RAMANUJA'S CONCEPT OF THE INDIVIDUAL SOUL
AND HUMAN FREEDOM
Cyril VELIATH S.].
THE INDIVIDUAL SOUL
Ramanuja declares that the individual soul is a representation of the power
of the Brahman ( vibhuti). He does this on the basis of several scriptural
texts. Just as the souls and matter form a part (arrt~a), body (tanu), or form
(ropa) of the Brahman, in the same way they also constitute his vibhuti.
These souls exist in their own essential nature, and also through their
association with matter, as inhabitants of bodies (kSetrajiia). The essential
nature of these individual souls is knowledge, but this nature is clouded by
nescience in the form of good and evil actions, and consequently the souls do
not recognize their true nature, but consider themselves simply as material
entities. We know that it is nescience that differentiates the individual souls
into the souls of gods, men, and other creatures from the Brahman, because
such distinctions are not due to the essential nature of the souls themselves.
The world we see around us has been created by Brahman as an object of
fruition for the individual souls, in coordination with their good and evil
deserts. Brahman is the Self of these souls, who being attributes or modes of
Brahman are also infinite like him, but this qualification of infinity excludes
all those souls whose essential nature and attributes are limited, and who are
distinct from the Released souls and the souls in Sarrtstira. The souls are not
identical with each other since they inhabit different bodies, and the term
individual soul or Jlva, can also denote Brahman, in as much as he is the Self
of these intelligent entities which constitute his body. When a person is in the
state of deep sleep, the soul is then free from all name and form and it is
invested by intelligence alone. All those words which denote the intelligent
souls can also designate the Brahman, because he has these intelligent souls
for his body, he alone constituting the Self. 1) .
The souls which are in the state of Sarrtstira and which are bound by
matter, enter into different states of existence (just like non-intelligent matter)
and hence they do not enjoy unconditioned existence. A man who is aware of
all the infinite number of exalted qualities which belong to the Brahman, is
also aware of the fact that not a shadow of these qualities can possibly belong
to the individual soul. This individual soul is as contemptible a being as a
glow worm, and because of its connection with matter it is liable to attacks of
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unending sorrow. Everything that is different from Brahman, right up from
ether down to the self of food, constitutes his body, and indeed, the Self of
the self of food too is nothing else but the Brahman himself. Words such as
"I", "You", and so on which are different ways of referring to the individual
soul, all denote the Brahman alone, and a man of wisdom who is able to
perceive the intelligent self, and whose mind is purified by devotion, sees this
entire universe with its multitude of bodies as the body of the Brahman. 2 )
This Supreme Brahman is the goal to be reached and the individual soul is
the one who strives after that goal. A person who attempts to attain the
Brahman by means of devout meditation is certain of attaining this goal, for
the individual soul finds its fulfillment only in the Brahman. The true nature
of the individual soul is endowed with qualities such as freedom from evil and
so on. In the state of Sarrtsiira this true nature is hidden, but when the soul
has freed itself from the shackles of Karman, renounced the body and
approached the Brahman, then it reveals itself in its true form with all the
accompanying auspicious qualities. However, even when it has transcended
Karman the soul cannot be said to become Brahman himself, for it only
imitates or attains equality with Brahman. This is because certain qualities of
the Brahman are such, that they cannot possibly belong to the individual soul
even when its true nature has revealed itself. Such qualities are for example,
being the bank and sustainer of all the worlds, and the director of all sentient
and non-sentient entities (" setuvat sarvaloka vidharar:tatva;
cetanacetanayorniyantrtvam') . ) 3
Ramanuja has described the individual soul as having a size equal to the
point of a goad (" iiriigamatratvd'), and also of being atomic in size (ar:tu).
