 5 gives v = 45.5𝑚𝑠 −1 and t = ∞ gives v = 100𝑚𝑠 −1

6
1) This question is in fact straightforward however, care must be put into the integral
boundaries. Let us start with the first part of the question where we find the s-t graph.
In this question we do not need to define a coordinate system since everything is
given on a graph.
2) The motion is divided into two functions. Normally, rectilinear motion means motion
that has so many functions however, for questions to be solved by hand easily, we are
usually given 2-3 functions.
3) 𝑣 = ±2√𝑠 however, we pick the positive one because we can see on the graph that as
the distance increases (positively) the velocity increases in the positive direction as
𝑑𝑠
well. Since we want 𝑠 − 𝑡 relationship, we will use the fact that 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡, thus
1
𝑠 −2 𝑑𝑠 = 2𝑑𝑡

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 100 −1 𝑡
4) Solve the integral, ∫0 𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 2𝑑𝑡 → 𝑠 = 𝑡 2 since we know that displacement is
zero initially and thus 𝑡 = 10𝑠 when the function changes
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 400 𝑑𝑠 𝑡
5) Let us do the second function then 𝑑𝑡 = 0.2𝑠 ∴ = 0.2𝑑𝑡 ∫100 = ∫10 0.2𝑑𝑡 thus
𝑠 2

ln 4 = 0.2𝑡 − 2 ∴ 𝑡 = 16.9 when s = 400m. We also figured out that the function is
100 0.2𝑡
𝑠= 𝑒
𝑒2

6) Combining all these information, we can sketch the s-t graph:

𝑑𝑣
7) Now a-s graph can be found. Let’s remind ourselves that 𝑎 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
8) Start with the first function. 𝑑𝑠 (𝑣 2 ) = 2𝑣 𝑑𝑠 = 4 → 𝑣 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑎 = 2 hence it is a

constant function
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
9) The second function can be written as 𝑑𝑠 = 0.2 → 𝑣 𝑑𝑠 = 0.22 𝑠 = 𝑎 hence:

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 1.3: Curvilinear motion
Curvilinear motion is the motion that occurs when a particle is moving along a curved
path. Do not confuse this with circular motion.

The displacement-velocity-acceleration relationships are the same as before.

Our universe has 3 dimensions, x-y-z, however, in many cases, we are able to reduce it to
1 or 2 dimensions when we are analyzing and solving the questions since usually there is
nothing important going on in the third dimension.

For a 3 dimensional system, we could find displacement from the origin by:
𝑠 = √𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑥 2

The same logic can be applied to velocity and acceleration calculations.

The last thing we should consider regarding the curvilinear motion is projectile motion.
The projectile motion usually has 2 dimensions and x-y coordinate system is preferred.
The basic idea behind it is what we learned in Chapter 1.2 however, now, in order to solve
questions we have to combine information from 2 dimensions. There is a set of formulas
derived from the basics that only but only works when there is a constant acceleration
we call them SUVAT equations.

• 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
(𝑣+𝑢)
• 𝑠= 2
𝑡
𝑎𝑡 2
• 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2

• 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

Where 𝑣 is the final velocity, 𝑢 is the initial velocity, 𝑡 is time, 𝑠 is displacement and 𝑎 is
acceleration.

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Problem solving:

1) In this question we do not need to define a coordinate system as it is already given.

One of the key information that we should notice is that the vertical velocity is
constant and hence the vertical acceleration is zero. Additionally, we should notice
that we are asked the total velocity and acceleration when the rocket reaches 80m,
hence, we should use √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 and the total acceleration will only be the horizontal
acceleration.
2) Let’s begin with writing the equation: 𝑦 2 − 80𝑦 + 1600 = 160𝑥
𝑑𝑥
3) We know that = 𝑣𝑥 and similarly for y. Hence, let's differentiate the expression
𝑑𝑡

with respect to time, notice that we use implicit differentiation

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 𝑑𝑡 − 80 𝑑𝑡 = 160 𝑑𝑡 hence, if we plug in 𝑦 = 80 and = 180 we find that
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= 90𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑑𝑡

4) Thus, the total velocity is √902 + 1802 = 201𝑚𝑠 −1

10
5) To find the horizontal acceleration we should differentiate the entire expression with
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑦
respect to time again: 2 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) + 2𝑦 2 − 80 𝑑𝑡 2 = 160 𝑑𝑡 2 since = 0 we find
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥
= 405𝑚𝑠 −2 which is also the total acceleration
𝑑𝑡 2

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1) First thing we should do is defining a coordinate system. Let us define the origin as
where the rocket took off and we choose x-y coordinate system.
2) Important information that we have are that rocket was initially at rest, when it stops
accelerating (upwards) it changes its motion and the first motions acceleration is
𝑎 = 5𝑡 by reading the graph and after changing its direction, it is free falling.
3) To find ℎ𝑏 and 𝑣𝑏 we will use 𝑎 = 5𝑡
4) Since the initial altitude and velocity are 0 we can just integrate the acceleration.
5 5
Hence: 𝑣𝑏 = 2 𝑡 2 and ℎ𝑏 = 6 𝑡 3 and if we plug in 𝑡 = 8𝑠 we get 𝑣𝑏 = 160𝑚𝑠 −1 and

ℎ𝑏 = 427𝑚
5) Now we can move on to the second part of the question. We know that our rocket is
tilted 45 degrees hence we can find the initial velocities after the direction change. To
find the max altitude, we should write the equation for vertical displacement
9.81𝑡 2
ℎ𝑦 = ℎ𝑏 + 𝑣𝑏 cos(45)𝑡 − and to find the maxima of this function, we could
2

take the first derivative and find at what value of t that equation becomes zero, hence:
𝑣𝑏 cos(45) − 9.81𝑡 = 0 → 𝑡 = 11.5𝑠 thus ℎ𝑦 = 1079𝑚 at maximum altitude
6) Moving on to the last sub-question, the maximum range is achieved when the rocket
falls on the ground hence, when its altitude is 0. Thus, 0 = 427 + 𝑣𝑏 cos(45) 𝑡 −
9.81𝑡 2
→ 𝑡 = 26𝑠
2

7) The horizontal displacement can be written as ℎ𝑥 = 𝑣𝑏 sin(45) 𝑡 since there is no

acceleration in the x direction. Plugging in t = 26s gives us ℎ𝑥 = 2983𝑚

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2.1: Normal&Tangential and polar coordinate systems
This lecture is particularly important as it is introducing the normal&tangential (n-t) and
polar polar coordinate systems (c.s). Besides them, we have the x-y c.s which we are familiar
with. Choosing the right c.s is essential for solving questions in dynamics in the easiest way
possible. Technically all questions could be solved with all c.s however, it would require
-much- more effort with some than others. Hence, when I mean the right c.s I mean the
easiest c.s for that particiular question.

Previously we saw how we use the x-y c.s therefore I won’t talk about it as it should be clear
how and where it is used.

Today we will look at c.s we use when there is a curvilinear motion.

Let’s begin with n-t c.s:

n-t:

n-t c.s has two axis where the “tangent” axis is tangent to the path, hence, the velocity vector
is only this axis. Normal axis is normal to the path hence, also to the tangent axis therefore
acceleration vector may be on both axis. The origin of this c.s is where our particle/point is
and in this c.s the c.s is changing instantaneously. This means that the c.s is not static as it is
in x-y c.s however, the c.s is changing as the particle propagates. This is because the tangent
and hence the normal to the path is changing. When solving questions, always keep it in mind
that this c.s is only valid instantaneously.

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Keep in mind that the positive normal axis is always pointing at the center of the curve. The
distance between the center and the particle is called the radius of curvature and is denoted by
3
𝑑𝑦 2 2
(1+( ) )
𝑑𝑥
𝜌. If the paths equation is given in terms of 𝑦(𝑥) we can define 𝜌 = 𝑑2 𝑦
| 2|
𝑑𝑥

The velocity of the particle is 𝑣 and only direction is only on the tangential axis.

𝑑𝑣 𝑣2
Acceleration is defined as 𝑎 = 𝒖 + 𝒖𝒏 which makes sense since the acceleration on the
𝑑𝑡 𝒕 𝜌

tangential axis is change in speed of the particle and the normal acceleration is caused by the

We will mostly prefer this c.s where we have a curved path and we are not given an angular
velocity. Also we would mostly prefer it when we are working with systems that have normal
and tangential forces such as friction and normal reaction force.

Polar coordinate system:

Polar c.s is also used for curved paths however, we will prefer it when we are given
information that is related to angular velocity or angular acceleration. This c.s has two axis,
radial and axial axis. They are denoted by 𝒖𝒓 and 𝒖𝜽 respectively. This c.s is a static one,
hence, it does not move with the particle unlike n-t c.s. The origin of the c.s is usually defined
to be the point where the angular velocity is created.

Do not confuse the origin of the c.s with the center of the curve. In this c.s, the motion/path is
achieved by moving on the radial axis as well as the angular velocity.

𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑣𝑟 = , 𝑣𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

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 𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑎𝑟 = 2 − 𝑟 ( ) , 𝑎𝜃 = 𝑟 2 + 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Now, it should be clearer why we prefer this c.s when we are given an angular
velocity/acceleration.

