RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Definition of Research

It is a systematic inquiry to discover facts and generate knowledge.

It involves a critical and detailed and careful examination of a given phenomenon to find out more about
it.

It is systematic because:

It follows a sequence and it has descriptive activities that work together.

It proceeds according to a particular plan laid down inform of a research proposal.

It is aimed at providing a scientific explanation to a phenomenon.

Importance of Research

• Research drives decision making in organizations

• Research enables managers to break out of their traditional habits, solve problems using
modern approaches.
• Research makes possible one to see the decision moment through a trained capacity to plan,
acquire, analyze, and disseminate insights that one mobilizes to improve performance in
organizations.
• As technology has improved our measurement and tracking capabilities, managers have realized
they need a better understanding of employees, stockholders, constituents, and customer
behavior in order to influence the desired metrics.

Problems facing research

Research, despite its numerous benefits and contributions to human knowledge and
progress, faces various challenges and problems. These issues can vary across
different fields and are influenced by social, technological, and economic factors.
Here are some common problems facing research:
Funding Shortages:
Limited funding is a significant challenge for researchers. Insufficient financial
support can impede the progress of research projects, limit access to necessary
resources, and hinder the pursuit of inn ovative ideas.
Ethical Dilemmas:
Ethical concerns can arise in research, especially when dealing with sensitive topics
or human and animal subjects. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines, which
can be complex and demanding.
Reproducibility Crisis:
Many scientific fields are grappling with a crisis of reproducibility, where some
research findings cannot be reliably reproduced by other researchers. This can erode
trust in scientific findings and hinder scientific progress.
1. Access to Data:
Access to data can be a problem, particularly in fields where data is proprietary or
difficult to obtain. Open access to data and results is essential for the advancement
of research.
2. Publication Bias:
Researchers and academic journals may have a bias toward publishing positive or
statistically significant results, which can lead to an inaccurate representation of the
scientific literature and hinder the dissemination of negative or null findings.
3. Peer Review Challenges:
Peer review, a critical part of the research publication process, faces challenge s
such as reviewer bias, the burden it places on researchers, and potential delays in
getting research published.
4. Interdisciplinary Collaboration:
While interdisciplinary research is valuable, it can be challenging due to differences
in terminology, methodologies, and research cultures across disciplines.
5. Data Management and Privacy:
With the increasing volume of data in research, managing and securing data has
become a significant concern. Researchers must navigate issues of data privacy and
security.
6. Science Communication:
Communicating research findings to the public in an understandable and accurate
manner is often a challenge. Misinterpretation of research results can have
significant consequences.
7. Research Misconduct:
Issues such as plagiarism, fabrication, and falsification of research data can harm
the integrity of research and lead to retraction of published studies.
8. Intellectual Property Issues:
Intellectual property disputes can arise when multiple parties claim ow nership of
research outcomes, particularly in fields with commercial applications.
Technological Advancements:
While technology has enabled new research possibilities, it has also created
challenges in terms of data management, data analysis, and keeping u p with rapidly
evolving methodologies and tools.
9. Global Collaboration:
International collaboration in research is valuable but can face obstacles such as
political, cultural, and logistical challenges.
10. Limited Career Opportunities:
The academic job market is highly competitive, and many researchers face
challenges in securing stable and fulfilling careers.
11. Gender and Diversity Gaps:
In some fields, there are gender and diversity disparities that can impact research
opportunities and recognition.

Reasons for engaging/Purpose of research.

1. Discover new knowledge and build knowledge based on something, event or a group of
people. The knowledge build become available to other people to use in academics, solve
problems, control a phenomenon
2. Describe a phenomenon. Many researchers studies involve the description of natural or man-
made phenomenon. They generate information on how a phenomenon has changed over time
(trends) as well as the relationship of the phenomenon to another one.
3. Predict. It is the ability to fore tell something that will occur at the future time from the
information available at an earlier time.
4. Control phenomenon. It involves the ability to control phenomenon understanding and
generate research knowledge that concerns invention that will improve people’s lives.
5. Explain a phenomenon. Explanation is considered as the ultimate goal of science because it
answers the question [Link] involves accurate information and measurement of a given
phenomenon. In order to explain a phenomenon one should be able to describe it, predict is
occurrence and observe factors that cause its occurrence with certainty and accuracy. The
explanation function of research enables us to generate new knowledge that can be constructed
into theory. Theories helps us interpret natural and social systematic and explicit manner
through development of concept law and generalization about a given phenomenon.