This individual soul is an agent (kartii), but the fact that it experiences
pleasures and pains arising from the diverse conditions of the body is not due
to the fact that it has a body, but due to its Karman in the form of good and
evil actions. This Karman is also responsible for the variegated creation that
we see around us. When Brahman changes from the state of a cause to the
state of an effect, non-sentient realities which were formerly devoid of name
and form, now become possessed of name and form, owing to the change of
nature that they undergo, and thus become suitable objects of fruition for
sentient beings. The individual souls too undergo a change, but this change is
merely an expansion of intelligence or consciousness, which enables them to
experience the different rewards or punishments, for deeds they have done in
the past (" cidamsasya ca karma phala vise~a bhoktrtviiya tad
anurupajfiiinavikiisarupa vikiiro bhavati"). Before creation the individual souls
existed in a highly subtle condition devoid of name and form, and in that state
it was impossible to designate them as something separate from Brahman,
though even in that highly subtle state they were nothing other than
Brahman's body. 4 l
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On the basis of the fact that intelligence is the essential nature of all souls
("Jiianasvarupa"), we may say that they are all similar, and the consciousness
of ·the self that exists within the heart is spread over the entire body.
Consciousness, intelligence, or knowledge, is referred to by the terms
anubhuti, jiiiina, avagati, and samvid It is an attribute of the knowing self
and it is related to an object. The basic character of this consciousness or
knowledge is the fact, that by its very existence it makes things capable of
becoming objects to its own substrate of thinking and speech. This
consciousness is known to everyone on the testimony of his own self, and we
realize this from ordinary judgments such as "I know the jar". This "I" which
is the knowing subject is not simply consciousness, but is the inner Atman. It
is basically intelligent (cidriipa), it has intelligence for its quality (caitanya),
and it is self-enlightening (svyam prakiisa). This self-enlightening entity is a
knower, that is to say, it is not just non-personal abstract intelligence but a
knowing subject. Indeed, there is no contradiction in saying that an entity
whose primary nature is knowledge is also the substrate of the quality of
knowledge. 5)
The individual self is basically an immutable entity. Even during the state
of sleep it was a subject of knowledge and it was conscious of pleasure and
sorrow, but in the state of deep sleep and in similar states the self which
reveals itself does so as the "I". The "I" so revealed is not to be understood as
a mere attribute of the self, because it constitutes the very nature of the self,
and it continues even in the state of Final Release. This consciousness of the
"I" when it is not sublated by anything else has the Atman for its object, but
the consciousness of the "I" that has the body for its object is mere A vidya. 6 >
Referring to a passage from the Upani~ads, "You may not see the seer of
seeing; you may not think the thinker of thinking" (Brh. Up. III, v, 2),
Ramanuja concludes that this passage refers to the person who has acquired
the mistaken idea that the quality of consciousness or knowledge is not the
essential nature of the knowing subject, but belongs to it merely as an
accidental attribute, and he declares that the teaching of the passage is that
one should consider the activity of seeing and thinking to be the essential
nature of the seeing and thinking subject. The text may also mean that one
should not meditate on the embodied self which is the subject of seeing and
thinking, but one should meditate on the Supreme Brahman, who forms the
inner Self of all beings. 7)
The individual soul is not liable to increase and decrease, it is exceedingly
subtle on account of its possessing a pervasive nature, it is incapable of
destruction, and it is not the object but the subject of knowledge or
consciousness. While in the Sri-Bha~ya Ramanuja affirms that the self is
sometimes designated as knowledge on account of its possessing the essential
quality of knowledge, in his Vediirthasa7Jgraha he notes that the self is
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characterized by knowledge and bliss ("Jiiiiniinandiiikagu7Jam") .sl
The difference we notice in the outward appearances of entities such as
divine, human, and so on, does not mean that there is also a corresponding
difference in their souls. The manner in which the bodies are related to the
self, is more or less the same way in which class characteristics and qualities
are related to the substances in which they inhere. The self alone is their sub-
strate and their final cause (prayojana) and they are all attributes of the
sel£. 9)
As stated earlier, the individual soul is a representation of the power of the
Brahman and it is slated for immortality. However, though the knowledge of