Problem solving:

1) We know that our path is 𝑦 = sin (𝑥) hence a curved path and we are not given
any angular value thus, it is clear that n-t c.s is the best option here.
2) We know that we only have velocity in the tangential and is constant hence at all
times 𝑣𝑡 = 2𝑚𝑠 −1
3) We also know that there are two acceleration contributions, tangential and normal.
Tangential acceleration is the change in the speed of the particle and it is zero
𝑣2
since we are moving at constant speed. Normal acceleration is found by 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜌
3
(1+cos2(𝑥))2
however, we do not know the radius of curvature. By definition 𝜌 = sin(𝑥)
4 sin(𝑥)
4) Thus, 𝑎 = 3 𝑚𝑠 −2
(1+cos2(𝑥))2

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1) In this question, we have a curved path and we are given angular values therefore
it hints us to use the polar c.s. We could say that the pin is our origin.
2) Now, we will meet with one of the most important concepts in dynamics.
Constraints. Constraints basically block or lead the objects and particles in certain
directions. We have general formulas however, for each case, we must consider
their constraints. In this question, we can see that our rod is constrained to move
in the angular direction hence it can only move in the radial direction. This means
that we will ignore the velocity and acceleration in the angular direction as it is
constrained and hence there is no movement there. We will only calculate the
radial velocity and acceleration.
3) The harsh part was to notice the constraint, now we only have to differentiate. By
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
radial velocity formula, 𝑑𝑡 = −100 sin(𝜃) 𝑑𝑡 → −250𝑚𝑚𝑠 −1 = −0.25𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 2
4) For acceleration we need 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑑𝑡 2 − 𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) → −100 cos(𝜃) ( 𝑑𝑡 ) −
𝑑2 𝜃
100 sin(𝜃) − 62 (200 + 100 cos(𝜃)) = −9.3𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑑𝑡 2

5) Notice how we used implicit differentiation

16
1) We are asked to find the angular velocity hence it hints us to use polar c.s. Draw first

2) Now, we need to pick the key information such as 50𝑚𝑠 −1 speed

3) Since we are given the speed, we need to figure out both the radial and angular
velocity components (the axis), we are given the length “r” we can write the equation
in terms of angular velocity and solve for it.
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4) 𝑣𝑟 = = −200 sin(2𝜃) 𝑑𝑡 and 𝑣𝜃 = 100 cos(2𝜃) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑
5) Hence 50 = √(200 sin(2𝜃))2 + (100 cos(2𝜃))2 → = 0.378
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠

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2.2: Dependent and relative motion
These two concepts are vastly important for upcoming lectures and in pretty much all
dynamics questions, especially in rigid body dynamics.

Let’s begin with dependent motion.

Dependent motion: Dependent motion arises when the motion of a particle is dependent
on another particle. This is usually done by an inextensible chord. It is important that the
chord is inextensible so that the motion can be transferred directly, otherwise, the chord
would extend and then transfer the motion to the other particle.

Let us look at how to analyze such systems and I will give important hints.

1) First thing we should determine a datum point, how to choose one will be told when I
give hints
2) From this datum point, we take a distance to our particle
3) We do that in a way that we can sum these distances to equate it to the length of the
chord
4) Then we take the derivative with respect to time, since the length of the chord is
constant it is zero and the derivatives of the distances give us the speed at the
particles/that point is moving
5) Thus, we can relate them to each other and see how one depends on the other

Now, I will give important tips that will be useful when solving difficult questions.

-The first thing you should do is to determine how many chords there are because, for each
chord, we could write a separate equation that allows us to solve for more dependent values

18
-Another important step is to write the datum. We will write all our distances starting from
the datum and all the distances should be perpendicular to that datum line. We must choose
our datum so that it is at a static point or the datum is moving with the entire system. This
needs to be satisfied otherwise the datum would be moving and hence, the found velocity
would be relative, not absolute

-In the system, there may be constant distances that do not change. When we cannot write our
equation, we may use them to write the relationship and when differentiated, they disappear
as they are constant lengths. Such lengths are indicated in red in the example below

-When needed, you could write more than one datum point however, the requirements for the
datum must still hold. We would write multiple datums when there is motion in more than
one direction (since each datum can only be used for 1 direction motion, which is
perpendicular to the datum line)

19
Problem solving:

1) We should firstly find out how many ropes there are. We can clearly see that there are
two
2) Now, we should determine a datum and write the appropriate distances to write the
length. Notice that the length between the connection between the second and the
third pulley is constant

𝑣𝑎
3) Write the equation for the first rope: 𝑠𝐴 + 𝑠𝑐 + (𝑠𝑐 + ℎ) = 𝑙1 hence 𝑣𝑐 = − 2
𝑣𝑐 −𝑣𝑎
4) Write the second equation: 𝑠𝑏 + (𝑠𝑏 − (𝑠𝑐 + ℎ)) → 𝑣𝑏 = ∴ 𝑣𝑏 =
2 4

5) Hence 𝑣𝑏 = −0.5𝑚𝑠 −1

20
Relative motion:
As the name suggests, relative motion describes the motion of two particles relative to
one another. This concept is extremely important in dynamics especially when we will
start with rigid body dynamics, our formulas will be derived from this concept.

The distance between particle B and A relative to B is written as 𝑟𝑏/𝑎 = 𝑟𝑏 − 𝑟𝐴 we can

similarly write the velocity and acceleration. In this equation 𝑟𝑏 and 𝑟𝐴

This concept should be fairly easy to internalize. If not, you could think of it as how the
cars that are going in the same direction as you appear to go slower and vice versa.

Problem solving:

21
1) Firstly we need to determine a c.s. In this question since there is no curved path x-y
c.s seems the most appropriate. Let us take the origin to be where the person A stands.
I prefer to take the positive x axis to be where the ball is thrown and positive y
direction to be upwards.
2) The easiest way to find the required speed of the person B is by considering the
relative motion between the ball and person B which I will refer as B.
3) First, we need to find the time it takes to fall on the ground hence B can catch it. Thus
9.81 2 40 sin(60)
0 = 20 sin(60) 𝑡 − 𝑡 →𝑡= = 3.53𝑠
2 9.81

4) 𝑟𝐵/𝐶 = 𝑟𝐵 − 𝑟𝐶 = 0 for B to catch the ball and 𝑣𝐵/𝐶 = 𝑣𝐵 − 20cos (60)

5) Thus 𝑟𝐵/𝐶 = 15 + 3.53(𝑣𝐵 − 20 cos(60)) = 0 → 𝑣𝐵 = 5.75𝑚𝑠 −1
6) The relative velocity can be calculated by finding the total relative velocity hence
both in x and y axis velocities are needed. In x axis: 𝑣𝐵/𝐶 = 5.75 − 20 cos(60) =
−4.25𝑚𝑠 −1 and in y axis: 20 sin(60) = 17.3𝑚𝑠 −1 since energy is conserved
7) Thus √4.252 + 17.32 = 17.8𝑚𝑠 −1 and when we are asked such questions, we need
to specify the angle as well. We do that by taking the tangent of the velocity vector
17.3
hence tan(𝜃) = −4.25 → 𝜃 = 76.2° and we show the direction. Since the x-direction

of the ball is to the right and y-direction is downwards, we write it as

8) It is obvious that there is no acceleration in the x-direction neither for the ball or B
and the acceleration in y-direction only exist for the ball and it is clearly the Earth’s
gravitational acceleration 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2 downwards

22
2.3: FBD, KD and EOM
This chapter is also one of the most basics and important part of dynamics. It should be
familiar with you from high school, however, we must make it sure that we draw the Free
Body Diagram, Kinetic Diagram and Equations of Motion correctly to be able to solve even
complex questions with ease. Because, when these three points are written correctly, majority
of the question is in fact solved.

- FBD makes us to figure out which forces are acting on the body
- Kinetic diagram tells us in which direction our body is moving at
- Equations of motion writes it down all that information mathematically so that we
could solve the equation and get a numerical value

Just by doing these 3 steps, you could pass your dynamics exam without further solving the
question.

Before starting how to perform these 3 steps, we should discuss the Newton’s laws. Newton
has 3 laws.

1) If the sum of the forces acting on an object is zero, the body is either moving at
constant speed or is stationary
2) Sum of the forces acting on a body is equal to mass times acceleration of the body
hence ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
3) Every force has a counterforce acting on the exact opposite direction with the same
magnitude. Pay attention that the force and the counterforce never acts on the same
body

Now we can talk about how to perform the 3 steps.

1) First thing we should do is to determine a c.s. In previous chapters I told you how you
should choose it therefore I will not repeat it again.
2) Second of all, we should draw a FBD. A box or a sketch of the shape of the body and
then we could draw the forces acting on the body. Please pay attention to the length of
the arrows
3) Kinetic diagram may be the only unfamiliar diagram. Kinetic diagram shows in which
direction the body is accelerated at hence, the direction of the sum of the forces. Note
that the KD’s c.s is based on the c.s we chose. An example is:

23
 4) EOM is simply writing sum of the forces acting on the body. Be careful at the
direction the forces act as well as possible negative signs

Now I will talk about 2 important forces. Weight and friction.

Weight: It is simply the mass of the object times the gravitational acceleration of the planet.
On Earth, we usually take it as 𝑔 = 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2 and weight is always acting towards the center
of the planet hence, on the FBD it will always be downwards. For questions that are in space,
you may have to use Newton’s gravitational law.

Friction: Now, this is quite important because so many students are mixing up the type of the
friction force and its properties. There are two types of friction forces. Static and kinetic
friction. Static friction occurs when there is no relative motion between the two surfaces. It is
so important to keep in mind that friction occurs when there is relative motion. Static friction
may vary from zero to a maximum value. If we are told that the static friction is at its
maximum value, then we could use the formula 𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝜇𝑁 where N is the normal force
and 𝜇 is the static friction coefficient. Otherwise we should just write 𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 in our EOM as
the formula with coefficient is only true for the maximum static friction.

Kinetic friction does not have a similar property. It has no maximum value however, we use
the formula with coefficient for kinetic friction. The difference is that the kinetic friction
coefficient is smaller than the static friction coefficient. Kinetic friction is hence, always
smaller than static friction. Later, when we work with rigid bodies, that information will be
extremely important.

24
Problem solving:

1) First of all we choose our c.s. In this question, it is clear that x-y c.s is the easiest one
to work with. There is no motion in the x-direction as there is no force acting in the x-
axes. I choose the upwards to be positive y-axes.
2) Second thing to do is draw the FBD.

