THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

Limits and derivatives are the two main subjects that form the nucleus of calculus. The word derivative simply
means “rate of change". In fact, if the derivative of a function y = f (x) at x0 exist, then the value of the
derivative at x0 is the rate of change of f at the point (x0 , f (x0 )).

Formal Definition of Derivative

Definition: If f is a function of an independent variable, say x, then the derivative of f at x0 , denoted by
f 0 (x0 ), is given by

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim ,
x7→0 h
if this limit exists. If f 0 (x0 ) exists, then f is said to be differentiable at x0 . The function f is said to be
differentiable if it is differentiable at each point in the domain of f .

The Three Step Rule

From Definition, a systematic procedure can be immediately formulated for obtaining the derivative of f at x,
if it exists. This is called the three-step rule:

1. Simplify f (x + h) − f (x).
f (x + h) − f (x)
2. Divide f (x + h) − f (x) by h 6= 0, that is, solve for .
h
f (x + h) − f (x)
3. Evaluate lim . By definition, this limit, if it exist, is f 0 (x).
h7→0 h
Example 1. Use the 3-Step Rule to find the derivative f 0 (x) of the function f (x) = 4x − 5.
Example 2. Use the 3-Step Rule to find the derivative f 0 (x) of the function f (x) = 3x2 − x.
1
Example 3. Use the 3-Step Rule to find the derivative f 0 (x) of the function f (x) = , x 6= 0.
x
√
Example 4. Use the 3-Step Rule to find the derivative f 0 (x) of the function f (x) = x + 3.
1
Example 5. Use the 3-Step Rule to find the derivative f 0 (x) of the function f (x) = √ for x > 0.
x

Theorems on Differentiation
Definition. The process of finding the derivative of a given function is called differentiation.

Notations: If the function f is defined by the equation y = f (x), then the derivative of f at x can be
denoted by any of the following symbols:

dy d
f 0 (x),
, Dx f, Dx f (x), Dx y, [f (x)], y 0
dx dx
Theorem. (Derivative of a constant) If f (x) = c for all x, where c is a constant, then f 0 (x) = 0.

Illustration:
√
1. Let f (x) = 2. Then f 0 (x) =

2. Let f (x) = π. Then f 0 (x) =

1
Theorem (Derivative of a power) If r is a real number and f (x) = xr , then f 0 (x) = rxr−1 .
Illustration:

1. If f (x) = x3 , then f 0 (x) =

2. If f (x) = x−7 , then f 0 (x) =

3
3. If f (x) = x 2 , then f 0 (x) =
1 1 1
4. Let f (x) = √ . Note that f (x) = √ = x− 2 so that f 0 (x) =
x x
Theorem If h is a differentiable function at x and f (x) = c · h(x), where c is a constant, then f is differentiable
at x and f 0 (x) = c · h0 (x).
Illustration:

1. If f (x) = 6x4 , then f 0 (x) =

2. If f (x) = −5x−3 , then f 0 (x) =

Theorem (Derivative of a Sum) If g and h are differentiable at x and f (x) = g(x) + h(x), then f is
differentiable at x and
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) + h0 (x).
Illustration:

1. Let f (x) = 3x5 − 7x3 . Then f 0 (x) =

2. Let f (x) = 2x5 + 3x4 − 6x3 + 5x2 − 5x − 8. Then f 0 (x) =

Theorem (Derivative of a Product) If g and h are differentiable at x and f (x) = g(x) · h(x), then f is
differentiable at x and
f 0 (x) = g(x) · h0 (x) + h(x) · g 0 (x).
Illustration: Let f (x) = (3x2 + 2x)(x2 − 5x + 1). Note that (3x2 + 2x) and (x2 − 5x + 1) are differentiable at
x and f 0 (x) =
g(x)
Theorem (Derivative of a Quotient) If g and h are differentiable at x and f (x) = with h(x) 6= 0, then
h(x)
f is differentiable at x and
h(x)g 0 (x) − g(x)h0 (x)
f 0 (x) = .
[h(x)]2
x2 + 1
Illustration: Let f (x) = . Then f 0 (x) =
x−1
Theorem (Derivative of a Composite Function - The Chain Rule) Suppose that f , g, and u are
functions with f (x) = g(u(x)) and suppose that g and u are differentiable at x. Then f is differentiable at x
and
f 0 (x) = g 0 (u(x)) · u0 (x).
Corollary If f (x) = [u(x)]r , where r is any real number, and u is a differentiable function, then

f 0 (x) = r[u(x)]r−1 u0 (x).

