LOYOLA JESUIT

COLLEGE
ABUJA

BASIC SCIENCE (BST)

JS3 TERM 1,
2024/2025 SESSION
By: Gunen N. J
Udoffiong C.O
 BASIC SCIENCE JS3 2024/2025 FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK
Wee Topics Content Performance Objectives: The students should
k be able to :
1 Sense i. List of sense organs [Link] five sense organs
Organs: and their functions [Link] the structure of the human eyes
Eyes and ii. Structure of the eye [Link] the diagram of normal vision
Tongues iii. Normal vision, eye [Link] and explain five eye defects and their
defects and their correction
corrections [Link] the parts of the tongue
iv. Care of the eye
v. Function and
structure of the
tongue
2 Family Traits i. Definition of terms 1. Define genetics and other terms
[Link] crossing 2. associated with it
iii. Importance of Construct monohybrid cross of
family trait inheritance pattern
3. State three importance of family traits
3 Family Trait i. Meaning of 1. Define reproductive health
2 reproductive health 2. Define ante-natal and post-natal care
Reproductive [Link] and care for 3. Explain the cares for the reproductive
Health reproductive organs organs
iii. Care for pregnant
women and babies
4 Nature of i. Definition of 1 Define atom
matter 1 atom ii. Structure of . State sub atomic particles
atom iii. Periodic 2 List and explain the family of elements
table . in the periodic table
3
.
4 State three examples of noble gases
.
5 Nature of i. Electronic 1 Draw the electronic configuration of the
matter 2 configuration ii. Valency . first 20 elements in the periodic table
[Link] nomenclature 2 Determine the valency of
and Oxidation number . the first 20 elements
[Link] formula 3 Write the chemical formula of common
v. Balancing . compounds and provide their IUPAC
chemical equation nomenclature
4 Balance chemical equations
.
6 Acids, bases, i. Definition of acids, 1 define acids, bases and salts
Salts bases and salts . classify acids based on sources
ii. Properties of acids, 2 mention five characteristics of acids and
bases and salts . bases
iii. Preparation of acids 3 State three methods of preparing salt
and bases . Draw the pH Scale
iv. Types of salts v. pH 4
Scale .
5
 .

7 Skills i. Meaning of skills 1. Define skill and skill acquisition

Acquisition acquisition 2. State the importance of skills acquisition
ii. Importance of 3. Mention examples of skills
skill acquisition
iii. Examples of skills
that can be acquired
REVISION AND EXAMINATIONS
THE SENSE ORGANS

Definition: Sense organs are the specialized organs composed of sensory neurons, which help us to
perceive and respond to our surroundings
Higher animals have developed sense organs due to their complex nature of existence. It is
necessary for them to have specialized sense organs in order to survive by knowing the
happenings in their environment.
Sense Organs and their Functions
S/No Sense Organ Stimulus Function

1 Eye Light Vision (sight)

2. Ear Sound and gravity Hearing and balance

3. Nose Chemicals Smelling

4. Tongue Chemicals Tasting

5. Skin Temperature (heat or cold), Pressure changes, pains and

pains, touch and pressure Touch

A sense organ is specialized for one or few types of stimuli. The sensory nerves of each organ
receive stimuli and transmit the messages (impulses) to the Central Nervous System, CNS, for
the appropriate responses.
A. The Eye
The eyes are the organs of sight in the higher invertebrate and all vertebrates. It enables us to:
i. See objects and appreciate differences in their size, colour, shapes and beauty.
ii. know the distance between objects and the distance of objects to us
Activity: Close your eyes and discuss your experience with your peers
Diagram of the mammalian Eyes