3) When we track down the forces chord and forces acting on the middle pulley:

25
4) Since the pulley is in equilibrium, we can conclude that 𝑇𝐴 = 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 150 = 600𝑁
5) Now we need the KD. We know that the body is accelerating upwards hence

6) Now we can write the EOM for block A: ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇𝐴 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 → 𝑎 = 2.19𝑚𝑠 −2

7) We need to find the time it took for the block to rise 3m and we know that our
2.19 𝑡 2
acceleration is constant ∴ we can use SUVAT: 3 = → 𝑡 = 1.66𝑠 ∴ 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡 →
2

𝑣 = 3.62𝑚𝑠 −1

26
1) In this question it seems like x-y c.s is the easiest one to work with however, this time
we will use two different c.s one for each block. I choose upward to be positive y-axes
and right to be positive x-axes. For block A, I will use the typical x-y c.s however, for
block B, I will tilt the c.s so that the x-axes would be aligned with the direction of the
motion of block B. We usually do this trick to make further EOM calculations easier.
We will always prefer to have our motion in the same direction as our c.s axis.
2) Now, let us draw the FBD for the blocks:

Block A:

Block B:

3) Instead of drawing the KD, in this question I showed the direction of acceleration by
writing “a” and showing the direction by an arrow. Instead of drawing the KD this
could be done as well since there is no motion in other axes directions.
4) Now we can write the EOM. For block A: ∑ 𝐹𝐴 𝑦 = 9.81𝑚𝐴 − 3𝑇 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑎𝐴 and
∑ 𝐹𝐵 𝑥 = 𝑇 − 5 ∙ 9.81 sin(60) = 5𝑎𝐵
5) We can clearly see that we need to find 𝑎𝑏 to find T so we could solve for 𝑚𝐴 and we
will figure out 𝑎𝐴 later. From the given kinematics information we could find 𝑎𝑏 by
4𝑎
using SUVAT since the acceleration is constant: 0.75 = → 𝑎 = 0.375𝑚𝑠 −2 hence
2

𝑇 = 44.4𝑁

27
6) Now we need to find 𝑎𝐴 to find the mass since we have one equation but two
unknowns. Thus, we need another equation. What we should see is that there is
dependent motion hence we could relate the acceleration of block A to the block B
and figure out 𝑎𝐴 thus:

𝑎𝐵
7) Thus 𝑙 = 𝑠𝐴 + 2(𝑠𝐴 − ℎ) + 𝑠𝐵 which gives us 𝑎𝐴 = − (meaning block A is moving
3

downwards) and if we plug in the numbers into EOM for block A we find 𝑚𝐴 =
13.7𝑘𝑔

28
3.1: EOM on n-t c.s
This chapter is pretty basic. It is exactly what we did in chapter 2.3 however, instead of using
x-y c.s we will use n-t c.s. That is the only difference, the rest is exactly the same. To remind
you, we will use this c.s:

When we use n-t c.s we will have an extra standard procedure step compared to before. Even
before choosing the c.s it may be very helpful to sketch the path then choose the c.s, draw
FBD, draw KD and write EOM.

29
Problem solving:

1) In this question x-y c.s may also be used however, since there is a curved path I
choose to use n-t c.s. I will divide the system into two parts, A and B.
2) We know that A is in equilibrium therefore we can easily tell that 𝑇 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑔 and let's
draw the FBD for B

3) We know that the only acceleration is in the normal direction and in the z-direction
𝑚
the particle is in equilibrium hence 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) = 𝑚𝑏 𝑔 → 𝜃 = arccos (𝑚𝑏 )
𝑎

𝑚𝑣 2
4) ∑ 𝐹𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) = and we can see that the radius of the circle/path is 𝑝 =
𝜌

2 −𝑚2 )
𝑔(𝑙−ℎ)(𝑚𝑎
sin (𝜃)(𝑙 − ℎ) hence 𝑣 = √ 𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑏
𝑏

30
1) First of all I want to say that many students get confused with whether they should use
sine or cosine in this question. To figure that out I will give a nice and easy tip
2) We have a curved path and clearly n-t c.s is the best option as we are not given any
angular value. Let’s draw the FBD of the pilot:

3) We know that the only acceleration is in the normal direction hence, in the z-axes,
there should be no acceleration. Here, we need to figure out whether we should use
sine or cosine to project normal force on the z-axes. In such situations what I do is to
check what happens in extreme angles. In other words, when 𝜃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 90. When the
bank angle is zero, we can see that the plane is inverted 90 degrees hence the pilot is
not feeling any normal force to counter his weight (I try to imagine how the plane
would look like, thats how I come up with this argument) on the other hand, when the
bank angle is 90 degrees the plane is moving in the typical cruise way and hence, the
pilot is receiving the maximum normal force. When sine is 90 degrees it is at its max

31
 thus we should use sine for the z direction and cosine for normal direction. Thus
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑁 sin(𝜃) − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 → 𝑁 = 2.65𝑘𝑁
𝑚𝑣 2
4) ∑ 𝐹𝑛 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) = → 𝜌 = 68.3𝑚
𝜌

32
3.2: EOM on polar c.s
Similarly from chapters 2.3 and 3.1, we will do the exact same thing on polar c.s however
there is a small extra this time therefore I will not repeat the first part and just tell the new
stuff.

As we know friction force is tangent and opposite to the direction of the particle and
normal force is perpendicular to the tangent. How can we project these forces on the polar
c.s axis then?

Firstly we sketch the path and draw a tangent to that path. Later, we draw our axis and we
define the angle between the extended radial axis and the tangent line to be 𝜓 where
𝑟
tan(𝜓) = 𝑑𝑟 thus we could project the normal force and friction force on our axis.
𝑑𝜃

To understand this better, let’s solve a problem.

33
Problem solving

1) First thing we do is sketch the path of the particle. From the constraint it should be
obvious that the particle is moving horizontally only hence, the tangent is a horizontal
line which means the normal force is perpendicular to the slot
2) From the given angular values it is clear that we should be using polar c.s
3) Let us draw the FBD then

34
4) There is the weight, normal force, and the force from the rod acting on the particle.
The force that comes from the rod is always perpendicular to the rod in other words it
is on the angular axis
0.5 𝑑𝑟 sin(𝜃)
5) Let us calculate 𝜓 first: We know that 𝑟 = cos(𝜃) ∴ 𝑑𝜃 = 2 cos2(𝜃) → 𝜓 = 60° from the

geometry, this means that the angle between the normal force and radial axis is 30°
6) From the standard formula we could calculate the acceleration
7) ∑ 𝐹𝑟 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠(30) − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠(30) = 𝑚𝑎𝑟
8) ∑ 𝐹 − 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(30) − 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛(30) = 𝑚𝑎𝜃
9) By solving these equations we find that 𝑁 = 6.37𝑁 and 𝐹 = 2.93𝑁

35
3.3: Work, energy and power
Since all these concepts (such as what is energy, what is work etc.) should be quite familiar
by now, I will just stay on the important parts and hints that I will give to solve problems
faster and easier.

The work of a force is the dot product of the displacement and force vectors hence 𝑑𝑈 =
𝐹𝑑𝑟 cos (𝜃) where 𝜃 is the angle between these two vectors.

Work of a weight is a bit different than work of a force. What we do is to determine a zero
point, a datum first.

Then 𝑈1−2 = −𝑊∆𝑦 hence, if we go below our datum we get a positive work and vice versa.
However, with the method I will show soon we will not have to bother with this at all as
defining a datum may be confusing in complex problems.

The work of a spring is also different. Keep in mind that the formula I will show is not valid
𝑘𝑠2
for circular springs. Work of a spring is defined as 𝑈 = where k is the spring constant and
2

s is the spring displacement from the equilibrium position. Keep in mind that spring force is a
type of a potential energy that cannot be negative.

𝑚𝑣 2
Finally, probably the most important energy formula: Kinetic energy KE = . It would be
2

possible that kinetic energy is the only real form of energy in terms of mechanical energy
because all types of energy is in fact turned into kinetic energy when released.

Now, I want you to forget about all the energy conservation stuff. What we will do is to write
the energy situation initially and then in the final situation and equate them. Because the total
energy must be the same, of course we are including lost energy such as energy lost to
friction in our equation. When I solve an example it will be clearer how to do it. We will use
this method for all questions that involve energy.

36
Another question that students usually struggle with is when to use the concept of energy. My
advice is to write it all the time if it can be written, sometimes it is quite clear that we lack so
much of data that we cannot really use it. However, even if you lack small data, always but
always write the initial and final energy equation because you may use that information to
solve another equation by combining it with other concepts. We only have a few distinct
concepts therefore when we solve complex questions, my advice is to write all the concepts
equations down and solve the puzzle basically.

𝑑𝑈
Before we dive into some problems, I want to talk about power. Power is defined as 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑡

and if we have constant velocity and a force then 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣. The efficiency of a machine can be
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟/𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡
found by 𝜇 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟/𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛

37
Problem solving:

1) First of all we should try to imagine/animate the situation in our mind. What will
happen is that the train will start slowing down due to friction and then it will hit the
springs. It is very important to notice that when the springs are shrinking the friction
still acts on the train hence friction keeps slowing down the train. Then, at one point
the train will stop due to friction energy loss and spring storing the energy.
2) Second thing we do is to define a c.s and in this question, we have a linear motion
therefore x-y c.s is clearly the best option. I define upwards to be positive y-axis and
left to be the positive x-axis. Note that there is no motion in y-axis therefore it is
useless.
3) In this question it is clear that we should involve energy because we are given
distance, friction and spring. We could draw the FBD too just so we understand the
situation better however, EOM would not be useful in this case since the acceleration
of the train is changing due to the spring gets more and more shrunk. This would
leave us with a nasty differential equation. To notice such details and prevent
unnecessary work you should solve many questions and get familiar with dynamics
4) Let us write the energy equation. Initial energy only consists of the KE of the train
105 ∙52
hence: 2

5) Final energy is the energy stored in the springs and the energy dissipated into heat due
to friction. Notice that we do not know the distance the springs shrank:

38
 3∙105 𝑥12 5∙105 𝑥22 9.81
+ + 103 ∙ 10 ∙ 100 (30 + 𝑠) where s is the distance the train moved
2 2

after the 30m distance which is also 𝑠 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2

6) It is clear that we need another equation to solve for 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 . Here, we need he
knowledge that the force that is exerted on the both springs is the same hence
3 ∙ 105 𝑥1 = 5 ∙ 105 𝑥2 thus we could equate the initial and final energy equations and
we find that 𝑥1 = 0.628𝑚 and 𝑥2 = 0.377𝑚

39
1) Let’s imagine how the system works. The force will pull the block and gravity +
spring will slow down. I choose the typical x-y c.s since there is a linear motion
2) Let’s draw the FBD

3) Just like in the previous question, using EOM would cause a nasty equation which we
do not want. By looking at the given information, we could try to use energy. Also,
notice the important hints given in the question that the slot is smooth which means
there is no energy loss to friction and we know that there will be no motion in the x-
axis due to the slot constraint although the force pulls. In reality there is a normal
force acting from the slot but I did not show it in the FBD not to confuse the readers
4) Now, let’s find the initial energy: We know that the force applied in the direction of
vertical displacement does work. Let us calculate the difference in length to use the
hint they gave us in the question

5) Thus, the initial energy is 0.11𝐹. Let’s calculate final energy: We know that the block
moved up 0.15m up and let’s define our datum the point where the spring is
unstretched. In the final position, the block gains gravitational potential energy, since
the spring moves with the block it also gains spring potential energy and finally it has
2.52 0.152
kinetic energy as it gained speed. Thus: 0.8 ∙ + 0.8 ∙ 9.81 ∙ 0.15 + 100 ∙
2 2

6) Equating the initial and final energy, we find F = 43.9N

40
4.1: Linear momentum and impulse
Just like I did for energy, momentum is also assumed to be well-known therefore I will only
go through the important formula and hints.

