“Nuclear power is a hell of a way to boil water.

” - Albert Einstein

Nuclear Power
Basudev Pradhan
Overview
• Introduction to nuclear power
• Nuclear reactions
• Nuclear power plant
• Is nuclear energy safe?
• Chernobyl and Three Mile Island
• Physiological effects of ionizing radiation
• Radiation sources and dose comparisons
• Nuclear Waste
• The Future of Nuclear Power
Atomic Structure
• Nuclear technology takes advantage of the power locked in
structure of atoms, the basic particle of matter.
• The nucleus of an atom
contains all of its positively-charged protons and non-charged
neutrons.
• Negatively-charged electrons
orbit the nucleus.
• Atoms always contain equal numbers of protons and
electrons, making them electrically neutral.
• Atoms can have different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei.
• Nuclei from the same element with different numbers of neutrons
are called isotopes.
• The fuel used by the first nuclear weapons was Uranium-235, a
naturally occurring isotope.
• Most isotopes are stable, but some can spontaneously
break apart, emitting energy and particles.
• This is radiation.
What is Nuclear Energy?
• Nuclear energy is the energy that exists within the nucleus of an atom.
• There are 2 types of Nuclear Energy:

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large Nuclear fusion is the combining of smaller nuclei to
nucleus, releasing HUGE amounts of energy. form heavier nuclei, releasing HUGE amounts of
energy.
Introduction to nuclear power
• Uranium was discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, a German chemist, and
named after the planet Uranus.
• The science of atomic radiation, atomic change and nuclear fission was
developed from 1895 to 1945, much of it in the last six of those years
• Over 1939-45, most development was focused on the atomic bomb
• From 1945 attention was given to harnessing this energy in a controlled
fashion for naval propulsion and for making electricity
• Since 1956 the prime focus has been on the technological evolution of reliable
nuclear power plants.
Economic Advantages
• The energy in one pound of highly enriched Uranium is comparable to that of
3.7 million liters of gasoline.
• One million times as much energy in one pound(0.453kg) of Uranium as in
one pound of coal.
• Nuclear energy annually prevents 5.1 million tons of sulfur, 2.4 million tons of
nitrogen oxide, 164 metric tons of carbon
• First commercial power plant, England 1956
• 17% of world’s electricity is from nuclear power
Nuclear Reactions
• Nuclear reactions deal with interactions between the nuclei of atoms including
of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
• Both fission and fusion processes deal with matter and energy
• Fission is the process of splitting of a nucleus into two "daughter" nuclei
leading to energy being released
• Fusion is the process of two "parent" nuclei fuse into one daughter nucleus
leading to energy being released
Chain reaction
• In a nuclear bomb, a large amount of
uranium-235 is clustered together, so that
when fission is initiated in one of the atoms,
it splits and released more neutrons, which
then cause fission in other atoms.
• This creates a fission chain reaction.
• Each time a nucleus splits,
a large amount of energy is
released.
• Multiplied across the entire
chain reaction…
• Uncontrolled chain
reactions take place
during the explosion
of an atomic bomb.
Fission Reaction
• A classic example of a fission
reaction is that of U-235:
• U-235 + 1 Neutron 2
Neutrons + Kr-92 + Ba-142 + E
• In this example, a stray neutron
strikes an atom of U-235. It
absorbs the neutron and becomes an
unstable atom of U-236. It then
undergoes fission. These neutrons
can strike other U-235 atoms to
initiate their fission.
• The fission reaction in U-235
produces fission products such as Ba,
Kr, Sr, Cs, I and Xe with atomic
masses distributed around 95 and 135.
Examples may be given of typical
reaction products, such as:
• U-235 + n ===> Ba-144 + Kr-90 + 2n
+ about 200 MeV
• U-235 + n ===> Ba-141 + Kr-92 + 3n
+ 170 MeV
• U-235 + n ===> Zr-94 + Te-139 + 3n
+ 197 MeV
How much energy is produced?
• Nuclear power is an extremely rich
energy source.
• One gram of Uranium-235 delivers as
much energy as 3.5 metric tons of
coal!!!
• One in every 5 houses in the U.S. is
supplied with nuclear energy.
• The first nuclear test detonation used a device that was an exact replica of “Fat
Man”, which would later be dropped on Nagasaki, Japan.
• The heat of the explosion fused the desert sands together, forming a layer of
radioactive green glass.
World War II
• Two atomic bombs were dropped
during World War II – Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, Japan.
• Each had yields of 15-21 kilotons of
TNT.
• These blasts ended World War II.
• Following World War 2, additional
nuclear weapons testing was moved
to part of the Marshall Islands, called
the Bikini Atoll (11°N, 165°E).
• This testing was codenamed
• “Operation Crossroads.”
Hiroshima, March 1946.
Nuclear Reactors
• The process of converting
nuclear energy into
electricity is similar to that of
using fossil fuels.
• Water is boiled, the steam is
passed through a turbine,
which spins a generator.
• With more than 400
commercial reactors
worldwide, including 93 in
the United States, nuclear
power continues to be one of
the largest sources of reliable
carbon-free electricity
available.
• As with nuclear bombs, the primary fuel is uranium-235.
• Uranium ore is enriched and formed into fuel pellets.
• The fuel pellets are stacked into long, cylindrical fuel rods.
• Control rods, made of a neutron-absorbing material, are placed amongst the fuel rods.
• Can be removed and inserted to adjust the rate of the chain reaction