Illustrations:

1. Let f (x) = (x2 + 3x − 2)5 . Find f 0 (x).

2
 3 dy
2. Let y = . Find .
x3
− 4x2
− 5x + 2 dx
5x + 2 5
 
3. Given the function f (x) = , find f 0 (x).
2x − 3
dy
4. Find given the function y = (x2 − 3x + 1)12 (2x − 3)15 .
dx

Differential Notations
du dv
Let c be a constant and let u = f (x) and v = g(x) be functions of x such that f 0 (x) = and g 0 (x) = both
dx dx
exist. Then the following table provides the rules of differentiation using differential notations:

d(c)
=0 d(c) = 0
n
dx
d(x )
= nxn−1 d(xn ) = nxn−1 dx
dx
d(cu) du
=c d(cu) = cdu
dx dx
d(u + v) du dv
= + d(u + v) = du + dv
dx dx dx
d(uv) dv du
=u +v d(uv) = udv + vdu
dx dx dx
u du dv
d( ) v +u u vdu − udv
v = dx dx d =
dx n v2 v v2
d(u ) du
= nun−1 d(un ) = nun−1 du
dx dx
Table 1: The Differential Notations

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem. The derivative of each of the six trigonometric functions are as follows.

1. Dx (sin x) = cos x 4. Dx (csc x) = − csc x cot x

2. Dx (cos x) = − sin x 5. Dx (sec x) = sec x tan x
3. Dx (tan x) = sec2 x 6. Dx (cot x) = − csc2 x

Theorem. Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then

1. Dx (sin u) = cos uDx u 4. Dx (cot u) = − csc2 uDx u

2. Dx (cos u) = − sin uDx u 5. Dx (sec u) = sec u tan uDx u
3. Dx (tan u) = sec2 uDx u 6. Dx (csc u) = − csc u cot uDx u

Example. Find the derivative of the following functions using the theorems on differentiation for trigonometric
functions.

1. f (x) = sin 3x2 5. g(y) = cot4 (2y − 1)

2. f (x) = cos5 x √
6. h(z) = 3z 2 sec 2z
3. f (x) = sec2 (2x) + csc(2x)
p
4. f (x) = x3 tan 3x 7. f (x) = 3
sin2 (3x2 + 1)

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Inverse Trigonometric Functions
A. If f is a one-to-one function with domain X and range Y , then its inverse function has domain Y and
range X. Moreover, if y = f (x), then x = f −1 (y).

B. The following are the inverse trigonometric functions:

(a) The inverse sine function, denoted by y = sin−1 x = arcsinx, is defined if and only if sin y = x,
where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and −π π
2 ≤ y ≤ 2.
(b) The inverse cosine function, denoted by y = cos−1 x = arccosx, is defined if and only if cos y = x,
where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.

(c) The inverse tangent function, denoted by y = tan−1 x = arctanx, is defined if and only if tan y = x,
where x is any real number and −π π
2 < y < 2.

(d) The inverse cotangent function, denoted by y = cot−1 x = arccotx, is defined if and only if cot y = x,
where x is any real number and 0 < y < π.

(e) The inverse secant function, denoted by y = sec−1 x = arcsecx, is defined if and only if sec y = x,
where |x| ≥ 1 and 0 ≤ y < π2 or −π ≤ y < − π2 .

(f) The inverse cosecant function, denoted by y = csc−1 x = arccscx, is defined if and only if csc y = x,
where |x| ≥ 1 and 0 < y < π2 or −π < y < − π2 .

To sum up, consider the table below.

Function Definition Domain Range

y = arcsin x sin y = x [−1, 1] [−π/2, π/2]
y = arccos x cos y = x [−1, 1] [0, π]
y = arctan x tan y = x R (−π/2, π/2)
y = arccot x cot y = x R (0, π)
y = arcsec x sec y = x (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) [−π, −π/2) ∪ [0, π/2)
y = arccsc x csc y = x (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) (−π, −π/2) ∪ (0, π/2)

Table 2: Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Theorem. The derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions are as follows.

1 −1
1. Dx (arcsin x) = √ , −1 < x < 1 4. Dx (arccot x) = ,x∈R
1 − x2 1 + x2
−1 1
2. Dx (arccos x) = √ , −1 < x < 1 5. Dx (arcsec x) = √ , |x| > 1
1 − x2 x x2 − 1
1 −1
3. Dx (arctan x) = ,x∈R 6. Dx (arccsc x) = √ , |x| > 1
1 + x2 x x2 − 1

Theorem. Let u be a differentiable function of x.

1 −1
1. Dx (arcsin u) = √ · Dx (u) 4. Dx (arccot u) = · Dx (u)
1 − u2 1 + u2
−1 1
2. Dx (arccos u) = √ · Dx (u) 5. Dx (arcsec u) = √ · Dx (u)
1 − u2 u u2 − 1
1 −1
3. Dx (arctan u) = · Dx (u) 6. Dx (arccsc u) = √ · Dx (u)
1 + u2 u u2 − 1

4
Example. Determine the derivative of the following functions:
1
1. f (x) = arcsin (3x) 3. h(z) = zarccsc z

2. g(y) = arccot 53 y

Exponential and Logarithmic functions

1. The exponential function with base a is the function defined by y = f (x) = ax , a > 0.

2. The logarithmic functions to the base a, denoted by f (x) = loga x, is defined as the inverse of the
exponential function y = ax , where a > 0 and a 6= 1.