Momentum is simply “𝑚𝑣” and just like energy, it is also constant. Meaning that initial
momentum + the applied impulse (𝐼 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑡) is equal to the final momentum. We will
always use this theorem when we use momentum concept. Note that this is true for that
specific direction. Always remember that momentum is a vector since velocity is a vector
quantity.

Most questions combine momentum with other concepts, especially with energy. Also, notice
that if a force acts on an object, it always creates impulse. It is not like energy where some
forces may not do work. However, sometimes some forces may be negligible. We call the
non-negligible impulses “impulsive shots”. Impulsive shots are usually very large forces.
Non-impulsive shots are negligible. Usually in the questions it will be told whether they are
negligible or not however, even if it is not told, what you could do is to compare the
magnitude of the force to the other forces acting on the object or comparing it to the object's
mass.

Last thing we should consider is impact:

First thing we should do is to figure out the line of impact. This should be obvious from the
image. We basically have a formula for the collision of two objects. We will just use it and
𝑣𝐵2 −𝑣𝐴2
thats all. The formula is: 𝑒 = 𝑣 where e is the coefficient of restitution.
𝐴1 −𝑣𝐵1

I advise you to choose the object B to be the object that got hit and object A to be the object
that hit.

It is very important to stick with your c.s otherwise you would surely make a plus-minus
mistake.

41
There are two special cases. However, you do not have to memorize them because they can
easily be deduced. The special situations are when e = 0 or e = 1

When e = 0 it means that the objects are moving with the same velocity. Since they just
collided and if they are moving with the same speed and direction, it means that they are now
moving together. This is called plastic impact.

When e = 1 it means that the objects are reflected back (opposite direction) with the speed
they came. This is called elastic impact.

42
Problem solving:

1) Firstly we should imagine what is going on. The crate moves down and to the right
(along the ramp axis) and the ramp moves to the left. This is because of Newton’s
third law. The normal force that acts on the crate pushes the ramp to the left. Notice
that this would mean there is a relative motion Since they are moving in the opposite
direction, the crate would reach B even faster. Also, notice that the crate is moving to
the right and down but the ramp only moves left.
2) Now we should establish a c.s and since the motion is linear, I choose x-y c.s.
Normally we tilt the c.s when there is a tilted path however, in this question, I will not
tilt it since it would complicate the motion of the ramp. I choose the positive x-axis to
the right and the positive y-axis to the upward.
3) As I said previously, we should use as much concept as we could. I will try energy
and momentum. Kinetics could also be an option however, instincts should tell us that
this would overcomplicate things because there is a relative motion. However, in case
our equations will not be enough, we could try kinetics too.
4) Initial energy: Everything is at rest but the crate is at position A, the center of gravity
of the ramp does not change as its vertical position does not change and there is no
force that does work therefore 𝑈 = 3.5 sin(30) 𝑚𝐴 𝑔

43
5) Final energy: Finally, the crate is at position B which is our datum hence there is no
longer any gravitational potential energy. However, the crate and the ramp have
2 2
𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵
kinetic energy thus: 𝑈 = +
2 2

6) Now, it should be clear that we need to relate the velocities. Here we could try
momentum
7) Initial momentum is zero since the crate and the ramp are at rest
8) Final momentum can be divided into horizontal and vertical, however, since the ramp
only moves horizontally we should use the horizontal momentum: 𝑃 =
𝑚𝐴 𝑉𝐴 cos(30) − 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵
9) There is no impulse because the normal forces are force pairs thus they cancel each
𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵
other for the total system. Thus: 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑚
𝐴 cos(30)

10) Equating the initial and final energy and writing the equation in terms of 𝑣𝐵 only we
find that 𝑣𝐴 = 5.4𝑚𝑠 −1 and 𝑣𝐵 = 1.1𝑚𝑠 −1

44
4.2: Angular momentum
This part is the exact same of the previous part but for angular values. Hence, there is a great
similarity therefore I will not be repeating the same logic however, I will give important hints
in the problem solving part.

Angular momentun “H”is defined as 𝐻 = 𝒓 𝑥 𝑚𝒗 in vector form however, in partical

dynamics we will mostly use the scalar form 𝐻 = 𝑟 ∙ 𝑚𝑣 where r and v are perpendicular to
each other. Keep in mind that “r” is the arm and “v”is the velocity vector.

When a force acts on the object, it may create angular impulse. Yes, it may, it is not guranteed
unlike linear impulse since if the force and the arm in the same direction, it does not create
𝑡
any angular impulse. Formula for angular impulse is ∫𝑡 2 𝒓 𝑥 𝑭 𝑑𝑡 where F is the force acting
1

on the body. See how similar it is to linear impulse?

Again, very similarly to linear impulse formula, in all questions we will use this formula:
𝑡
𝐻1 + ∫𝑡 2 𝒓 𝑥 𝑭 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐻2
1

Just like before, we will mostly combine angular momentum with energy to solve questions.
Also do not forget that most of the time we will be using n-t c.s since all angular momentum
questions will have curved paths.

Now, let’s look at some problems. I will be giving important hints that you may see
applications later in other questions.

45
Problem solving:

1) First of all, let us draw the path of the child. We can see that it is a curved path.
However, what we should notice and will be vital to solve this question is that, at the
lowest point of the arc, the distance from the datum to the center of gravity changes
from G1 to G2 which means that at that instant, the length is both 2.8m and 3m. This
concept may sound awkward at first however, whenever we are told that there is an
instantaneous change, we should think like this and get used to this concept.
2) Since the path is curved, I will use n-t c.s. However, the issue we can see is that the
acceleration and the radius of curvature is changing therefore EOM is not the way to
go. What else do we know? Energy and momentum of course. So let us try to apply
them
3) Firstly we need to find the velocity of the child when it reaches the lowest point but
still did not move her legs hence, the radius is still 2.8m. Initially, the child is at rest
and let us define our datum to be the lowest point. We know that the tension force
does no work since it is always perpendicular to the displacement. Thus, there is no
work done by any force (besides the weight of course) hence:
𝑚𝑣 2
2
= 2.8𝑚𝑔(1 − cos(30) Thus 𝑣 = 2.53𝑚𝑠 −1 when the child is at the lowest point

without moving the legs.

46
4) Now, the child moved her legs hence the radius has changed to 3m from 2.8m. This
means her velocity has changed because the angular momentum is conserved. You
may think that the forces create impulse however since the change happens
instantaneously, there is no impulse also, both forces at the lowest point are parallel to
the arm hence no impulse is created.
5) At the final position, the child is at rest again hence we can use energy method again
for 3m radius this time. Using the exact same logic in step 3 gives us the angle 27°
6) Notice how we used energy to eliminate the varying impulse calculation for
intermediate steps (from the highest to the lowest points)

47
1) Let us imagine the situation. The block is moving down while making circles and as it
goes down, it gets faster. Again, it should be clear that EOM would not be very
helpful in this question since there are so many unknowns therefore we should try our
luck with momentum and energy approaches. However, first of all we should
determine a c.s. Since we have a curved path again, we will be using n-t c.s with
additional z-axis
2) First of all we should calculate the velocity at the second position. It should be clear
that energy can be used here. There are two forces acting on the block. Normal force
and the weight of the block. Normal force is always perpendicular to the displacement
𝑚𝑣12 𝑚𝑣22
thus it does no work. Thus, energy is conserved and + 𝑚𝑔ℎ = gives us
2 2

𝑣 = 0.196𝑚
3) Now, we are asked for the angle shown in the figure. What we should notice is that
the angular momentum is conserved since weight is always downwards, it does not
create any impulse and the normal force is acting in the z-axis and normal axis which
again does not create any impulse as it is parallel to the arm. If we look at the initial
angular momentum we can see that the arm and the velocity are perpendicular to each
other hence, we can easily find the angular momentum by 𝐻1 = 𝑚𝑣1 𝑟1
4) Now, we want to find the 𝑟2 to write the momentum in position 2. We could use
geometry to find 𝑟2
48
5) Now, we would have to project the velocity component onto the horizontal shown as
it is perpendicular to the arm 𝑟2 thus 𝐻2 = 𝑚𝑣2 cos(𝜃) 𝑟2 = 𝐻1 gives us 𝜃 = 75°

49
Rigid body:
We are finally done with the particle physics part. I have good and bad news. Now, things
will get very fun and interesting however it will also get much harder. Do not worry though,
from now on I will be giving many more hints thus you will not have to spend so much time
figuring out the tricks and the logic behind questions.

In particle physics, the shape of the object did not matter at all, it was always a point
however, now the shape of the object matters very much. Also, now we have rotation around
its own axis property of bodies. Rigid body dynamics can be applied to many in real life
situations. Cars, bicycles, electrical bread cutters, anything with gears, an airplane etc.

50
4.3: Kinematics of rigid body, general plane motion
Here, we will learn how to apply kinematics for rigid bodies. It is still quite similar to particle
dynamics but slightly different. I will be giving important hints and facts therefore pay
attention, please.

We have three distinct motion types. The figure below explains the situation pretty clearly.