Parts of the mammalian eye

The mammalian eye is made up of three major layers which are the outer sclerotic layer,
the middle choroid layer and the inner layer known as the retina. Each of these layers has
other parts connected to them as follows:
1. The sclera or sclerotic layer: It is the fibrous connective tissue forming the white part
of the eye. It helps to give shape to the eye /eyeball and to protect the inner parts of the
eye. The layer has the following parts associated to it
i. The cornea: The sclerotic layer bulges out at the front of the eye to form the
transparent cornea. The cornea admits and bends (refract) light rays to bring them to
a focus in the retina. It also protects the eye externally. ii. The conjunctiva: It is a
thin transparent layer that covers the cornea protectively. It allows passage of light
into the eye and serves as a protective membrane to the innermost delicate structures.
[Link] nerves Found at the back of the sclera. It also cuts across the middle choroid
and the inner retina at a point called the blind spot. The blind spot lack light sensitive
cells. Optic nerves send information to and from the brain.
2. The choroid or middle layer: This layer is dark in colour due to the presence of a
black pigment called melanin which helps to prevent internal reflection of light in the
eye. It also contains many blood capillaries (blood vessels) that carry nutrients to other
parts of the eye. Part associated to this layer are;
i. The Iris: The choroid forms the iris in front of the lens. It controls the amount of
light rays entering the eye so that clear images are formed on the retina.
ii. The pupil: The pupil is the opening through the iris. It also helps to regulate the
amount of light rays entering the eye.
iii. The ciliary muscles: In front of the eye the choroid layer branches to form the
ciliary muscles behind the iris. The ciliary muscles alter the focal length and bring
about proper accommodation of the eye. iv. The suspensory ligament: They are
attached to the ciliary muscles. They help to hold the lens in place in front of the eye.
v. The lens: This is a transparent, elastic, biconvex structure. It helps to bend (refract)
light rays that enters the eye and to focus the image of the object on the retina
properly.
 3. The retina or inner layer: This is the part of the eye that is most sensitive to light.
Images formed on it are always inverted and smaller than the real object. It has two
types of sensory cells which are the cones and the rods. The cones are sensitive to bright
colours and high light intensities while the rods are sensitive to only black and white
colours and to all light intensities, that is whether bright or dim lights.
Associated parts are;
i. The yellow spot (fovea): This is the most sensitive part of the retina. It is the point
where images are formed.
ii. The blind spot: It is the part where cells are not sensitive to light.
iii. The aqueous humour: This is watery fluid that fills the space between the cornea and
the lens. It helps to refract light rays into the retina and to maintain the spherical shape
of the eye.
iv. The vitreous humour: This is a transparent jelly like fluid which fills the space between
the lens and the retina. It is wider than the aqueous humour. It performs the same function as the
aqueous humour.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE.

The two major functions of the eye are;
i. Accommodation: Accommodation is defined as the ability of the eye to focus both
near and distant objects on the retina properly. It is also the adjustment of the focal
length of the eye to see clearly.
Image formation: the eye forms image that is real, erect and diminished.
❖ How we see objects – light rays from objects enter the eye from the front part of the eye
(cornea) which starts the refraction (bending) of the rays. The light rays enter the aqueous
humour and are further refracted into the lens. The lens also refracts the rays onto the
vitreous humour, which eventually bends the light so as to come to a focus on the retina.
The image on the retina is real but always inverted and smaller than the object.
Information is sent to the brain through the optic nerves. The brain draws from past
experience and interprets the image as upright and gives us the size and distance of the
object. However, our left eye sees the images of objects in a slightly different position
from the right eye. It is by the working together of the two eyes that we see things
properly. This is called binocular or stereoscopic vision. In normal vision, the image is
formed exactly on the retina as it is shown on the diagrams (figs 1 and 2) below. Any
deviation from this causes what is known as eye defects.
 Normal vision diagram

Imag o norma visio

EYE DEFECTS AND CORRECTIONS

There are 3 main types of eye defects, they are;
1. Myopia (short sightedness) A shortsighted person is unable to see far objects clearly but
can clearly see a nearby object. The reason could be because the eyeball is too long or the
cornea is too curved. Thus, the image is formed in front of the retina and it is blurred. It
can be corrected by the use of concave (diverging) lenses.

2. Hypermetropia (Long sightedness): A long-sighted person is unable to see a nearby

object clearly but can see distant objects very well. The image is formed behind the retina
and is not clear. It is caused by too short eyeballs and when the cornea is not sufficiently
curved. Long sightedness is corrected by the use of convex (converging) lens.
 3.
4. Astigmatism – This is due to uneven curvature of the cornea or lens or both. Light rays
are not focused on the retina evenly and therefore the person is unable to focus objects
horizontally and vertically. Wearing glasses with uneven curvatures or glasses with
cylindrical lenses correct it. The diagrams below compare normal vision with astigmatic
viosion.