Properties:

1. The laws of exponents hold for exponential functions.

2. If M = aN , then N = loga M , where M, N > 0.

3. Let a, M and N be nonnegative numbers. Then the following hold:

(a) loga 1 = 0 M
(d) loga = loga M − loga N
N
(b) loga a = 1 (e) loga M r = r loga M
ln M
(c) loga M N = loga M + loga N (f) loga M =
ln a

Exponential function y = ax Logarithmic function y = loga x

1. domain of f df = {x : x ∈ R} 1. domain of f df = {x : x > 0}

2. image of f if = {y : y > 0} 2. image of f if = {y : y ∈ R}

3. Asymptote is the x − axis 3. Assymptote is the y − axis

4. intercept is (0, 1) 4. intercept is (1, 0)

5. f is increasing if a > 1 5. f is increasing if a > 1

6. f is decreasing if 0 < a < 1 6. f is deccreasing if 0 < a < 1

Table 3: The properties of the exponential and logarithmic function

Theorem.

[i.] Dx (ex ) = ex [iii.] Dx (ax ) = ax ln a, a > 0.

1 1
[ii.] Dx (ln x) = [iv.] Dx (loga x) = , a > 0.
x x · ln a

5
Theorem. Let u be differentiable function of x. Then

i. Dx (eu ) = eu · Dx (u). iii. Dx (au ) = au · ln a · Dx (u), a > 0.

1 1
ii. Dx (ln u) = · Dx (u). iv. Dx (loga u) = · Dx (u), a > 0.
u u ln a

Example. Find the derivative of each of the following:

3
 
1. f (x) = e1−x 1−x
4. f (x) = log2
2 2 − x2
2. f (x) = 5x
√
3. f (x) = e3x+ln x 5. g(x) = arcsin x · ln x

Implicit Differentiation
If the function f = {(x, y) | y = 9x2 + 3x − 8}, then the equation y = 9x2 + 3x − 8 defines the function f
explicitly. However, not all functions can be defined explicitly by an equation. For instance, the equation
x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0 cannot be solved for y in terms of x. Consider the relation

R = {(x, y) | x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0}.

Although the relation R is not a function, we may describe R by means of two functions.
Defining p
f1 = {(x, y) | y = 1 − x2 }
and p
f2 = {(x, y) | y = − 1 − x2 },
observe that R = f1 ∪ f2 . The functions describing f1 and f2 are
√ √
y = 1 − x2 and y = − 1 − x2 respectively.

Another example of a relation which may be defined by decomposition into one or more function is x3 + 2x2 y −
3xy 2 + 4y 4 = 0. In this case, the functions, if any, are defined implicitly by the equation.

Definition. Implicit differentiation is the process of finding the derivative of a function that is defined
implicitly.

Example. Suppose that y is a differentiable function of the variable x.

Find dy/dx = Dx y = y 0 of the following.

1. x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0 4. x sin y − y sin x = 25 + xy
2. x3 + 2x2 y − 3xy 2 + 4y 4 = 0
3. (x − y)2 − (x + y)2 = x4 − y 4 5. sin(x + y) = y cos x

Previous Theorem shows how to differentiate functions of the form au , where a is a constant and u is a
variable. The following procedure called logarithmic differentiation illustrates how to differentiate functions
of the form u(x)v(x) , where u and v are both function of x.

6
Steps in logarithmic differentiation:
Let y = f (x).

1. Take ln or log on both sides and simplify.

dy
2. Differentiate implicitly and solve for or y 0 .
dx
dy
3. Solve for y 0 or and express in terms of x.
dx
Example. Find the derivative of each of the following using logarithmic differentiation.

1. f (x) = xx 2. f = xsin x 3. g(x) = xlnx

Higher Order Derivatives

If the function f is differentiable, then its derivative f 0 is called the first derivative of f . If the function f 0
is differentiable, then the derivative of f 0 is called the second derivative of f , denoted by f 00 . Similarly, the
third derivative of f , denoted by f 000 , is defined as the derivative of f 00 , provided that f 00 exists.

Definition. The nth derivative of the function f , denoted by f (n) , is defined as the derivative of the (n-1)st
derivative of f , provided the latter exists.
dy
Remark. The Leibniz notation for the first derivative is , where y = f (x). The Leibniz notation for the
dx
second derivative of f with respect to x is

d2 y
   
d dy d d
= = (y) .
dx2 dx dx dx dx

dn y
In general, the symbol denotes the nth derivative of y with respect to x.
dxn
Example.

1. Find all derivatives of the function defined by f (x) = x5 − 2x4 + 3x3 − 4x2 + 5x − 6.
d3
 
1
2. Find .
dx3 x2

3. Find f (5) of f (x) = cos(3x − 5).