General plane motion is the combination of all these motion types and of course, it is the
hardest one. When we solve questions, we will always assume the motion is a general plane
motion since it is the general equation. Then, for the motion types that do not exist in our
case, we will say that their velocity is zero hence we will achieve the right equation for the
given motion. However, always be aware of the types of motions.

In most questions we will have combinations of different bodies with different motion types.
See the image below.

51
Now, let us look at the formulation of different kinds of motions.

Translational:

For such a body:

From now on we will always use relative motion formulas. Thus, we would formulate
different points on the body such as: 𝒓𝑩 = 𝒓𝑨 + 𝒓𝑩/𝑨

However, on a rigid body, since the distance between two points such as point A and point B
does not change, the velocity is 𝒗𝑨 = 𝒗𝑩 and 𝒂𝑨 = 𝒂𝑩

Rotational: For rotational motion, we will use angular values.

52
Now, we will add an important new part to our c.s. The direction of rotation. We will mostly
work in 2D situations/situations where we could simplify the system into a 2D problem
therefore this rotation direction refers to the rotation around the z-axis. I suggest you to
always stick with defining counterclockwise (CCW) to be positive. Plus-minus mistakes are
so common and often lead to bigger problems in complex problems therefore choosing CCW
to be positive always helps solving questions as you would get used to the same calculation
method.

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜔
Our formulas are 𝜔 = and 𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Thus, if we have a constant angular acceleration, we could use our SUVAT equations for the
angular values as it was shown before.

In many situations we will be interested in the linear velocity of a point on the rigid body
thus:

53
 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟

Or in the vector form: 𝒗 = 𝝎 × 𝒓𝑷 Please pay attention to the cross-product order.

Have you noticed something from particle physics? Yes, again, we have our normal and
tangential acceleration. Now, we learned how to relate the angular velocity to the linear
velocity which I will explain why it's so important.

Our acceleration formulas are: 𝑎𝑡 = 𝛼𝑟 and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜔2 𝑟 thus 𝒂 = 𝒂𝒕 + 𝒂𝒏 = 𝜶 × 𝒓 − 𝜔2 𝒓

Notice that the angular velocity in this formula is not a vector

So, why do we need the linear velocity of a point on the rigid body?

In different questions there may be specific needs however, I will name the two most
important reasons that we will commonly see in problems.

1) When we have gears such as the one below, when the gears are in contact, they must turn
in the opposite directions, otherwise they would break. This concept will be used a lot in
upcoming questions where we will have to consider if the body would break and formulate
the situation accordingly. If it is breaking, it should be in the opposite direction basically.
Now, think of the point A. When we analyze the point from either gear, we must have the
same linear velocity, it clearly would not make any sense in reality if point A had two
different velocities. However, the gears could have different angular velocities. Thus, we
need the linear velocity since 𝜔𝐵 𝑟𝐵 = 𝜔𝐶 𝑟𝐶 = 𝑣𝐴 . We do not need this information yet since
we did not involve the forces into account however, do not forget that these two gears exert
force on each other according to Newton’s third law.

2 ) We will not really use this information yet, however, when we work with energy in rigid
bodies, we will use linear velocity to calculate how much the point moved thus we could
calculate the heat loss due to friction

54
Problem solving:

1) Firstly, we should notice that pulley C and B has the same angular velocity and
acceleration, however, at their radius, the linear velocity and acceleration would be
different.
2) To being with, lets find the initial angular velocity of pulley C. Since this is an
inextensible chord, what we know is that the total length must stay the same which
also means that the linear speed on the chord is same everywhere, otherwise it would
be an extensible chord. Thus: 𝜔𝐴 𝑟𝐴 = 𝜔𝐶 𝑟𝐶 . Hence, we need 𝜔𝐴 after 2 revolutions
6𝑡 2
and thus 2 ∙ 2𝜋 = 5𝑡 + → 𝑡 = 1.376 since the other answer is negative which
2

cannot be thus 𝜔𝐴 = 5 + 1.376 ∙ 6 = 13.3𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 Which gives us 𝜔𝐶 = 𝜔𝐵 =

16.6𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
3) We know that the acceleration is constant in the cable is also the same
everywhere(thus the tangential acceleration) hence applying the same logic, the
relative acceleration between the center of the pulleys and at their maximum radial
distance is simply equal to the angular acceleration (this was the logic in step 2 as
well) because the center of the pulleys are stationary hence there is no translational
motion of the pulley. Thus 𝛼𝐴 𝑟𝐴 = 𝛼𝐶 𝑟𝐶 → 𝛼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐵 = 7.5𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2
4) Now, we could calculate the both tangential and normal acceleration of the point B,
we do that separately since they asked for the magnitude of the acceleration. Using

55
 the standard formulas given 𝛼𝑡𝐵 = 0.45𝑚𝑠 −2 and 𝛼𝑛𝐵 = 16.4809𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎=

√𝑎𝑡2𝐵 + 𝑎𝑛2𝑏 = 16.48𝑚𝑠 −2

1) In this question, we can clearly see that every gear rotates the other gear system and
hence, the final system rotates in the same direction as the motor, which is CCW.
Thus, the load is lifted, not descended. It should be clear that we should apply the
linear velocity principle again and again til we get the angular velocity of the final
gear system. Also notice that we have to integrate final linear velocity to get the
displacement. ∫ 100(4 + 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 400𝑡 + 50𝑡 2 and when 𝑡 = 5 we find that
𝑠𝑊 = 2.9𝑚

56
1) First, let us imagine what is going on here. The gears turn and hence the connected
pin rotates the lever also, most importantly, we know that the car window is
constrained to move in the vertical direction only
2) From the linear velocity principle 20 ∙ 0.5 = 50 ∙ 𝜔𝐵 → 𝜔𝐵 = 0.2𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
3) Thus, from the formula, points A and E have the speed 0.2 ∙ 0.2 = 0.04𝑚𝑠 −1
4) We know that the window only moves in the vertical direction hence we need the
vertical components of the velocity. How could we find it? Imagine if we had a
horizontal line and it is moved by an angular velocity, initially, the only velocity is in
the vertical direction, right? That's eactly how we could project the horizontal and
vertical velocity, by thinking a straight line moved by an angular velocity and
checking its initial velocity direction. Thus, in this question 0.2 ∙ 0.2 cos(30) =
0.035𝑚𝑠 −1

57
5.1: Absolute motion and relative velocity analysis
This topic is extremely important because now, we will learn how to calculate linear and
angular velocities in rigid bodies. For this, we have two methods. Absolute motion analysis
and relative velocity analysis -the relative acceleration analysis will be shown in the next
lecture.

Absolute motion:

Absolute motion is relating geometries and then differentiating the expression to find the
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥
wanted quantity. For instance, if we have a term it means angular velocity and means
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

linear velocity. Absolute motion is easier to explain on examples therefore wait til the solving
part however, here is the solution method we will follow:

1) Firstly, we have to determine a reference point. This point must be a fixed reference
from an inertial frame.
2) We will choose our distance to wherever we want from our reference point.
3) Then, by using geometric relations, we will formulate this distance.
4) Finally, we will differentiate that expression and do not forget that we have to write
that expression so that when we differentiate, we can relate our unknown and known
expressions so that we can solve the equation.

When we differentiate our distance once, we get the velocity and when we differentiate twice,
we get the acceleration.

Notice that we will be using implicit differentiation when we differentiate the expression.

Also, I would like to have your attention on the fact that our distance must be the distance
between the reference point and the point we are investigating.

Relative motion analysis:

Relative velocity/acceleration analysis is going to be the method we will be using most of the
time when we solve rigid body problems. This method is simply the relative velocity formula
we learned before. We choose two different points on a body and use this formula:

𝒗𝑨 = 𝒗𝑩 + 𝒗𝑨/𝑩 → 𝒗𝑨 = 𝒗𝑩 + 𝝎𝑨/𝑩 × 𝒓𝑨/𝑩

58
The angular velocity is the angular velocity of the body chosen. Notice that the points A and
B have to be on the same body. Also, do not forget to choose the c.s and you have to place
your c.s at point B since we are looking at the position of point A with respect to point B.

I know that this way it may take unnecessarily too much time since you would have to place a
c.s and perform cross product therefore we would use the scalar version instead. Then, you
should draw the distance and draw the velocity vector.

! We have not defined it most of the times therefore you may not be used to it however, do
not forget to define the positive direction of rotation (CCW or CW). I advise to define CCW
to be positive every time.

Lastly, I would like you to remind you that you should try to figure out small hints to
determine 𝑣𝐴 or 𝑣𝐵 since most of the time we will not be given both. For instance, one of
them may be zero.

59
Problem solving:

1) First of all, what we should notice is that when 𝜃 = 60° there will be a equilateral
triangle formed. Now, we should determine a fixed reference point. Clearly, the best
choice is the pin A. We need the distance between block C and the reference point.
2) To write that distance, we need to define another angle:

3) Thus 𝑠𝑐 = 𝐿 sin(∅) − 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)

𝑑∅
4) Since differentiating this expression would create an unknown expression: we have
𝑑𝑡

to relate ∅ and 𝜃 and this can be done by writing the horizontal length from the
reference point to the block C. The total length is constant and its L hence:

𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅) + 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) = 𝐿

𝑑∅
5) Thus, by differentiating this expression we could find that = −𝜔
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠𝑐
6) Let us differentiate 𝑠𝑐 : = 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅) ∙ −𝜔 − 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)𝜔
𝑑𝑡

60
7) Solving everything gives us 𝑣𝐶 = 𝐿𝜔 ↑
8) To find the acceleration, we have to differentiate 𝑠𝐶 again and do not forget that
𝑑𝜔
= 0 solving the equation again (It is just basic calculus therefore I will not show
𝑑𝑡

the working) 𝑎 = 0.58𝐿𝜔2 ↑

1) In this question we are given the linear velocity and asked for the angular one. Of
course, it does not change anything for our procedure. Let us define the pin
connection to be our reference point since it is fixed and intuitive.
2) Let us try to create some geometric relationships. Here, it all depends on how familiar
you are with geometry:

61
3) I suggest this geometry. You can see that we have two right triangles with a common
hypothenus. Let us call the hypotenuse “L” and let us divide 𝜃 into two different
angles. If we take the sine of these angles we will notice that both of them are equal to
𝑟 𝜃
hence the angles are equal. This means that the angles are 2
𝐿

