NCERT Pointers: Circulation of body fluid

A. Introduction :
 Different groups of animals have evolved different methods for this transport. Simple organisms
like sponges and coelenterates circulate water from their surroundings through their body cavities
to facilitate the cells to exchange these substances.
 More complex organisms use special fluids within their bodies to transport such materials. Blood
is the most commonly used body fluid by most of the higher organisms including humans for this
purpose.
 More complex organisms use special fluids within their bodies to transport such materials. Blood
is the most commonly used body fluid by most of the higher organisms including humans for this
purpose.
B. Blood :
 Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed
elements.
 Blood is different than other connective tissue as blood does not have any fibres in the
matrix. Also matrix of blood (plasma) is not secreted by the blood cells.
 Certain data to learn:
 Blood has 55% of plasma and 45% of blood cells
 Colour of plasma – straw colour
 Water in plasma – 90-92%
 Proteins in plasma – 6-8%
 Count of RBC- 5 to 5.5 million /mm3 of blood
 Average lifespan of RBC- 120 days.
 Amount of haemoglobin- 12-16gm/100ml of blood
 Count of WBCs- 60,000 to 80,000 /mm3 of blood
 Count of platelet : 1,50,000 to 3,50,000 /mm3 of blood
 Percentage abundance of different WBCs: Eosinophil-2-3%, Basophil-0.5-1%,
Neutrophil-60-65%, Monocyte-6-8% , Lymphocyte- 20-25%.
 Function of blood protein:
Blood Protein Function
Albumin Helps in osmotic balance
Globulin Defence protein
Fibrinogen Helps in clotting or coagulation of blood
 Summary of blood cells
Type of cell Diagram Nucleus Function
RBCs Absent in most of Transport of gases
the mammals

Platelets Absent , as they are Coagulation of

the cell fragments of blood. Secrete
megakaryotes thromboplastin
during coagulation
Eosinophils Bilobed Resist infections and
are also associated
with allergic
reactions.
 Basophils Trilobed Secrete histamine,
serotonin, heparin,
etc., and are involved
in inflammatory
reactions.
Neutrophils Multilobed Phagocytosis

Monocytes Bean shaped Phagocytosis

Lymphocytes T- cell B- cell Circular Immune response of

the body

 RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults. RBCs are devoid of nucleus in
most of the mammals and are biconcave in shape.
 They have a red coloured, iron containing complex protein called haemoglobin, hence the
colour and name of these cells.
 RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in the spleen
(graveyard of RBCs).
 Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) as they are colourless due to the
lack of haemoglobin.
 Leucocytes are generally short lived.
 We have two main categories of WBCs – granulocytes and agranulocytes. Neutrophils,
eosinophils and basophils are different types of granulocytes, while lymphocytes and
monocytes are the agranulocytes.
 Neutrophils are the most abundant cells (60-65 per cent) of the total WBCs and basophils
are the least (0.5-1 per cent) among them.
 Neutrophils and monocytes (6-8 per cent) are phagocytic cells which destroy foreign
organisms entering the body.
 Platelets also called thrombocytes are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes
(special cells in the bone marrow).
 Platelets can release a variety of substances most of which are involved in the coagulation
or clotting of blood.
 A reduction in their number can lead to clotting disorders which will lead to excessive
loss of blood from the body.
C. Blood groups:
 ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens (chemicals that
can induce immune response) on the RBCs namely A and B.
 Plasma of different individuals contains two natural antibodies (proteins produced in response
to antigens).
 During blood transfusion for checking the compatibility, generally antigen on the surface of
donor and antibodies in the plasma of recipient reacts, so they should not be same.
 During blood transfusion, any blood cannot be used; the blood of a donor has to be carefully
matched with the blood of a recipient before any blood transfusion to avoid severe problems
of clumping (destruction of RBC).
 Donors compatibility chart :

 Person with blood group O is universal donor as it do not have any antigen on the surface of
RBC.
 Person with AB blood group is universal recipient as it do not have any anitbodies in the
plasma.
 Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh), is also
observed on the surface of RBCs of majority (nearly 80 per cent) of humans.
 Person with Rh antigen on the surface of RBC are Rh positive while those do not have are
called Rh negative.
 An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the Rh
antigens. Therefore, Rh group should also be matched before transfusions.
 Erythroblastosis foetalis :
 Special case of Rh incompatibility in which mother is Rh negative and foetus is Rh positive.
 Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of the mother in the first
pregnancy as the two bloods are well separated by the placenta. However, during the delivery
of the first child, there is a possibility of exposure of the maternal blood to small amounts of
the Rh+ve blood from the foetus. In such cases, the mother starts preparing antibodies against
Rh antigen in her blood. In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the
mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and destroy the foetal RBCs.
This could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe anaemia and jaundice to the baby.
 Erythroblastosis foetalis can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother
immediately after the delivery of the first child.