the true nature of the individual soul is helpful towards attaining the
knowledge of the Brahman who confers Release, it does not mean that this
knowledge of the true nature of this individual soul is by itself instrumental in
attaining the knowledge of the Brahman. In Kathii Upani~ad III,i, we come
across the word rta. This refers to actions intended to honour the Brahman
and thereby enable the worshiper to attain him, while the word anrta refers to
actions that are intended to obtain worldly results, and which consequently
prevent the soul from reaching the Brahman. When A vidyii is destroyed, the
souls attain their natural state which is characterized by the intuition of the
Brahman, and this is the state of Release. An individual who practices Yoga is
capable of directly intuiting the Brahman. 10 )
Karman is responsible for clouding the essentially intelligising nature of the
individual soul. An individual who devotes himself to obtaining worldly
results in his works will have to return over and over again into Samsiira,
while works performed by a man of true knowledge who is oblivious to
worldly results, will serve to attain the Brahman. A man who has transcended
Samsiira has transcended good and evil works. He is free from passion and
from name and form. The deeds of these individual souls are said to be
responsible for the world we see around us, still the souls do not by
themselves originate the means of their own retribution, but experience only
what Brahman has created for them with that purpose in view, in
correspondence with their just and unjust actions.nl
We know from scripture that the souls are without beginning. Whether in
the state of bondage or the state of Release, these souls are owned, directed,
and governed by the Brahman, who is the object of an absolute and unending
love of the individual soul. Although the Brahman while abiding within the
soul as its Inner Director and True Self confers on it the power of knowledge,
still the soul is by itself incapable of comprehending him fully. The essence of
the soul is its subservience to another entity. When the soul is absolutely and
completely subservient to Brahman, this subservience itself is absolute and
incomparable happiness, for when it is realized that the souls stand in a
relation of subservience to Brahman, then Brahman himself draws the soul to
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himself. When an individual performs the required actions such as honoring
the Brahman (actions which presuppose true knowledge of him), then
through the grace of Brahman he attains security (abhaya) in accordance
with his merit, and happiness which consists in the attainment of the
Brahman. But an individual who refuses to perform the required actions such
as honoring the Brahman .and other similar acts of subservience (which
presuppose true knowledge of him), but who instead performs forbidden
actions, will acquire tremendous suffering and insecurity, and he will fail in
his attainment of the Brahman. 12 )
Owing to its connection with Prakrti the individual soul encounters
pleasure, pain, and other similar experiences, which are the effects of the
Gu?Jas, although its experience of itself by itself consists purely of happiness.
Where the body is concerned, the self is regarded as the "great lord", because
it rules over it and supports it and has the body totally under its control. This
refers not only to the body, but also to the senses and the mind. By devoting
its attention to the Brahman, the self begins to sever its attachment to the
Gu?Jas, and it eventually realizes its true nature. The individual self which is
immortal and immutable finds its sole support in the Brahman, when it serves
him with a devotion that is firm and single-minded. 13)
It is observed here that just as the universe is directly under the control of
the Brahman, the human body too is directly under the control of the self. As
pointed out earlier, Ramanuja defines a body as any entity which a conscious
entity completely controls and supports for its own purposes, and which
stands to that entity in an entirely subordinate relationship. Such a definition
could serve for all reality when looked upon as the body of the Brahman, but
it could hardly serve to define the human body, because as we well know
there do exist certain aspects of this body that are beyond the control of the
self. The human soul and the body do not constitute a single unity, because
the same soul can inhabit several bodies in the process of Sarhsara. The
relationship between these two entities can be likened to a man wearing a
suit. The man's relationship to the suit he wears is similar to the soul's
relationship to the body it inhabits. We notice also that Ramanuja takes great
care to preserve the purity of the Brahman by attributing all the evil and
imperfection in this world to the actions of the Jzva, but at times he has not
been too clear as to who is the real agent of actions, the individual self, or the
Brahman who constitutes the Inner Self of all beings. Sen gupta points out
four characteristics that are commonly shared by the Jzva and Brahman.