4) Now, we need to relate the distance “x” ,which is the distance between the reference
𝜃 𝑟
to the center of the cylinder, to the angle 𝜃 thus: tan ( 2) = 𝑥

5) Notice that I did not use cosine since “L” is not constant and hence it would give us
new terms if we differentiate.
𝑑𝑥 𝑟 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2𝑣0 𝜃
6) Differentiate both hand sides: = − 2 csc 2 ( 2) 𝑑𝑡 thus 𝜔 = sin2 ( 2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑟

7) Acceleration can be found by differentiating again and I will not show the calculation
2𝑣02 𝜃
since it is basic calculus: 𝛼 = sin(𝜃) sin2 (2)
𝑟2

1) You may be wondering how to know which analysis method to use. From the given
system and what is known, you should figure out intuitively. If we are given a gear
system for instance, it is very likely that relative motion analysis is used.
2) Here, we could easily find the velocity of point D by 𝑣𝐷 = 𝑣𝐸 + 𝜔𝐷/𝐸 𝑟𝐷/𝐸 which
gives us 𝑣𝐷 = 0 + 18 ∙ 0.5 = 9𝑚𝑠 −1 ↑

62
3) To figure out the angular velocity of gear A, we would need the velocity at the
connection point between gear B and A as it seems to be the only way to relate any
velocity to gear A.
4) Since gear C and B are connected, they have the same angular velocity which means
we would need to find the angular velocity of gear C. We know that at the connection
point between the fixed gear and gear C is zero since fixed gear means it does not
move.
5) Let us define that connection point “P”: 𝑣𝑃 = 𝑣𝐶 + 𝜔𝐶 𝑟𝑝/𝐶 → 0 = 9 + 0.1𝜔𝐶 →
𝜔𝐶 = −90𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
6) Let us define the connection point between gears A and B “P’”
7) 𝑣𝑃′ = 𝑣𝐵 + 𝜔𝐶 𝑟𝑃′ /𝐵 → 𝑣𝑃′ = 9 − 90 ∙ −0.3 = 36𝑚𝑠 −1 ↑
8) Since at 𝑃′ the linear velocity is the same from both gears side: 0.2𝜔𝐸 = 36 →
𝜔𝐸 = 180𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

63
5.3: Instantaneous center of zero velocity and acceleration
analysis
This chapter will be extremely important because we will learn about the kinematics of rigid
bodies which will enable us to calculate acceleration and thus perform calculations on Force
analysis. This lecture consists of Instantenous Center of Zero Velocity (IC) and relative
acceleration analysis. IC will be useful when it comes to calculate the velocity of
points/angular velocities when we do not have enough information to just apply our velocity
analysis methods and to calculate the acceleration, we will need the angular velocity.

IC:

IC is a point on or outside of the body, where the velocity of that point is zero for that instant.
It is very important to understand that the point does not have to be on the body and that it is
zero only for that instant. The next instant that point may have velocity.

Why is IC important? Because when we write the relative velocity equation:

𝒗𝑩 = 𝒗𝑨 + 𝝎𝑩/𝑨 × 𝒓𝑩/𝑨 if the point A is an IC, 𝒗𝑩 = 𝝎𝑩/𝑨 × 𝒓𝑩/𝑨 which simplifies the
equation.

How to find IC?

Later I will give some other tips (especially in the problem-solving part) on how to figure out
the IC quickly and in tricks about it but let me show the formal method first.

To find the IC, let us first determine two velocities. Draw the velocity vectors. Then, from
that point, draw an axis perpendicular to the vector, and do this for both velocities. The point
where these two axes meet is where our IC is. For instance, on a wheel:

64
However, we have some special cases. The images below explain the procedure clearly, we
will just use the property of geometry:

In the last example, you might have noticed a special case. What is the velocities are the
same? This would mean that the body does not have a rotational motion and it is a purely
translational motion. From the geometry (also if we formulate it) we could figure out that the
IC is infinitely far away which also means that we do not have an IC point.

We will mostly use this method when we have bodies that are not circular -such as gears and
wheels.

Now I will give very important tips for certain situations.

Wheels or wheel-like situations. If the wheel is rotating without slipping and the point of
contact with the ground is stationary, the point of contact is the IC.

Why should it not be slipping? Because slipping means the body is rotating but it also has
translational motion hence, the contact point is not really at rest because it is also translating.

65
Why the contact point should be at rest? Because then it would mean that the contact point
has a velocity.

Another important point for figuring out where the IC is the inextensible chords. The point of
contact of the body with the chord is an IC if the chord is not moving. Why? Because if the
chord is inextensible it would mean that a point on the chord cannot move/have velocity
otherwise it would extend.

!!! It is extremely important to note that accelerations are not intuitive and IC does not mean
acceleration is also zero. Also know that there is no such thing for acceleration, a point where
acceleration is zero.

Acceleration analysis:

Acceleration analysis is pretty straightforward because it is what we already saw before.

𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨 + 𝜶 × 𝒓𝑩/𝑨 − 𝜔2 𝒓𝑩/𝑨

I want to point out that if IC is on the rope, there is no tangential acceleration (firs two terms)
because of the reason explained before however, IC may have normal acceleration. This may
sound nonsense and unintuitive but it is indeed possible.

66
Problem solving:

1) First of all we should start with the c.s. In this question, the standard x-y c.s and CCW
moment is chosen to be positive.
2) Now, we have to find out the key points. First of all, we know that the acceleration of
the block is the acceleration of the center of the pulley (also notice that the center
point does not have a rotational motion, only translational). Finally, we know that the
top rope is at rest hence point D is an IC however, the lower rope has a velocity so it
is not an IC and point F has the velocity and acceleration given in the image.
3) To find the acceleration, we should find the angular velocity first. 𝑣𝐹 = 𝑣𝐷 − 0.075𝜔
∴ 𝜔 = −26.7𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
4) To write the acceleration between D and F, we need the normal acceleration at D
(since we know that there is no tangential acceleration anyway) hence we need
another equation as there are too many unknowns. Thus, we should write acceleration
between C and D first: 𝒂𝑪 = 𝒂𝑫 + 𝜶 × 𝒓𝑪/𝑫 − 𝜔2 𝒓𝑪/𝑫
0 0.05𝛼 0
5) 𝑎𝐶 = ( 𝐷 𝑦 ) + ( 0 ) + (26.72 ∙ 0.05) thus 𝑎𝐷𝑦 = −26.72 ∙ 0.05 =
𝑎
0 0 0
−17.8𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2

67
 −3 0 0.075𝛼
6) 𝒂𝑭 = 𝒂𝑫 + 𝜶 × 𝒓𝑭/𝑫 − 𝜔2 𝒓𝑭/𝑫 → ( 𝑎 ) = (−17.8) + ( 0 ) +
0 0 0
0 −2
(26.7 ∙ 0.075) ∴ 𝛼 = −40𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 thus 𝑎𝐶 = ( 0 ) 𝑚𝑠 −2
2 2

0 0

1) Let us start with defining the c.s. I will use the standard x-y c.s. We should notice that
the collard is constrained to move in the y-axis only. Also, we know that the
connection between the gear and the rack is an IC. The gears velocity is measured at
the center O and we can see that it is also only moving in the y-axis
2) It should be intuitive that we need to find 𝑣𝐵 to find the asked quantities. However, to
find 𝑣𝐵 we need the angular velocity of AB hence we would need another equation.
This hints us that we need to use our constraints. Whenever you are stuck with your
equations, always try to write more equations involving the constraints of the
question. This logic is the same as combining different concepts such as energy and
impulse. Another way we could write 𝑣𝐵 is relative velocity between O and B thus:
𝑣𝐵𝑥 0 0.5 sin(60) 𝜔𝐴𝐵
𝑣
𝒗𝑩 = 𝒗𝑨 + 𝝎𝑨𝑩 × 𝒓𝑨𝑩 → ( 𝐵𝑦 ) = (−2) + (−0.5 cos(60) 𝜔𝐴𝐵 )
0 0 0

68
 0 𝑣𝐵𝑥 0
3) 𝒗𝑶 = 𝒗𝑩 + 𝜔 × 𝒓𝑶/𝑩 → (𝑣 ) = (𝑣𝐵𝑦 ) + (−0.15𝜔) now we would have to combine
0 0 0
0 0 0.5 sin(60) 𝜔𝐴𝐵 0
the equations: (𝑣) = (−2) + (−0.5 cos(60) 𝜔𝐴𝐵 ) + (−0.15𝜔) ∴ 𝜔𝐴𝐵 = 0
0 0 0 0
4) This means that 𝑣𝐵 = 2𝑚𝑠 −1 ↓
5) To find the angular velocity of the gear we could use the points B and IC since they
0 0
are the only combination that is left: (−2) = (−0.05𝜔) → 𝜔 = 40𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
0 0
0 𝑎𝐼𝐶𝑥 0 320
2
6) 𝒂𝑶 = 𝒂𝑰𝑪 + 𝜶 × 𝒓𝑰𝑪 − 40 𝒓𝑰𝑪 → (𝑎𝑂𝑦 ) = ( 0 ) + (−0.2𝛼 ) + ( 0 ) ∴ 𝑎𝐼𝐶𝑥 =
0 0 0 0
−320𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 and 𝑎𝑂𝑦 = −0.2𝛼
𝑎𝐵𝑥 0 0.5 sin(60) 𝛼𝐴𝐵
𝑎
7) 𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨 + 𝜶𝑩𝑨 × 𝒓𝑩𝑨 → ( 𝐵𝑦 ) = (−3) + (−0.5 cos(60) 𝛼𝐴𝐵 )
0 0 0
0.5 sin(60) 𝛼𝐴𝐵 0
2
8) 𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑶 + 𝜶 × 𝒓𝑩/𝑶 − 𝜔 𝒓𝑩/𝑶 → (−0.5 cos(60) 𝛼𝐴𝐵 − 3) = (−0.2𝛼 ) +
0 0
0 −240
(−0.05𝛼 ) + ( 0 ) solving the equation we find 𝛼𝐴𝐵 = −960𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 and
0 0
𝛼 = 8374𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2

69
5.3: EOM, translation
Since we learned how to calculate acceleration in rigid bodies, now we could involve forces
too. In this lecture, I will give extremely important facts and methods that we will use
throughout the rigid body lectures from now on. EOM of rigid bodies will be a 3 topic series.