Classification of research

Research can be classified into various categories based on different criteria,

including the purpose of the research, the research design, and the methodology
used. Here are some common classifications of research:
Based on Purpose:
a. Basic Research (Pure Research):
Basic research seeks to expand knowledge and understanding in a particular field
without any immediate practical application. It is often driven by curiosity and a
desire to explore fundamental principles.
b. Applied Research:
Applied research aims to solve specific, practical problems or address real -world
issues. It focuses on the direct application of knowledge to a particular situation or
context.
Based on Methodology:
a. Quantitative Research:
Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to draw
conclusions. It often uses statistical techniques to analyze data and test hypotheses.
b. Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research focuses on non-numerical data, such as words, narratives, and
observations. It aims to understand the underlying meanings and contexts of
phenomena.
c. Mixed-Methods Research:
Mixed-methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches to
gain a more comprehensive understanding of a research question.
Based on Time Frame:
a. Cross-Sectional Research:
Cross-sectional research collects data from a single point in time. It is used to
understand the characteristics or behaviors of a population at a specific moment.
b. Longitudinal Research:
Longitudinal research collects data over an exten ded period, allowing researchers to
study changes and trends over time.
Based on Data Source:
a. Primary Research:
Primary research involves the collection of original data directly from sources
through methods like surveys, interviews, and experiments.

b. Secondary Research:
Secondary research relies on existing data sources, such as published studies,
reports, and databases. Researchers analyze and synthesize these sources to address
their research questions.
Based on Research Design:
a. Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research aims to provide a detailed account or description of a
phenomenon, without manipulating variables. It often involves surveys,
observations, and content analysis.
b. Correlational Research:
Correlational research explores the relat ionship between two or more variables to
determine if they are related, without implying causation.
c. Experimental Research:
Experimental research involves the manipulation of one or more independent
variables to observe their effects on dependent variabl es. It aims to establish cause-
and-effect relationships.
Based on Scope:
a. Exploratory Research:
Exploratory research is conducted when a topic is not well understood or defined. It
helps to identify research questions and generate hypotheses for further
investigation
. b. Explanatory Research:
Explanatory research seeks to provide a deeper understandi ng of a phenomenon,
explaining the how and why behind the observed relationships
. c. Confirmatory Research:
Confirmatory research aims to test existing theories or hypotheses to confirm or
refute their validity.
Based on Subject Area:
a. Social Science Research:
Social science research investigates human behavior, society, and social
phenomena. It includes disciplines like psychology, sociology, economics, and
political science. b. Natural Science Research:
Natural science research explores the physical and biological world, including
physics, chemistry, biology, and environmental science.
Types of research

A. Basic research

It is also called pure research. And it is aimed at obtaining empirical data that can be used to formulate,
expand or evaluate a theory. The primary concern is the discovery of knowledge WITHOUT REGARD TO
PRACTICAL application.

Eventually the findings may be applied to practical problems.

Applied research

The aim is to solve an immediate practical problem. It is conducted in relation to actual problems and
under the conditions in which the problems are found in practice. Applications are made from theories
to help in solution of practical.

Descriptive research

1.4. Types of Research

The basic types of research are as follows:

a) Descriptive research - includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. Major
purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business
research it is often referred to as Ex post facto research. The researcher has no control over the
variables; he/she can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto
research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure
such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex
post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they
cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
b) In analytical research - the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and
analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the information.
c) Applied research - aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization. Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify
social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research
(research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the
marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central
aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem. The
problem-solving nature of applied research means it is conducted to reveal answers to specific
questions related to action, performance, or policy needs.
d) Fundamental (basic) research - is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of theories. "Gathering knowledge for knowledge's sake is termed 'pure' or 'basic'
research." Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour
carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour are also examples of
fundamental research. Basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad
base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge. Pure, fundamental or basic research is also problem-solving based; it aims to solve
perplexing questions or obtain new knowledge of an experimental or theoretical nature that
has little direct or immediate impact on action, performance, or policy decisions.
e) Quantitative research - is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
f) Qualitative research - is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to
or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons
for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of
'Motivation Research', an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at
discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose.
Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research, i.e.,
research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is especially important in the
behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.
Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a
particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated,
 however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore,
while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.
g) Conceptual research - is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
h) Empirical research - relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively
to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a
research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis.
He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus
characterised by the experimenter's control over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is
sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through
experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible
for a given hypothesis.