D. Blood coagulation :
 Blood exhibits coagulation or clotting in response to an injury or trauma. This is a
mechanism to prevent excessive loss of blood from the body.
 Clot or coagulam (a dark reddish brown scum formed at the site of a cut or an injury over a
period of time ) formed mainly of a network of threads called fibrins in which dead and
damaged formed elements of blood are trapped.
  An injury or a trauma stimulates the platelets in the blood to release certain factors which
activate the mechanism of coagulation.
 Certain factors released by the tissues at the site of injury also can initiate coagulation.
 Calcium ions play a very important role in clotting.
 Process of blood coagulation is as follows :
i) An enzyme comples, throbokinase is formed formed by a series of linked enzymic
reactions (cascade process) involving a number of factors present in the plasma in an
inactive state. This is due to Certain factors released by the tissues at the site of injury.
ii) Prithrombin turn into thrombin with the help of thromibikanse
ii) Thrombin convert finribnogen into fibrin
iii) Cells trapped in a fibrin and ultimately forms a clot.
 Plasma wihtout clotting factor is called serum .

E. Lymph:
 Intestitial fluid: As the blood passes through the capillaries in tissues, some water along
with many small water soluble substances move out into the spaces between the cells of
tissues leaving the larger proteins and most of the formed elements in the blood vessels.
This fluid released out is called the interstitial fluid or tissue fluid.
 Intestitial fluid has same mineral compistion like that of plasma.
 Exchange of nutrients, gases, etc., between the blood and the cells always occur through
interstitial fluid.
 Intersitial fluid then pass into the capillaries which and vessels called lymphatic system.
Now this fluid in the lymphatic system is called lymph.
 Lymph: It is a colourless fluid containing specialised lymphocytes which are responsible
for the immune responses of the body.
 Lymph is also an important carrier for nutrients, hormones, etc. Fats are absorbed through
lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.

F. Circulatory pathway :
 Open circulatory system is present in arthropods and molluscs in which blood pumped by
the heart passes through large vessels into open spaces or body cavities called sinuses.
 Annelids and chordates have a closed circulatory system in which the blood
pumped by the heart is always circulated through a closed network of blood vessels.
 Open circulation is considered as more advantageous than closed as the flow of
fluid can be more precisely regulated.
 Vertebrate posses msuclar chambered heart .
 Summary of circulation in vertebrates
Group Heart Type of circulation
Fish Two chambered Single circulation
Amphibians and Three chambered Incomplete double
reptiles circulation
Crocodile, Birds Four chambered Complete double
and Mammas circulation

 In fishes the heart pumps out deoxygenated blood which is oxygenated by the gills and
supplied to the body parts from where deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart (single
circulation).
 In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
gills/lungs/skin and the right atrium gets the deoxygenated blood from other body parts.
However, they get mixed up in the single ventricle which pumps out mixed blood
(incomplete double circulation).
  In birds and mammals, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood received by the left and right
atria respectively passes on to the ventricles of the same sides. The ventricles pump it out
without any mixing up, i.e., two separate circulatory pathways are present in these
organisms; hence, these animals have double circulation.

G. Human circulatory system ( Blood vascular system)

 Heart: Mesodermal origin, Present in middle of thoracic cavity between two lungs,
slightly tilted to the left side, Size of clinched fist.
 Heart is protected by a double walled membranous bag, pericardium, enclosing the
pericardial fluid.
 Our heart has four chambers, two relatively small upper chambers called atria and two
larger lower chambers called ventricles.
 Atria are separated by thin inter-atrial septum while ventricles are separated by thick
inter-ventricular septum.
 The atrium and the ventricle of the same side are also separated by a thick fibrous tissue
called the atrio-ventricular septum. However, each of these septa are provided with an
opening through which the two chambers of the same side are connected.
 Opening between right atria and ventricle is guarded by tricuspid valve ( with two flaps),
while opening between left atria and ventricle is guarded by bicuspid valve ( mitral
valve). These valve prevent backflow of blood from ventricle to atria
 The openings of the right and the left ventricles into the pulmonary artery and the aorta
respectively are provided with the semilunar valves.
 Valves are attached to the ventricular wall with the help of chordae tendinae.
 The entire heart is made of cardiac muscles. The walls of ventricles are much thicker
than that of the atria.
 Apex of the heart is present toward left ventricle.