The main logic is the same as particle dynamics. We draw the FBD and write the EOM.
However, you may think, which acceleration value are we supposed to use since the
acceleration on a rigid body may have different acceleration. For the sum of the forces, we
will always use the acceleration of the center of mass.

However, we have a new addition to our EOM. Sum of the moments. We will formulate it as
such: ∑ 𝑴𝑷 = 𝒓𝑮∗𝑷 × 𝑚𝒂𝑷 + 𝐼𝑃 𝜶 where sum of the moments (both applied moments and
moments created by forces) at point P is equal to the cross product of the displacement
between from P to center of mass (COM) and acceleration at point P and scalar multiplication
of the mass and scalar multiplication of second moment of inertia (MOI) times the angular
acceleration of the body.

!!! Pay close attention to the values. From where to where they are because otherwise, you
would compute wrong.

What you might have noticed is that if we choose our point P at COM, the cross-product term
would be zero. What we will mostly do is to choose P either at COM or at the center or
rotation. It does not matter at which point you choose it, what we do is trying to simplify the
expression by choosing P at the best position possible.

! Do not forget to apply the parallel axes theorem when you calculate MOI.

𝐼
Radius of gyration is defined as 𝑘 = √𝑚 you can use it to calculate MOI quickly.

So, as the name suggests, this lecture is only for translational motion which also means sum
of the moments is zero. Now, let us solve questions and I will give the important hints while
solving them.

70
Problem solving:

1) We need to establish a c.s first. I choose our standard x-y c.s

2) Second thing is of course drawing the FBD:

3) As you might have noticed, there is no friction acting on the front wheel. The reason
is because there is no torque acting on the front wheel. In order to have static friction,
we need the system to be in pure rolling (no slipping) and there must be a torque
causing rotation of the object (wheel in this case). If there is no torque, then there is
no static friction either. The second thing is why the direction of friction is to the right
(direction of the car). This is simply because what makes the car move is static
friction. We will discuss how to figure out the direction of friction much more in
detail later. In this question, just know that the friction is the force that makes the car
accelerate to the right
4) ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐵 − 2000 ∙ 9.81 = 0 clearly no acceleration in the y axis
5) ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0.8𝑁𝐴 = 2000𝑎𝑥

71
6) ∑ 𝑀𝐺 = 0.75 ∙ 0.8𝑁𝐴 + 1.5𝑁𝐵 − 2𝑁𝐴 = 0 since the car does not rotate
7) Solving the equations, we find 𝑎𝑥 = 4.059𝑚𝑠 −2
16
8) Since this acceleration is constant, we could use SUVAT: 4.059 = 3.94𝑠

1) Let us define a c.s first. I will use the tilted x-y c.s since the motion of the crate is in
that direction
2) Now, we should go with the standard procedure and draw the FBD and KD:

3) Drawing of the FBD should be fairly easy. The static friction is in the negative
direction because since the cart moves to the left, a force must make the crate move in

72
 the same direction. Static friction is the only force that can do that, otherwise the crate
would just fall off.
4) The key point in this diagram is the direction of acceleration in KD. Remember that
KD shows the direction of acceleration. In this question, we know that the cart
accelerates to the left and since are trying to figure out the acceleration when the
crater does not slip wrt the cart. This means that the cart and the crater must have the
same acceleration. To see this, think of inertial frame again and try to animate their
motion.
5) Let us assume the crater did not tip but slipped first. Then we would have to
decompose the acceleration onto our c.s:
6) ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝐺𝑦 = 𝑁 − 50 ∙ 9.81 ∙ cos(15) = −50𝑎 sin(15)

7) ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝐺𝑥 = 50 ∙ 9.81 sin(15) − 0.5𝑁 = −50𝑎 cos(15)

8) Solving them gives us 𝑁 = 448𝑁 and 𝑎 = 2.01𝑚𝑠 −2
9) Now we will check whether the crate tips. To do that, we could simply check where
the normal and friction force acts. Since we already know their magnitude, we would
only have to figure out where on the crate they act. The point where they act is where
the crate is rotating around since normal and friction force act at the contact point.
This means that the furthest contact point possible is the edge of the crate. If the
distance we get is further away than the edge, then it means our crate tipped over. If
not, it means that we still have a contact point hence we did not tip over. I will choose
the contact point as my point where I will take the moments around since it would
cancel out friction and normal force, leaving the acceleration and weight terms left.
The angular acceleration is zero because we are assuming that the crate did not tip
over. Hence, there is no angular motion
10) ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 50 ∙ 9.81 ∙ cos(15) ∙ 𝑥 − 50 ∙ 9.81 ∙ sin(15) ∙ 0.5 = 50a cos(15) ∙ 0.5 +
50𝑎 sin(15) 𝑥
11) Solving this gives us 𝑥 = 0.25𝑚 which is before reaching the edge hence the crate
did not tip but slipped first. Since at this acceleration value, the crate slips but does
not tip.

73
6.1: Kinetics of a rigid body, Rotation about a fixed axis
This chapter is pretty much the same as the previous chapter. The only difference is that we
are now interested in fixed-axis rotational motion. The most important section will be the
next section where we will talk about general plane motion, which means the combination of
5.3 and 6.1.

Let us dive into the problems

74
Problem solving:

1) First of all let us define a c.s, in this question the typical x-y c.s seems easy to work
with. Again, to figure out which c.s to use you need to solve many questions and look
at what you are given
2) Let us draw the FBD now:

3) Now, EOM should be written. What we know is that the COM of the roll does not
move. The forces 𝑇𝐴𝐵 and 𝑇𝐵𝐴 are two force members hence they act in the direction
of the rod which means we can decompose the force by using the angle 67.4°
4) The second important point with the FBD we should notice is the direction of friction.
We know that we have kinetic friction and friction always opposes motion. In this
case COM does not move however, by looking at the system, we see that the force F
pulls the paper down (which means it created a moment ) and hence the paper at point
C has to go up otherwise the paper would be extensible. Thus, the friction opposes the
motion of that point and hence it points downwards.

75
5) ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑁 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(67.4) = 0
6) ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(67.4) − 0.2𝑁 − 20 ∙ 9.81 − 𝐹 = 0
7) ∑ 𝑀𝐺 = 1.25(0.2𝑁 − 𝐹) = 𝐼𝛼 I chose at COM because it cancels out the most
moment arms and hence simplifies the expression
8) We need one more known to solve the question and since we are given a kinematic
relation, we could find the angular acceleration since we know that it is constant:
32
1=𝛼∙ → 𝛼 = 1.78𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2
2

9) Solving the equations, we find 𝐹 = 22𝑁

76
6.2: Rigid body kinematics, general plane motion:
The final part of rigid body kinematics. Now, we will look at when all the acceleration values
are non-zero. Hence, there is no new concept other than what we saw in 5.3 however, I will
talk difference between kinetic and static friction and how to figure out their direction.

First of all, you should know that maximum static friction is always bigger than kinetic
friction. Also, static friction may have a value between zero and a maximum value. Many
students struggle with finding the direction of friction. When it is taught well, it is quite easy
in fact.

First of all, always keep in mind that friction arises due to relative motion between the
contact surfaces. Also, friction always opposes the relative motion, hence, friction acts in the
opposite direction of the relative motion between the contact surfaces. Hence, all we have to
do is to find the motion of the object wrt the surface. Before that, I would like to mention
about slipping and non-slipping conditions. If an object is rolling without slipping, it means
that it has a pure rolling motion and thus it has static friction. If an object is slipping, it means
it has kinetic friction.

When we are trying to figure out the direction of friction, the method we follow is, we think
of how the situation would be if there were no friction. Find the relative velocity of the
contact point and then find the direction of friction.

What about when we do not know whether the object slips or not? In this case, what we do is
to assume that the object does not slip, solve the equations for 𝐹𝑓 which is the static friction.
Then, compare this value to the maximum static force. If our static friction is smaller than the
maximum static friction, then it is all fine and it means the object does not slip because there
is no contradiction created. However, if friction force is bigger than the maximum static
friction, there is a contradiction hence, it means that our initial assumption (that the object
does not slip) is false and the object does slip. The same logic could be applied to kinetic
friction analysis.

!!! Do not forget that in order to have static friction, we need to have a force or something
that creates torque. If no torque is applied, there is no static friction either. This rule does not
apply to kinetic friction though.

77
Problem solving:

1) Standard x-y c.s would do the job. Let us draw the FBD and KD:

2) How did we determine the direction of friction? First of all, we know that it is static
friction since the disk does not slip. Now, imagine if there was no friction. What
would happen then? Because of the tension force, the disk would move to the right
without rotating at all as it does not create moment (wrt the COM). Hence, the contact
point would also move to the right, meaning, the friction opposes that and is to the left
3) There is of course no acceleration in the y-axis and only tension accelerates the disk
4) Let us look at the block B: ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 : 2𝑇 − 98.1 = 10𝑎𝑏
1
5) ∑ 𝑀𝐼𝐶 : 0.2𝑇 = 𝛼 (20 ∙ 0.22 + 2 20 ∙ 0.22 )

6) To solve our equations, we need one more equation which is the relation between
angular and linear acceleration. Previously we showed that 𝑎 = 0.2𝛼 if we look at the
relative acceleration between IC and center O
7) Solving all the equations, we get 𝑇 = 45.3𝑁

78
1) Standard x-y c.s is good. Let us find the MOI first: 𝐼 = 0.32 ∙ 100 = 9𝑘𝑔𝑚2
2) Following the standard procedure, let us draw the FBD and KD:

3) In this question friction is to the right because. Imagine if there was no friction. Then,
the force P would create a moment and hence the spool would start rotating CW thus,
at the contact point with the surface, the velocity would be to the left (notice we do
not really care the velocity of the ground as it is zero hence, the relative velocity is
simply the velocity of the spool at contact point). Thus the friction opposes leftwards
motion and it is to the right
4) Since we do not know whether the spool slips, we have to check it. Let us assume it
does not slip. 𝑁 = 981𝑁 and ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 600 + 𝐹𝑓 = 100𝑎𝑥
5) ∑ 𝑀𝑔 = 600(0.25) − 𝐹𝑓 (0.4) = 𝛼(100(100(0.3)2 )
6) Since we assume it does not slip, at IC the acceleration is zero since the ground is
stationary. Thus 𝑎𝑥 = 0.4𝛼
7) Solving the equations, we get 𝐹𝑓 = 24𝑁 and maximum static friction is 196𝑁

79
8) Since our friction is smaller than the maximum static friction, we know that our
assumption was right and the spool does not slip. The according angular acceleration
is 15.6𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2

80
6.3: Rigid body energy
Rigid body energy is pretty similar to particle dynamics energy. The only difference is that
we may now have rotational kinetic energy. Previously we only had linear velocity thus linear
kinetic energy but if a body rotates as well, we should also include its rotational kinetic
energy. I will explain the concept on the formulas:

We still use our main energy equation: 𝑇1 + ∑ 𝑈 = 𝑇2 and in this case, our T (kinetic energy)
1 1
is 𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐺2 + 2 𝐼𝐺 𝜔2 notice how we perform our calculations at COM. However, there is a

simplification exists, if we take our values at the center of rotation (the point where the body
1
rotates around, for example, IC in a wheel rolling motion) 𝑇 = 2 𝐼𝑂 𝜔2

Work done by gravity, spring, etc. All stay the exact same from before, however, I would like
to go over work done by a force again and newly, work done by a moment.