Withdraw
Insert control
control rods,
rods,
reaction
reaction
increases
decreases
Nuclear Fission Creates Heat
• The main job of a reactor is to house and control nuclear fission—a process where
atoms split and release energy.
• Reactors use uranium for nuclear fuel. The uranium is processed into small ceramic
pellets and stacked together into sealed metal tubes called fuel rods. Typically, more
than 200 of these rods are bundled together to form a fuel assembly. A reactor core is
typically made up of a couple hundred assemblies, depending on power level.
• Inside the reactor vessel, the fuel rods are immersed in water which acts as both a
coolant and moderator. The moderator helps slow down the neutrons produced by
fission to sustain the chain reaction.
• Control rods can then be inserted into the reactor core to reduce the reaction rate or
withdrawn to increase it.
• The heat created by fission turns the water into steam, which spins a turbine to
produce carbon-free electricity.
• Both reactor vessel and
steam generator are housed
in a special containment
building preventing
radiation from escaping,
and providing extra security
in case of accidents.
• Under normal operating
conditions, a reactor releases
very little radioactivity.
Summary: How Nuclear Energy Works
Pressurized Water Reactors

More than
65% of the
commercial
reactors in the
United States
are
pressurized-
water reactors
or PWRs.
Boiling Water Reactors
The Pressurized Water Boiling Water
Reactor (PWR) Reactor (BWR)
World Nuclear Power Plants
Nuclear power in India

Kudankulam power plant unit 1&2

Currently, twenty-two
nuclear power reactors
have a total install capacity
of 7,380 MW (2.0% of total
Nuclear power in India
India's domestic uranium reserves are small and the country is
dependent on uranium imports to fuel its nuclear power industry. Since
early 1990s, Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India

Large deposits of uranium were discovered in the Tummalapalle

belt in Andhra Pradesh and in the Bhima basin in Karnataka by the
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India

India has been making advances in the field of thorium-based fuels,

working to design and develop a prototype for an atomic reactor using
thorium and low-enriched uranium, a key part of India's three stage
nuclear power programme.[9]
Chernobyl Accident- April 26, 1986
• World’s worst nuclear power plant
accident
• Chernobyl in Ukraine on Pripyat River
• Population 12,500; 120,000 in 30 km
radius
• 4 reactors (2 built in 1970’s, 2 in 1980’s)
• Combination of design and operator error
during electrical power safety check
resulted in cascade of events leading to
core breach of Reactor 4 with subsequent
chemical (not nuclear) explosion
Chemistry in Context, Chapter 7
[Link]
Chernobyl- Reactor 4 Site