H. Conducting system of heart :

 Nodal tissue are special auto excitable (The nodal musculature has the ability to generate
action potentials without any external stimuli) musculature of the heart : It include SA
node, AV node, Bundle of his and Purkinje fibres.
 SA Node- A Patch of this tissue is present in the right upper corner of the right atrium
called the sino-atrial node (SAN).
 AV node- mass of this tissue is seen in the lower left corner of the right atrium close to
the atrio-ventricular septum called the atrio-ventricular node (AVN).
 Bundle of his: A bundle of nodal fibres, atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle) continues
from the AVN which passes through the atrio-ventricular septa to emerge on the top of
the interventricular septum and immediately divides into a right and left bundle.
 Purkinje fibres-Bundle branches give rise to minute fibres throughout the ventricular
musculature of the respective sides and are called purkinje fibres.
 Muscle fibres of all nodal tissue are auto excitable However, the number of action
potentials that could be generated in a minute vary at different parts of the nodal system.
 The SAN can generate the maximum number of action potentials, i.e., 70-75 min–1, and
is responsible for initiating and maintaining the rhythmic contractile activity of the heart.
Therefore, it is called the pacemaker.
 Our heart normally beats 70-75 times in a minute (average 72 beats min–1).
I. Cardiac cycle :
 Sequential event in the heart which is cyclically repeated is called the cardiac cycle and it
consists of systole and diastole of both the atria and ventricles.
 Each cardiac cycle is a duration of 0.8sec. It consist of three phases : Atrial systole, Ventricular
systole and joint diastole
 Atrial systole ( 0.1 sec) – Before atrial systole, all chamber of heart are relaxed, Semilunar
valves are closed while AV valves are open. Blood is coming fromveins into atria which is also
going down to the ventricle. The SAN now generates an action potential which stimulates both
the atria to undergo a simultaneous contraction – the atrial systole. This increases the flow of
blood into the ventricles by about 30 per cent.
 Ventricular systole (0.3 sec) : The action potential is conducted to the ventricular side by the
AVN and AV bundle from where the bundle of His transmits it through the entire ventricular
musculature. This causes the ventricular muscles to contract, (ventricular systole). Ventricular
systole increases the ventricular pressure causing the closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves
due to attempted backflow of blood into the atria. As the ventricular pressure increases further,
the semilunar valves guarding the pulmonary artery (right side) and the aorta (left side) are
forced open, allowing the blood in the ventricles to flow through these vessels into the
circulatory pathways.
 The atria undergoes relaxation (diastole), coinciding with the ventricular systole.
 Joint diastole (0.4 sec) : The ventricles now relax (ventricular diastole) and the ventricular
pressure falls causing the closure of semilunar valves which prevents the backflow of blood into
the ventricles. As the ventricular pressure declines further, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are
pushed open by the pressure in the atria exerted by the blood which was being emptied into
 them by the veins. The blood now once again moves freely to the ventricles. The ventricles and
atria are now again in a relaxed (joint diastole) state, as earlier.
 Duration of atrial systole is 0.1 sec. Duration of atrial disatole is 0.7sec, Duration of ventricuylar
systole is 0.3 sec while duration of ventricular diastole is 0.4 sec.
 Stroke volume- During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately 70 mL of
blood which is called the stroke volume.
 Cardiac ouput (CO)- CO= Stroke volume X heart rate. The cardiac output can be defined as
the volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle per minute and averages 5000 mL or 5 litres
in a healthy individual.
 The body has the ability to alter the stroke volume as well as the heart rate and thereby the
cardiac output. For example, the cardiac output of an athlete will be much higher than that of an
ordinary man.
 Two heart sound can be heard by stethoscope during cardiac cycle: Lub and Dub
 First heart sound -Lub sound is heard in the beginning of ventricular systole due to closure of
AV valve.
 Second heart sound –Dub sound is heard in the beginning of ventricular diastole due to closure
of semilunar valve.
 Duration between Lub and Dub sound is – 0.3sec, while duration between Dub and LUb sound
is 0.5 sec.