Work done by a force: 𝑈 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑠 ∙ cos(𝜃) but notice that on a rigid body, all the points do not
travel the same amount hence, you should calculate how/how much the point the force acts
on the body travels. The points travel ≠ travel of the COM

What is new is work done by purely moment applied. It is important to understand that this
moment is not the moment created by a force but an external moment applied. Because, if
you add moment created by the force and work done by the force, you would simply count
the same work twice which would give a faulty answer.

𝜃
Work done by a moment: 𝑈 = ∫𝜃 2 𝑀𝑑𝜃 hence we need to know over what angle the moment
1

is applied.

The last important point is to notice how some forces do no work. For instance, all forces act
at the IC do no work since IC do does not move hence there is no displacement at IC. Normal
forces, the forces that are perpendicular to the displacement also do no work.

How to know when to use concept of energy? As I said previously, look at what you are given
and check whether there are any energy losses or energy calculations that are not possible to
use. If so, energy may not be the best option. However, you could always write all concepts
easily since there are 4 in total. Velocity-acceleration analysis, EOM, energy and momentum.
Thus, if you are stuck and do not know what to do, you could write all of them down and see
what works and how to combine the information.

81
Problem solving:

1) Let us start from 18.34 since we need it to solve 18.35. First of all we need a c.s. If we
look at the motion the bar, we can see that the contact point O is the center of rotation
and the COM of the bar has a circular motion. Thus, n-t c.s seems the best option
since it is an instantaneous c.s thus x-y c.s is not the best option and polar c.s is
clearly not useful.
2) Let us draw the FBD:

3) It should be clear which forces act on the body. However, the direction of friction may
not be intuitive. Think like this, from the standing point to the point where it creates
an angle, the x-position of the right side of the bar decreased hence it moved to the
left. This means that the contact point is moving the left and thus friction opposes this

82
 motion and thus it is rightward. Since the contact point is O which is an edge, the
normal force acts perpendicular to the bar and friction tangential.
4) We know that the forces besides gravity does no work since the bar does not slip,
meaning the contact point is an IC. This hints us to use energy
𝑚𝑙2
5) Let us calculate 𝐼𝑂 then to simplify the expression: 𝐼𝑂 = 9

𝑚𝑔𝑙 1 3𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
6) sin(𝜃) = 18 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜔2 thus 𝜔 = √
6 𝑙

7) Now let's being the second part of the question. We are asked to find the angle when it
starts slipping. But how can we relate slipping to our equations? Remember that after
the static friction coefficient reaches its maximum value, then the friction changes
from static to kinetic friction which also means slipping starts. Thus, if we find the
angle when the static friction coefficient is at its max, we can solve the problem.
8) The only way we can relate friction is by writing the EOM, so let us begin:
𝑚𝑣 2 3𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) 𝑙
9) ∑ 𝐹𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝐺 𝑛 = 𝜇𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) but 𝑎𝐺𝑛 = ∴ 𝑎𝐺𝑛 = 𝑚 ( ) (6) hence
𝑟 𝑙

𝜇𝑁 = 1.5𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
10) ∑ 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝐺𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) − 𝑁 thus we need to find 𝑎𝐺𝑡 to find 𝑁 to find 𝜇
11) From before we know that if we could find angular acceleration we could use relative
acceleration analysis to find tangential acceleration since at IC the tangential
𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) 𝑚𝑙2 𝑚𝑙2 3𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
acceleration is zero thus: ∑ 𝑀𝑂 : = 𝛼 ( 12 + )∴𝛼= hence we
6 36 2𝑙
𝑙
know that 𝑎𝐺𝑡 = 𝛼 (6)
1.5
12) Solving the equations, we find that 𝜇 = 0.75 tan(𝜃) ∴ 𝜃 = 8.5° as it can be seen from

the relationship, the bigger the angle the bigger the static friction however since 0.3 is
the maximum static friction coefficient, after that angle the bar would slip

83
7.1: Rigid body momentum and impulse
I will not go through the basics of momentum since it was explained previously. As you may
have noticed already, in rigid body dynamics we always have an extra angular property
addition on top of a linear one.

In rigid body dynamics, linear momentum is defined as 𝑳 = 𝑚𝒗𝑮 notice how the velocity is
the velocity of the COM. The rest of the theories are the same as before.

Angular momentum is defined as: 𝑯𝑷 = 𝐼𝐺 𝝎 + 𝒓𝑮/𝑷 × (𝑚𝒗𝑮 ) remember how the

expression simplifies if we take our point at COM.

What about impulse?

𝑡
Linear impulse is the same: ∫𝑡 2 𝑭𝑑𝑡
1

𝑡 𝑡
Angular impulse: ∫𝑡 2 (𝒓 × 𝑭)𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑡 2 𝑴𝑑𝑡
1 1

How do we add the impulse created by a force that also creates moment?

In energy, we learned that we should not add both linear and angular work created by a force.
Because this makes us count the same work twice. However, in momentum, we add both of
them. Because in momentum, a force both creates angular momentum and linear momentum.
However, in energy, when we add the linear work done by a force, since the equation has
angular velocity term, it includes both linear and angular work done.

84
Problem solving:

1) Firstly let us define a c.s. The standard x-y c.s works for this question. Draw the FBD

2) From the given information, it can be noticed that momentum is applicable in this
question. The block has a linear momentum and the pulley has an angular momentum.
Thus, two seperate equations should be written. Let us start with the block.
3) We know that the block gows upwards and tension force in the cable and the gravity
does linear impulse: 𝑇(3) − 40(9.81)(3) = 40𝑣
4) Tension and the force applied creates angular impulse. Notice that the tension acts
upwards on the pulley: 2000(0.075)(3) − 𝑇(0.2)(3) = 0.112 (15)𝜔
5) Now, we can see that angular and linear velocity must be related to solve the question.
Also notice that since the chord is inextensible, the point where the chord is connected
to the pulley has the same velocity as the block. Since the pulleys COM is stationary:
𝑣 = 0.2𝜔
6) Solving the equations we find that 𝑣 = 24.1𝑚𝑠 −1

85
7.2: Conservation of momentum in rigid body dynamics
This section is just a small extension of the previous chapter however there are some
extremely important hints and analysis methods you need to solve problems.

First of all, when do we know that the momentum is conserved? In other words when we
know that the forces are impulsive?

If we are not told, what we can do is to check whether -usually object(s) crashing- the impact
Happen very quickly. After solving problems, this will be more intuitive.

Second thing is the point where we will write the momentum equation from. At first it may
seem like we would any point we want, or most likely the COM to avoid the second term of
the momentum formula however, no. Every time we analyze a system, we will choose the
pivot point -the point where the system rotates around.

Final important analysis method is following how the velocity changes at the pivot position
during the impact. During the impact, the momentum will be conserved however, the
(angular) velocity will of course change. Hence, at the same moment we get two different
velocities. Do not forget to draw that diagram to perform the calculations errorless.

To understand how these concepts are applied, let us solve some questions for the last time.

86
Problem solving:

1) Firstly the c.s of course. I will use the standard x-y c.s. What we need to figure out
from the minimum velocity information is that the wheel should stop right after it is
over the bump. Also MOI 𝐼𝐺 = 0.1252 (50) = 0.781𝑘𝑔𝑚2
2) We know that the wheel pivots about the point A. Also, we know that momentum is
conserved since the wheel rolls over without slipping. Let us consider the velocity
change hence the momentum conservation at the impact. The image shows the
velocity before and after the impact:

3) What we should notice is that the arm length before is 0.125m since the arm is
perpendicular (since the velocity is horizontal) meanwhile the arm in the second
situation is 0.15m as it can be seen from the geometry.
4) Let us write the conservation of momentum then:
5) 0.781𝜔1 + 50(0.125)(0.15𝜔1 ) = 0.781𝜔2 + 50(0.15)(0.15𝜔2 )
6) You may ask why the linear velocity is calculated as 0.15𝜔 it is because if we
calculate the velocity of the wheel before and after the velocity change:

87
7) Before the velocity change, the wheel is just rolling and since it does not slip, we
know that it can be calculated by 0.15𝜔 and right at the pivot point, this velocity is
still the same. After the change at the pivot point, it now changes as it is shown in the
diagram. Since it is now pivoting at point A, the arm is again the radius perpendicular
to the velocity hence 0.15𝜔. However, notice that they are not the same velocity.
8) To solve for 𝜔1 we need to find 𝜔2 . Here, we could use the energy as it should be
intuitive from the given. Since the wheel does not slip, there is no loss to energy either
𝐼𝐺 𝜔22 𝑚(0.15𝜔2 )2
thus: 𝑚𝑔ℎ = + Solving the equations, we find 𝜔1 = 3.98𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
2 2

88