These are pratyaktva or inwardliness, cetanatva (consciousness), atmatva
(spirituality) , and kartrtva (agency), while the characteristics peculiar to the
Jzva alone are a?Jutva, se~atva (as accessory), adheyatva (supportedness), and
vidheyatva (dependence), besides certain others. 14 ) Ramanuja uses several
terms such as Jzva, Cetana, Atman, Puru~a, and so on in his works, but as
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already stated, he has at times not been too precise as to whether he refers to
the individual soul or the Inner Controller of all, the Atman or the
Antaryiimin.
THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN FREEDOM
Where human freedom is concerned, Ramanuja makes statements in dif-
ferent places, which appear to be of a somewhat contradictory nature. All
reality which comprises sentient beings and non-sentient things are said to be
completely controlled and governed by the Brahman, and they are all said to
be subservient to him. He himself has decided the distinction between works
that are good and works that are bad, and he has endowed the individual
souls with bodies and sense organs so that they may enter upon such works,
and he himself has also given them control over these bodies and sense
organs. The Brahman is truly present within these souls. He abides within
them and controls them as an Inner Ruler. The souls however in accordance
with their own inclinations and desires apply themselves to works either good
or evil. The activities of all beings are said to depend on the will of the
Brahman. Even the meditation of the worshiper is said to be brought about
by him, since he alone is the Universal Ruler and Inner Controller. Kathii
Upani~ad I,iii,1, speaks of two selves drinking their reward, while actually
only the individual self does so. Ramanuja explains this passage in two ways,
one of which is that both the selves are agents. That is to say, the drinking
self is the individual self, while the other self is the Brahman who causes the
individual self to drink, that is, the Supreme Sel£.1 5 )
In particular passages of his Srz-Bhii~ya, Ramanuja states that the self alone
is the agent, and that he acts or does not act as and when he wishes to do so.
However, he also appears to make statements contradictory to the above
when he says that the activity of the soul proceeds from Brahman who is its
cause, that as an agent the individual self is dependent upon the Brahman,
and that the control the individual soul has over its organs also depends upon
the Brahman alone. In his Vediirthasm:zgraha he clearly states that the soul is
totally under the control of the Brahman, and that any ideas the soul may
have of independence are all mistaken notions caused by Karman. 16 )
In his Gztii-Bhii~ya, Ramanuja appears to attribute agency to Karman when
he notes, that when the Atman exists in its natural condition where it is free
from Karman and bondage, it is not responsible for the agency of gods, men,
and other creaturely agents, neither is it responsible for their acts, or even the
experiences these agents have of the results of their acts. These are all said to
be brought about by the viisiina of Prakrti, which is the effect of the mistaken
notion that these different agents like gods and others constitute the Atman.
This erroneous notion itself is the effect of the Atman 's union with the bodies
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of gods and other such agents, and this union can be traced back to
beginningless Karman. In other words, Karman is the agent that brings about
the agency of gods, men, and so on, the acts of these different agents, and the
experiences these agents have of the results of their acts. 17)
The individual self is said to be the source and the originator of all
activities, and Prakrti is said to be merely an instrument in his hands.
Although he is an agent and a knower, his agency is said to be supported by
the Brahman. The senses, the body, and other such instruments that he
possesses have all been given to him by the Brahman, and Brahman himself
is the support of all these instruments since they all derive their strength from
him. By means of all these instruments, the individual soul of his own free
will embarks upon the effort to engage in activities, which may be either just
or unjust actions as far as the Brahman is concerned. The individual soul of
his own free will is said to be the cause of this work, for once the soul has
undertaken the effort to do so, the Brahman too causes him to act by granting
him his permission. In other words, the agency of the individual soul is said to
be futile without the previous assent of the Brahman. 18 )
However, Ramanuja also appears to make statements of a different nature
attributing all agency to Brahman, and little or no agency to the individual
self, for he says that Brahman alone is the agent of all actions, using as his
instruments the body, the senses, the life-sustaining forces (priir;za), and the
individual self. He is said to be engaged in all ways in directing the organs of
men (both internal and external) and he alone is said to set the self in motion.