Boron, dolomite, sand,

clay, and lead were
dropped by helicopter to
contain fire and release of
[Link] /UN Chernobyl Forum(2006)
[Link] radioactive particles.
Chernobyl Accident
• Flow of coolant water interrupted, insufficient # control rods, core breach
• Graphite used to slow neutrons in reactor caught fire. Water sprayed on graphite, resulting in hydrogen gas formation-
chemical combustion reaction and explosion
• 2H2O(l) + C(graphite)  2 H2(g) + CO2(g)
• 2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(g)
• Large amount of radioactive fission products dispersed into atmosphere for 10 days (about 100X greater than
Hiroshima/Nagasaki)
• 150,000 people in 60 km radius permanently evacuated
• Toll: several workers immediately, about 30 firefighters/emergency workers from acute radiation exposure, and a smaller
# from subacute effects (overall, about 60 deaths)
• About 250 million people exposed to radiation levels which may reduce lifespan, including about 200,000 in the clean-up
crew (“liquidators”) who buried the waste and built a concrete “sarcophagus” around Reactor 4
• Initial radiation released primarily I-131 (half life= 8 days), later Cs-137 (half life= 30 years)
• Children particularly susceptible to I-131. Thyroid takes up I- to produce the hormone thyroxine (T4,
growth/metabolism).
• I-131 decays be beta emission with accompanying gamma ray
• If ingested, can cause thyroid cancer
• About 4000 cases of thyroid cancer in exposed children (2000), nine related deaths in this group
• Preliminary evidence (2006) suggests increased risk of leukemia and possibly other cancers in “liquidator” group and
others with higher exposure in the first year- “Among some 600,000 workers exposed in the first year, the possible
increase in cancer deaths due to this radiation exposure might be up to a few percent.”
Chernobyl Accident
• any significant radiation-related health effects to most people exposed”
• No evidence of increase in birth defects, abnormal pregnancies, or reduced
fertility
• Secondary effects- fatalism, mental health problems, smoking, alcohol abuse,
general poor health and nutrition
• Surrounding farmland (1000 square miles) not farmable due to high Cs-137
(exception, one small area in Belarus)
• High levels of Cs-137 found down wind in reindeer meat in Scandinavia
• Contamination effects on plants/animals within 30 km
• Contamination of nearby water bodies and fish
Pathways Of Exposure To Man From Release of
Radioactive Materials
• In 1979, a movie called “The China
Syndrome” was released.
• Fictional story about a California
nuclear plant that experienced a near-
meltdown of its nuclear core.
• The title of the movie is an
exaggeration of what happens during a
meltdown – the nuclear core becomes
so hot that it melts, even melting
through the floor of the reactor vessel.
• Ten days following the movie’s release, the
Three Mile Island partial meltdown
occurred.
• A relief water valve stuck open, allowing
water to escape from the core.
• A meltdown, when the fuel and control rods
physically begin to melt due to the heat surge
within the reactor, partially occurred.
• No major leak to the
environment occurred.
Nuclear Energy- US Experience
• Three Mile Island- March 28, 1979
• Near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
• Most serious US nuclear plant incident
• Valve malfunction and lost coolant with partial meltdown
• Some radioactive gas released, no fatalities
• No significant increase in cancer deaths in exposed population
• Damage largely contained
• China Syndrome released 12 days before
• Construction of new nuclear plants  shortly after
• Resulted in broad changes in the nuclear power industry and NRC regarding emergency response,
operator training, engineering/design criteria, radiation protection, and oversight to enhance safety
Fukushima
• The most recent meltdown occurred following a massive earthquake and tidal
wave off the coast of Japan.
• The generators powering the water pumps of some of the Fukushima Daiichi
reactors were flooded.
• Without cooling water, the core overheated and
experienced a meltdown.
• Contaminated water from the plant leaked into the Pacific.
• Top predators, like bluefin tuna, caught in the Pacific have positively tested for
small amounts of radioactive fallout.
• A single serving of tuna has less than half of the exposure from an arm x-ray.
What is a Half-Life?