Other types of eye defects are;

4. Presbyopia – The power of the lens to accommodate is reduced due to less elasticity of
the lens or hardened/weak ciliary muscles. It usually comes with age. It can be corrected
using bifocal glasses with one part for near vision and the other part for distance vision. A
bi-focal lens is a combination of a concave and a convex lens.
5. Colour blindness – In this condition, the sufferer is unable to distinguish colours
particularly red and green colours. It is more common in males than in females. Colour
blindness is an inherited sex – linked characteristic disease.
Causes of colour blindness
i. Lack of colour absorbing pigment ii.
Inherited sex – linked disease.
Correction:-
i. Since it is an inherited disease, it can be corrected by avoiding marriage with an
infected person.
ii. It can also be corrected by appropriate diet to restore the colour pigment.
6. Cataracts: With age, lens can lose its transparency giving rise to what is called cataract.
A cataract is a clouding of the normally clear lens of your eye. For people who have
cataracts, seeing through cloudy lenses is a bit like looking through a frosty or foggedup
window. It can be cause due to any of the following: i. Aging ii. Over exposure
to UV rays
iii. Injuries
iv. Smoking
v. Eating of unhealthy diets --- Healthy vision requires a diet centered on vegetables,
fruits, whole grains, lean proteins, and a small amount of good fats like omega-3 fatty
acids and monounsaturated fats
Correction for cataracts
Surgery: Cataract surgery removes the clouded natural lens and replaces it with an
artificial plastic lens..
Advantages of having two eyes
Each of our eyes sees an object slightly in a different position from the other eye. However,
the two eyes work together to enable us sight things properly. This is called binocular or
stereovision. Close one eye and tell us your observation
Care of the Eye:
i. Read in well lit places ii. Book should be placed at a good
reading distance of about 30 to 50cm.
 iii. Read books with bold and clear prints iv.
Bath or wash the face with clean water
v. Avoid playing with sharp object near the eye vi. Avoid rubbing
the eye or removing foreign bodies with dirty hands.
B. THE TONGUE
The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth of mammals and some vertebrates that
manipulates food for mastication.
The top of the tongue is covered with a layer of bumps which are visible to the eye called
papillae . Papillae help grip food and move it around while you chew. And they contain taste
buds, which are small sensory organs which contain the taste receptors cells so one can taste
everything from apples to zucchini! ... Taste buds can detect sweet, sour, bitter, and salty
flavors.
Sweetness is pleasant taste such as in sugar or any sweet fruit juice.
Sourness is the taste that detects acidity such as in lemon, grape, milk can spoil and develop a
sour taste as well.
Bitterness is perceived as unpleasant sharp or disagreeable taste. Common bitter food include
coffee
Where are the different taste buds on the tongue?
All taste sensations come from all regions of the tongue, but different parts are more sensitive
to certain taste.

The structure is: The taste buds for "sweet" are on the tip of the tongue; the "salt" taste buds
are on either part of the side, towards the front of the tongue; "sour" taste buds are behind this;
and "bitter" taste buds are way in the back towards the throat. See the diagram,

The middle part of the tongue contain few taste buds which help to detect savoury taste such as
in spices like pepper, ginger, garlic etc.