Research Approaches

There are two basic approaches to research quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. The
former involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified into
inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to research. The purpose of inferential approach to
research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This
usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to
determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research environment and in
this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables. Simulation approach
involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be
generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under
controlled conditions. The term 'simulation' in the context of business and social sciences applications
refers to "the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given
the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the
behaviour of the process over time." Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for
understanding future conditions.

Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher's insights and impressions. Such an
approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and depth interviews are used. All these are explained at length in chapters that
follow.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business
and industry.

Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are considered crucial and
their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business decisions. Market research is the
investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose of formulating efficient
policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to the application of
mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of cost
minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can be termed as optimisation problems. Motivational
research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics.
In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the consumer (market)
behaviour. All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for taking
business decisions.

Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in business. Given knowledge of
future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust its supply schedule
within the limits of its projected capacity. Market analysis has become an integral tool of business policy
these days. Business budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss account, is based
mainly on sales estimates, which in turn depends on business research. Once sales forecasting is done,
efficient production and investment programmes can be set up around which are grouped the
purchasing and financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and
scientific decisions.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers
to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just for the
sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the sake of being able
to do something better or in a more efficient manner.

Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for
what it can contribute to practical concerns. On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop
a body of principles that make possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human
interactions. On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for
practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.

Ethics in Research

Ethics in research is a set of principles, guidelines, and standards that govern the conduct of research
and ensure that it is conducted with integrity, respect for participants, and in a morally responsible
manner. Ethical considerations are fundamental to maintaining the trust, credibility, and validity of
research. Key ethical principles in research include:

1. Informed Consent:

• Researchers must obtain voluntary, informed, and written consent from individuals who
participate in their research. Participants should be fully aware of the study's purpose,
procedures, potential risks, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty.
2. Privacy and Confidentiality:

• Researchers must protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Data should be
anonymized or de-identified when possible to prevent the disclosure of personal
information. Researchers should also ensure that data is securely stored and accessed
only by authorized personnel.

3. Minimizing Harm and Risk:

• Researchers are obligated to minimize the physical, emotional, and psychological harm
or risks to participants. Any potential risks should be justified and balanced against the
potential benefits of the research.

4. Beneficence:

• Researchers should strive to maximize the benefits of research while minimizing harm
to participants. This includes designing research that is valuable and that contributes to
knowledge or the betterment of society.

5. Justice and Fairness:

• Researchers should ensure that the selection of participants is fair and unbiased.
Research should not disproportionately burden or exploit vulnerable populations. All
participants should have an equitable opportunity to benefit from research outcomes.

6. Honesty and Integrity:

• Researchers should conduct research with honesty and integrity, avoiding fabrication,
falsification, plagiarism, and other forms of research misconduct. Accurate and
transparent reporting of methods and findings is essential.

7. Conflict of Interest:

• Researchers must disclose any financial, personal, or professional interests that could
potentially influence the research process or its outcomes. They should manage and
mitigate any conflicts of interest to maintain objectivity.

8. Respect for Autonomy:

• Researchers should respect the autonomy and decisions of participants, particularly

when dealing with vulnerable populations or those who may have diminished decision-
making capacity.

9. Respect for Cultural Sensitivity and Diversity:

• Researchers should be culturally sensitive and respect the diversity of participants,

taking into account differences in language, culture, and values when conducting
research.

10. Responsible Authorship and Publication:

 • In academic publishing, all authors should meet the criteria for authorship and should
be accountable for the research. Proper acknowledgment should be given to
contributions from others.

11. Peer Review and Collaboration:

• The peer review process should be conducted with fairness and integrity. Collaboration
among researchers should be based on trust and shared ethical values.
 Topic 2

The process of research

Research process/flowchart.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

DEFINING THE
RESEARCH
PROBLEM

RESEARCH DESIGN

MEASUREMENT DESIGN

GENERALISATION

DATA COLLECTION

DATA ANALYSIS