• Every radioactive element has

a half-life
• Half-life is the time it takes for
half of its atoms to decay.
• Half-lives range from a
fraction of a second to billions
of years – 4.5 billion for
uranium 238.
• The longer the half-life, the less
intense the radiation.
• After 10 half-lives, an element
is usually harmless
Safety of Nuclear Plants
• Steel-reinforced concrete and a dome-shaped containment buildings surround all US reactors (inner
wall several feet thick and outer wall at least 15 inches thick)
• Designed to withstand hurricanes, earthquakes, high winds
• Reactors have detectors to quickly shut down in event of tremor (about 20% are in regions with
seismic activity like Pacific Rim)
• In considering safety, must address…
• Faults in plant design
• Human error
• Risks associated with terrorism/political instability
Effects of Ionizing Radiation
• Ionizing radiation has sufficient energy to knock bound elections out of an atom or molecule
• Includes alpha/beta particles and gamma/x-rays
• Can form highly reactive free radicals with unpaired electrons
• For example, H2O  [H2O.] + e-
• Rapidly dividing cells in the human body are particularly susceptible to damage by free radicals
• Radiation can be used to treat certain cancers and Graves disease of the thyroid
• However, ionizing radiation can also damage healthy cells
• Biological damage determined by radiation dose, type of radiation, rate of delivery, and type of
tissue
Radiation Units
• Activity- disintegration rate of radioactive substance
• Becquerel- SI unit (Bq) = 1 disintegration per second (dps)
• Curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 Bq = # dps from 1g Ra
• Absorbed dose- energy imparted by radiation onto an absorbing material
• Gray- SI unit (Gy) = 1 joule per kilogram
• 1 Gy = 100 rads
• Dose Equivalent (DE)- dose in terms of biological effect
• DE = Absorbed dose X Quality factor (Q)
• Q = 1 for beta particles and gamma/x-rays
• Q = 10 for alpha particles
• Sievert- SI unit (Sv)
• 1 Sv = 100 rems
Physiological Effects of Acute Radiation Exposure
• No observable effect (< .25 Gy)- .25 Gy is nearly 70 times average annual radiation exposure!
• White blood cell count drops (.25 to 1 Gy)
• Mild radiation sickness (1 to 2 Gy absorbed dose)
• Nausea and vomiting within 24 to 48 hours
• Headache
• Fatigue
• Weakness
• Moderate radiation sickness (2 to 3.5 Gy)
• Nausea and vomiting within 12 to 24 hours
• Fever
• Hair loss
• Vomiting blood, bloody stool
• Poor wound healing
• Any of the mild radiation sickness symptoms
• Can be fatal to sensitive individuals
• Severe radiation sickness (3.5 to 5.5 Gy)
• Nausea and vomiting less than 1 hour after exposure
• Diarrhea
• High fever
• Any symptoms of a lower dose exposure
• About 50% fatality

• Very severe radiation sickness (5.5 to 8 Gy)

• Nausea and vomiting less than 30 minutes after exposure
• Dizziness
• Disorientation
• Low blood pressure
• Any symptoms of a lower dose exposure
• > 50% fatality