s
Picture of the tongue showing papillae
How we Taste Things
We can only taste substances only in form of solution. When the sensory cells (chemo
receptor of taste) in the taste buds are stimulated by substances in solution, they transmit
impulses to the brain through nerves. These result in taste sensation as either a sweet, salty,
bitter and sour or savoury. As we know from the structure of the tongue, different areas on the
tongue detect those different taste solutions.
 Our ability to taste enable us to know whether or not we like or hate what we eat or if it is the
right thing or otherwise. In that way, we might be able to protect ourselves from eating harmful
things.
CONTINUITY OF THE FAMILY (GENETICS)
One characteristic of human beings is the ability to produce its kind. This is very important to
living organisms so that life continues. One of the factors that maintains life and ensure
continuity of the family is heredity. Definition of terms
1. Genetics is defined as the scientific study of heredity and variation in living things.
2. Heredity is defined as the transmission and expression of characters or traits in organisms
from parents to their offspring.
3. Variation is the differences which exist between parents and offspring as well as among
offspring.
.
The concept of heredity - Children often bear some resemblances to their parents e.g. height,
skin, eye colour, size of eyes or head. Sometimes the resemblance may be to the other members
of the nuclear or extended family. Some other times, the offspring may have unique features
from members of either the nuclear or extended family.
However, heredity alone does not always determine how inherited features manifest in the
offspring. Other factors like environment play a role in the manifestation of inherited
characteristics.
Only characters controlled by genes can be transmitted. The sum total of genes that an
offspring inherits from its parents is known as its genotype or genetic make-up.
Variations shown by inherited characters may be due to:
i. Effects of the environment ii.
Use or misuse of body parts
What is known today about heredity and its transmission result from many years work of
Scientists among who are: Gregor Mendel, Thomas Morgan, Charles Darwin, Francis Galton
Some terms used in genetics.
i. Chromosomes: All living things are made up of cells. Within the nucleus of the cell are
threadlike structures called chromosomes. They always occur in pairs, normally 23pairs in
humans.
ii. Genes: These are molecules in the chromosomes responsible for the transmission of
characters from parents to offspring.
iii. Traits or characters: These are the inherited features or attributes possessed by an
organism e. g. seed colour, seed size.
iv. Gamete : A matured sex cell which takes part in sexual reproduction. Examples in plants
are pollen grains for males and ovules as female gametes. Gametes are usually haploid.
v. Haploid: is when an organism has one set of chromosomes in the gametes. It is represented
by ‗n‘
vi. Diploid: This is when an organism has two sets of chromosomes, it is usually so in the
body cells. It is represented by ‗2n‘
vii. Zygote: A zygote is a single cell formed as a result of the union of a male and a female
gamete.
viii. Alleles or allelomorphs: These are pairs of genes on the position of chromosomes that
controls contrasting characters.
ix. Phenotype: This is the actual physical expression of a character i.e. the observable
character in an organism like height, skin colour.
x. Genotype: This is the genetic make-up or constitution of an individual as inherited from
the parents. It includes both the dominant and recessive genes or traits.
xi. Dominant traits: These are the characters expressed in an offspring when two individuals
with contrasting characters or traits are crossed. Dominant genes control dominant traits.
 xii. Recessive traits: These are the characters that are oppressed or not expressed though
present internally in the individual. Recessive genes control them.
xiii. Homozygous: An individual is said to be homozygous, if it has two similar genes for the
same character i.e. it has two identical alleles at the same position on a pair of
chromosomes e. g. TT for tallness and tt for shortness.
xiv. Heterozygous: This is when a pair of genes controlling contrasting characters are different
.i e. it has two different alleles located on the same position on a pair of chromosomes e. g.
Tt.
xv. Filial generations: The off springs of parents. F1 generation , F2 generation. xvi. Locus:
The site of location of a gene in a chromosome.
xvii. Hybrid: This is the offspring or progeny from a cross between two organisms or
parents which are genotypically different.
xviii. Test cross: This is the mating or exposure of the heterozygous individual of F1
generation to homozygous recessive. A test cross can determine whether the individual
being tested is homozygous dominant (pure bred) or heterozygous dominant (hybrid).
xix. Genetic mutation: This is a change in the genetic makeup of an organism resulting in a
new inheritable characteristic.
xx. Monohybrid cross: This is a genetic cross between parents that differ in the alleles they
possess for one particular gene, one parent having two dominant alleles and the other two
recessives. All the offspring (called monohybrids) have one dominant and one recessive
allele for that gene.
MENDELIAN LAWS
Mendel discovered that, when he crossed purebred white flower and purple flower pea plants
(the parental or P generation), the result was not a blend. Rather than being a mix of the two, the
offspring (known as the F1 generation) was purple-flowered. When Mendel selffertilized the F1
generation pea plants, he obtained a purple flower to white flower ratio in the F2 generation of 3:
1.