J. Electrocardiograph (ECG)
 ECG is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle
 Type of machine (electro-cardiograph) is used to obtain an electrocardiogram (ECG).
 To obtain a standard ECG a patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads (one
to each wrist and to the left ankle) that continuously monitor the heart activity. For a detailed
evaluation of the heart’s function, multiple leads are attached to the chest region.
 Each peak in the ECG is identified with a letter from P to T that corresponds to a specific
electrical activity of the heart.
P-wave Electrical excitation (or depolarisation) of the atria, which leads to
the contraction of both the atria.
QRS- complex Depolarisation of the ventricles, which initiates the ventricular
contraction. The contraction starts shortly after Q and marks the
beginning of the systole.
T-wave Return of the ventricles from excited to normal state (repolarisation).
The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole.

 By counting the number of QRS complexes that occur in a given time period, one can determine
the heart beat rate of an individual.
 ECGs obtained from different individuals have roughly the same shape for a given lead
configuration; any deviation from this shape indicates a possible abnormality or disease. Hence,
it is of a great clinical significance.

K. Histology of blood vessels:

  Both arteries and veins consist of three layers : Outer tunica externa, Middle tunica media and
innermost tunica intima.
Tunica Externa External layer of fibrous connective tissue with collagen fibres
Tunica Media Middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibres,
Tunica Intima Inner lining of squamous endothelium

 Tunica media is thick in arteries while very thin in veins. Arteries have narrow lumen while
veins have wider lumen.

L. Double circulation
 Double circulation has two separate routes: Pulmonary circulation and Systemic circulation
 Pulmonary circulation: the blood pumped by the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery,
whereas the left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta. The deoxygenated blood pumped into the
pulmonary artery is passed on to the lungs from where the oxygenated blood is carried by the
pulmonary veins into the left atrium. This pathway constitutes the pulmonary circulation.
 Systemic circulation : The oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by a network of
arteries, arterioles and capillaries to the tissues from where the deoxygenated blood is collected
by a system of venules, veins and vena cava and emptied into the right atrium. This is the
systemic circulation.
 The systemic circulation provides nutrients, O2 and other essential substances to the tissues and
takes CO2 and other harmful substances away for elimination.
 Hepatic portal system: A unique vascular connection exists between the digestive tract and
liver called hepatic portal system. The hepatic portal vein carries blood from intestine to the
liver before it is delivered to the systemic circulation.
 Coronary circulation: A special coronary system of blood vessels is present in our body
exclusively for the circulation of blood to and from the cardiac musculature.

M. Regulation of Cardiac activity :

 Myogenic heart- Normal activities of the heart are regulated intrinsically, i.e., auto regulated by
specialised muscles (nodal tissue), hence the heart is called myogenic.
 A special neural centre in the medulla oblangata can moderate the cardiac function through
autonomic nervous system (ANS).
 Neural signals through the sympathetic nerves (part of ANS) can increase the rate of heart beat,
the strength of ventricular contraction and thereby the cardiac output.
 Parasympathetic neural signals (another component of ANS) decrease the rate of heart beat,
speed of conduction of action potential and thereby the cardiac output.
 Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac output.

N. DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 Normal value of blood pressure is 120/80.
 In this measurement 120 mm Hg (millimetres of mercury pressure) is the systolic, or pumping,
pressure and 80 mm Hg is the diastolic, or resting, pressure
 Blood pressure is measured by sphygmomanometer.

Hypertension Repeated checks of blood pressure of an individual is

140/90 (140 over 90) or higher, it shows hypertension.
High blood pressure leads to heart diseases and also
affects vital organs like brain and kidney.
Coronary artery disease Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to as
atherosclerosis, affects the vessels that supply blood to
the heart muscle. It is caused by deposits of calcium, fat,
cholesterol and fibrous tissues, which makes the lumen of
arteries narrower.
Angina pectoris Acute chest pain appears when no enough oxygen is
reaching the heart muscle. Angina can occur in men and
women of any age but it is more common among the
middle-aged and elderly. It occurs due to conditions that
affect the blood flow
Heart failure Heart failure means the state of heart when it is not
pumping blood effectively enough to meet the needs of
the body. It is sometimes called congestive heart failure
because congestion of the lungs is one of the main
symptoms of this disease.
Heart attack ( Myocardial The heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate
infraction) blood supply
Cardiac arrest Heart stops beating