• Longer term or chronic radiation effects include genetic mutations, tumors/cancer,

birth defects, cataracts, etc.
Thyroid Scan- Graves Disease
[Link]
• Natural sources (81%) include radon (55%), external
(cosmic, terrestrial), and internal (K-40, C-14, etc.)
• Man-made sources (19%) include medical (diagnostic x-
rays- 11%, nuclear medicine- 4%), consumer products, and
other (fallout, power plants, air travel, occupational, etc.)
[Link]
NCRP Report No. 93
[Link]/rpdweb00/docs/[Link]
Radiation Dose Comparisons
Source Dose
(mrem)
Chest X-ray 10

5-hour plane flight 3

Live within 50 miles of coal-fired .03

power plant for 1 year
Live within 50 miles of a nuclear .009
plant for 1 year
US Average Annual Whole Body 360
Radiation Dose
• Nuclear fallout is dust and ash propelled into the atmosphere following a
nuclear blast.
• Radiation exposure from fallout is measured in rems.
• 100-200 rems causes mild symptoms, such as nausea and vomiting.
• 400-600 rems has about a 50% mortality rate.
• 600-1000 rems will usually cause death.
• Over 1000 rems will cause death in a few hours or less.
• Interior exposure of fallout, from breathing or ingesting the dust and ash,
would have even more severe effects.
• An average person will be exposed to about 620 millirems of radiation per
year from natural and man-made sources.
Effect of Smoking on Radiation Dose
• Average annual whole body radiation dose is about 360 mrem
• If you smoke, add about 280 mrem (source does not specify # packs per day
smoked)
• Tobacco contains Pb-210, which decays to Po-210.
• Pb-210 deposits in bones.
• Po-210 in liver, spleen, and kidneys

• [Link]
• [Link]
Long Term Effects of LOW Radiation Doses
• Long term effects of low doses of radiation still unknown
• Two radiation dose-response models
• Linear non-threshold
• More conservative model used by EPA and other federal agencies
• Radiation harmful at all doses, even low ones
• Threshold
• Assumes cellular repair at low doses
• Assumes low doses are safe
Nuclear Waste
• Challenges in the storage of spent reactor fuel
• Waste
• Contains radioactive fission products
• Can be hazardous for thousands of years
• Half-life of Pu-239 is 24,110 years
• Fission products, if released, can build up in the body and be fatal
• Plutonium, cesium, strontium, and other “-ium” elements created in a nuclear reactor emit dangerous radiation
that can literally knock electrons off the atoms of our cells, disrupting or destroying cell function or even
causing cells to mutate into cancer cells.
• Radioactive elements emit radiation because they are unstable; they’d rather be something else.
• They achieve this by going to pieces; emitting particles and waves billions of times per second. This process
is called a half-life.

• Types of Nuclear Waste

• Long half-lives of radioisotopes
• Requires permanent isolation
• “Mixed waste” because hazardous chemicals & radioactivity
• National risk because the waste could be extracted and used to make nuclear weapons
• From nuclear power plants
• Spent Nuclear Fuel (SNF): radioactive material remaining in fuel rods after it’s used to generate power in nuclear reactor
• Contains Pu-239
• Low-level radioactive waste (LLW)
• Waste with smaller amounts of radioactive materials
• No spent nuclear fuel
• Includes contaminated lab clothing, gloves, and tools (radioactivity levels are low)

• 90% of nuclear waste is LLW not HLW

• Almost all nuclear waste is stored where it was generated
• sites are not intended for long-term storage

• Outside the US, countries reprocess their SNF using breeder reactors
• Nuclear reactor that can produce more fissionable material than it consumes (recovering Pu-239 from U-
235)
Options for Nuclear Waste