Since the individual souls with all their organs, bodies, and life-sustaining
forces belong to him, and he undertakes activities through them all, even basic
activities such as the satisfaction of hunger and other subsidiary actions are
all said to be the actions of Brahman alone. The life-sustaining forces or
Priir;zas belong to the individual soul. Whatever control divinities such as Agni
and others may exercise over these Priir;zas (together with the individual souls
to whom the Priir;zas belong), this control proceeds from the will of the
Brahman alone, for Ramariuja quoting scripture declares, that the activities of
the organs, of the deities that guide them, and of the individual soul, arise
from the thinking of the Brahman. 19 )
The role of the Brahman concerning the activities of the soul may be
visualized as follows: Brahman initiates action in so far as he regards in the
case of any activity the effort made by the soul. through its own free will, and
then he supports that effort by granting his favor or permission (anumati).
The soul is said to be incapable of acting without the previous assent of the
Brahman. For example, the case is similar to certain property which two
people jointly own. If one of the owners is interested in transferring this
property to another person, he cannot do this without the prior assent of his
partner. However, the fact that the permission is given is due to his own
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actions, and so the fruit of the action also should go to him alone. Sometimes
an individual may allow evil actions to be performed when he is fully aware
of the fact that he is able to stop them, but Ramanuja asserts that this need
not necessarily indicate hard-heartedness on the part of the individual. When
an individual decides to act in such <;~. manner as to please the Brahman, then
the Brahman too as an act of favor to the individual, develops in him a
tendency towards just and virtuous actions, actions that are conducive
towards the attainment of himself, but if the individual on the other hand acts
in a manner displeasing to the Brahman, then the Brahman too as a
punishment, develops in the individual a tendency towards actions which are
obstacles and impediments in the way of attainment of himself. In other
words, when an individual voluntarily chooses the right way, the Brahman as
a reward will encourage and support him along the way, but if he were to
voluntarily choose the wrong way, here again as a punishment he will be
hastened along that way by the Brahman. Ramanuja asserts that Brahman
has bestowed equally on all souls, all that they may need for activity or
inactivity. He is their Substratum, he is the Principal to which they are
accessory, and while he may direct th~m by consenting, he is impartial in the
sense that he takes no sides. He merely observes the soul in all its actions,
while the soul whose capacities are dependent upon the Brahman, acts or
does not act of its own accord. 20 )
In Gzta-Bh{4ya 11.32, we have passages where all agency is transferred to
the Brahman completely, and the individual appears to be allotted the role of
a mere instrument in his hands. Here Ramanuja quotes KrrJJa speaking of the
sons of Dhritar(4{ra and saying to Arjuna, that he was going to bring about
their destruction, and that all of them would perish solely by his (Kr~JJa's)
own will, and without any effort on the part of Arjuna. In 11.33 he is quoted
as requesting Arjuna to be a mere instrument in slaying the transgressors,
since in any case all of them have been assigned to destruction already. We
notice here a somewhat ambiguous role of Kr~!Ja concerning human
freedom. 21 )
It is obvious to any Reader that there does exist a tension between the
agency of Brahman and that of the individual soul. Ramanuja has not
provided us with a satisfactory answer to the question as to who is the real
agent of actions, and whether the human person is really and truly free. He
appears to be caught between his desire to preserve the purity of the
Brahman, and the responsibility of the human person for his acts. There are
scholars who believe that the real subject of every judgment is Brahman.