Vitrification: spent fuel elements or mixed waste are encased in ceramic or glass and put in long-term underground repository
Possible site for repository: Yucca Mountains in NV.
Radioactive Waste Management
• About 100,000 tons of low-level waste (clothing) and about 15,000 tons of
high-level waste (spent-fuel) waste is stored in the U.S. from reactor usage.
• Spent fuel rods are temporarily placed in deep water pools while they cool
down and the fission reaction slows.
• Waste is then moved to large casks of metal and concrete near the reactor.
• The U.S. Department of Energy announced
plans to build a high-level waste repository
near Yucca Mountain, Nevada in 1987.
• The facility met three important criteria for
long-term waste storage:
• Low moisture.
• Geologically stable.
• Far away from major population centers.
• Plans to use Yucca have since been halted, due
to objections from Nevada residents.
• No long-term storage plan has been accepted by
the U.S.
• Some alternative methods of nuclear waste
disposal have been researched.
• Transmutation uses the waste as fuel in a different
type of reactor, which converts it to a less-dangerous
waste.
• Geologic disposal involves
depositing the waste
deep below the Earth’s
crust in stable rock
formations.

55
Risks & Benefits of Nuclear Power

Risks associated with energy produced by nuclear power are less than from coal-burning plants.
 Risks & Benefits of Nuclear Power

Coal-fired electric plants Nuclear plants

(one 1000 MW plant) (one 1000 MW plant)
• releases 4.5 million tons of • produces 70 ft3 of
CO2 HLW/year
• produces 3.5 million ft3 of • no CO2 released
waste ash/year
• releases 300 tons of SO2 • no acidic oxides of sulfur
and ~100 tons NOx/day and nitrogen released
• releases Uranium and
Thorium from coal

One big advantage to nuclear power is that, under normal conditions, it does not release any air pollution, only steam.
Future of Nuclear Power
• A new growth phase of nuclear power in near future
• 2005 Energy Bill: tax incentives for electricity produced by new nuclear plants
• New reactor designs
• Expansion in other countries
• New fuel technology – mixed oxide (MOX)
• Pu from nuclear warheads and SNF can be made into MOX

• Still a debate if risks of nuclear power outweigh those of global warming, acid rain, and nuclear
terrorism.
• Both our need for energy and the mass of radioactive waste are issues to balance.
• Through the late 1970s, many new
reactors were constructed all over
the United States.
• Since that initial boom, few new
reactors have come online.
Fusion Reactions
• A classic example of a fusion reaction
is that of deuterium (heavy hydrogen)
and tritium which is converted to
Helium and release energy.
p+p He + n + .42 MeV
• During most of their lives, stars make
energy by turning hydrogen into
helium
• 4 hydrogen atoms  1 helium
• Binding energy is the energy that
is released when a nucleus is
created from protons and neutrons.
• It is released during the formation Fission
of a nucleus Mass
• The greater the binding energy per Number
(A)
nucleon in the atom, the greater the Fusion
atom’s stability. Charge
Number Symbol

Binding energy (in MeV) per particle as a

function of the mass number (A)
Relevant fusion reactions

• Often considered fusion reactions (Note

more than one reaction possible)

Mass
Number
(A)

Charge
Number Symbol
Fusion Reactors
• Fusion easiest for Deuteron (D) + Tritium(T):
D(p,n) + T(p,nn) → 4He(pp,nn) + n
in a high temperature plasma.
• Replacement T created from Li blanket around reactor
n + 6Li → 4He + T
• Fusion reactors
• International ITER in 2012 for research for a decade, costing $5 billion
• Current stalemate over siting in France or Japan
• Followed by DEMO for a functioning plant, taking another 10 years.
• Design and completion of a commercial plant not until 2050.
• US Lithium supply would last a few hundred years.
• Still would be a radioactive waste disposal problem.
Calculation of energy released

• The released energy follows from the mass deficit.