That is to say, in the judgment, "I think," the subject "I" would be none other
than the Brahman himself, but there are others who assert that although the
Brahman dwells within the Jiva as its Self and Inner Controller, he merely
cooperates in the activity of the Jiva by granting his assent, and does not
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deprive it of its autonomy or freedom. This would be a kind of occasionalism
where in every action that is performed, the agent is dependent upon the will
of God. However, it must be stated that this antimony between human
freedom and the prerogative of the divine has always been a problem in
philosophy. 22 )
ABBREVIATIONS
S.B.: Sr1-Bha~ya
Ved. Sang., Van Buit. : Vedarthasailgraha translated by Van Buitenen
G.B. : Gita-Bha~ya
NOTES
1) S.B. 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.2.1, 1.1.10, 1.1.13. By the term "infinite", Ramanuja understands that which has
a nature free from all limitation of space, time, and particular substantial nature. This infinity
belongs to Brahman's essential nature and also to. his attributes. Cf. Ramanuja' s understanding of
the Mahii-viikya, Tat Tvam Asi.
2 ) S.B. 1.1.2
3 ) S.B. 1.2.4, 1.2. 7, 1.3.8, 1.3.18, 1.3.21
4) S.B. 1.3.24, 2.1.14, 2.1.35, 2.1.35, 2.3.18, 2.3.20, 2.3.33
5) S.B. 1.1.1, 2.3.43, 2.3.26
6 ) S.B. 1.1.1
7 ) S.B. 1.1.1
8) S.B. 2.3.29; G.B. 2. (17-18); Ved. Sang., Van Buit., no.5.
9 ) S.B. 1.1.1
10) S.B. 1.1.1, 1.2.12, 1.2.14, 1.4.19
11) S.B. 1.2.19, 1.2.23, 1.4.16
12) S.B. 2.1.35, 1.4.19, 1.4.22; G.B. 15.11; Ved. Sang., Van Buit., nos. 126, 142, 143.
13) G.B. 13.21, 13.22, 14.27, 15.
14) Sen gupta, pp.102-1-3. Srinivasachari describes as the supreme merit of ViSi~?iidviiita, the fact
that it stresses the philosophy of the self, and insists on Atma-darsana as a prelude to the
philosophy of Religion. Cf. Srinivasachari, THE PHILOSOPHY OF VISISTADVAITA, p.340.
15) S.B. 1.4.1, 1.2.11, 2.1.9, 2.2.3
16) S.B. 2.3. (38-39), 2.3.40, 2.3.42, 2.4.17
Ved. Sang., Van Buit., no.143
17) G.B. 5.14
18) G.B. 13.20, 18. (14-15), 18.16
19) G.B. 18.13, 1. (21-23), 3.32, 18.12; S.B. 2.4.13
20) S.B. 2.3.41; Ved. Sang., Van Buit., no.90
21) G.B. 11. (32-33)
22) Lester is of the opinion that it is not Karman itself which binds, rather it is the will of the
Brahman. The Atman acts to please or displease the Brahman. When pleased he bestows
rewards, and when displeased he punishes. The individual souls and Prakrti constitute the body
of Brahman and are thereby activated by him, hence both the agency in action and the act
belong to Brahman. The Atman is merely an instrument in the hands of the Brahman who even
offers worship to himself, but such a statement must be tempered by Ramanuja's denial of
complete determination. Cf. Lester, pp.41, 80-81.
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Srinivasachari asserts that the real subject of every judgment is Brahman. Cf. Srinivasachari,
THE PHILOSOPHY OF VISISTADV AITA, p.26.
Radhakrishnan is of the view that the Brahman does not deprive the Jlva of its freedom but
merely cooperates with it. Action is not possible for the Jlva through its own effort and without
the cooperation of the Brahman. Cf. Radhakrishnan, pp. 692-693.
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Associate Professor
Institute of Asian Cultures
Faculty of Foreign Studies
Sophia University, Tokyo
-19-