Consider the reaction

• The masses of the different products are

• The mass deficit (Total mass before minus total mass after)
is
Calculation of the released energy

• The mass deficit is

• The energy then follows from Einstein’s formula

• Used unit of energy is the electron volt (eV), kilo-electron volt (1keV
= 1000 eV) or Mega-electron volt (1 MeV = 106 eV)
Availability of the fuel
• The natural abundance of Deuterium is one in 6700. There is enough water in the ocean to provide
energy for 3 1011 years at the current rate of energy consumption (larger than the age of the
universe)
• Deuterium is also very cheaply obtainable. Calculating the price of electricity solely on the basis of
the cost of Deuterium, would lead to a drop of 103 in your electricity bill
• Tritium is unstable with a half age of 12.3 years. There is virtually no naturally resource of Tritium
• Tritium however can be bred from Lithium

• Note that the neutron released in the fusion reaction can be used for this purpose
• The availability of Lithium on land is sufficient for at least 1000 if not 30000 years, and the cost per
kWh would be even smaller than that of Deuterium.
• If the oceans is included it is estimated that there is enough fuel for 3 107 years.
Why fusion ….
• There is a large amount of fuel available, at a very low price.
• Fusion is CO2 neutral.
• It would yield only a small quantity of high level radio active waste.
• There is no risk of uncontrolled energy release.
• The fuel is available in all locations of the earth. Fusion is of interest especially for
those regions that do not have access to other natural resources.
• There is only a small threat to non-proliferation of weapon material

• A working concept is yet to be demonstrated. The operation of a fusion reactor is

hindered by several, in itself rather interesting, physics phenomena
• The cost argument isn’t all that clear, since the cost of the energy will be largely
determined by the cost of the reactor.
Limitations due to the high temperature
• 10 keV is still 100 million Kelvin (matter is fully ionized, i.e. in the plasma
state)
• Some time scales can be estimated using the thermal velocity

• This is 106 m/s for Deuterium and 6 107 m/s for the electrons
• In a reactor of 10 m size the particles would be lost in 10 ms.
Why is this hard?
• Still need temperatures of ~109 K or so
• can’t afford to wait for
quantum tunnelling
• Tritium is unstable
• decays to 3He with a half-
life of 12 years
• so it does not occur
naturally—you have to
make it
• The free neutron is
potentially dangerous
• can produce radioactive
nuclei
Two approaches to fusion
• One is based on the rapid
compression, and heating of a
solid fuel pellet through the use
of laser or particle beams. In this
approach one tries to obtain a
sufficient amount of fusion
reactions before the material
flies apart, hence the name,
inertial confinement fusion
(ICF).
Magnetic confinement ..
• The Lorentz force connected with a magnetic field makes that the charged
particles can not move over large distances across the magnetic field
• They gyrate around the field lines with a typical radius

At 10 keV and 5 Tesla

this radius of 4 mm
for Deuterium and
0.07 mm for the
electrons
• Nuclear fusion produces
less nuclear waste than
nuclear fission and the
materials are easier to
obtain.
THE SUN…

• Fusion reactions exist in stars.

• Our sun is a good example of a
thermonuclear (fusion)
reaction.
• It is almost impossible to
create fusion reactions on
earth since they need
temperatures above one
million degrees Celsius in
Every second, the sun converts 500 million metric tons of hydrogen to helium. Due t
order to take place. the process of fusion, 5 million metric tons of excess material is converted into energ
each second. This means that every year, 157,680,000,000,000 metric tons are
converted into energy.
The SUN

• Fusing two protons together is difficult

• they repel each other by the electrostatic force
• classically you need temperatures of ~1010 K to overcome
this
• remember temperature = mean kinetic energy of particles
• the Sun manages to do it at ~107 K because of quantum
tunnelling
• still a very improbable reaction—the reason the pp chain is slow
Fusion techniques

• Tokamak
• create extremely hot d-t plasma and confine with
a magnetic field (it will vaporise anything it touches)
• Inertial confinement
• take small pellet of fuel and blast it with
powerful lasers
The ITER fusion reactor
National Ignition Facility
pros and cons of nuclear energy

Pros of Nuclear Energy Cons of Nuclear Energy

Carbon-free electricity Uranium is technically non-
renewable
Small land footprint Very high upfront costs
High power output Nuclear waste
Reliable energy source Malfunctions can be
catastrophic