He then conceived the idea of heredity units, which he called "factors". Mendel found that
there are alternative forms of factors—now called genes—that account for variations in
inherited characteristics. For example, the gene for flower color in pea plants exists in two
forms, one for purple and the other for white. The alternatives ―forms‖ are now called alleles.
Mendel hypothesized that allele pairs separate randomly, or segregate, from each other during
the production of gametes: egg and sperm. Because allele pairs separate during gamete
production, a sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited trait. When sperm and egg
unite at fertilization, each contributes its allele, restoring the paired condition in the offspring.
This is called the Law of Segregation. Mendel also found that each pair of alleles segregates
independently of the other pairs of alleles during gamete formation. This is known as the Law of
Independent assortment.
Law of segregation states that during gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate
from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.
Law of independent assortment states that genes for different traits can segregate
independently during the formation of gametes.
Law of dominance states that some alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an
organism with at least one dominant allele will display the effect of the dominant allele.
The same explanation holds for other traits like height, shape etc. The genetic cross for height
is as shown in the diagram below

Cellular basis of heredity

All living things are made up of cells. Within the nucleus of the cell are structures called
chromosomes.
The chromosomes contain genes, which are molecules that control the characteristics
transmitted from parents to offspring. In diploid organisms, there are two sets of chromosomes
known as homologous. Such organisms have two sets of copies of each gene. Diploid organisms
produce sex cells or gametes, which contain only one set of chromosomes and are therefore
called haploid. During sexual reproduction, the gametes of male and female parent fuse to form
a zygote. Each zygote is diploid as it gets one copy of chromosome from each parent, and hence
one copy of each gene from the gamete of each parent.
A gene for a particular character may have alternative forms which express the character in a
different or contrasting way. Each alternative form of a gene is known as alleles. For example
flower colour in pea plants is determined by the two alleles: one for red colour and one for white
colour.
When the two alleles for a particular character are identical in an individual, we say that the
individual is homozygous for that character, while an individual having two different alleles
for a particular character is said to be heterozygous.
Heredity and Environment:
The environment interacts with dominant genes to determine an individual‘s expressed
character or phenotype. The environment is the sum total of our surrounding which we
interact with and respond to.
It includes the food we eat, diseases around or their absence, the weather, insect, other
animals and micro-organisms, medical care etc
They all act in their own way on the inherited traits to determine their development. It is
however difficult to distinguish which aspect of one‘s development are determined by
heredity, and which ones by environment because they act together.
 For instance, a child may have inherited tallness from his parents but may not reach his full
potential or maximum height, if he is deprived of an adequate diet. On the other hand a child
born of short parents may grow much taller than his parents if he enjoys better environment and
privileges than his parents did.
FAMILY TREE (Pedigree)
The transmissions of traits from parents to offspring are demonstrated in plants and lower
animals by crossing or mating the various organisms. In human beings on the other hand the
transmission of traits is studied by observing the similarities and differences existing among
members of the same family.
One way of doing this is by preparing a family tree or pedigree. The family tree refers to lines
of generations of parents and offspring and traces the descendants of a man and his wife.

First generation in the family tree is represented by a man and his wife. The second generation
is made up of the children while their grand-children make up the third generation.
NOTE: If a man has more than one wife, each wife will make up one unit for the purpose of
preparing the family tree. Some genetic traits can run through the family. We can therefore
predict traits to be expected from offspring of a marriage.
Such traits include the blood group A, B, AB, O, and albinism. If the blood group of a
woman is A and that of her husband B their offspring can have blood group A OR B or AB.
They are determined by laboratory tests using just a few drops of blood. Albinism refers to the
incomplete or partial absence of pigmentation in the skin, hair and eyes. Albinism is a recessive
trait. A parent who is an albino may have a non albino child as long as the other parent is not an
albino. Parents who are neither albino but are carrying the trait for albinism may have a child
who is an albino
Importance of Family Trait
Family traits can be used to
i. Determine the intelligence of individuals.
ii. Determine or detect certain diseases that run in the family. iii. Crime
detection
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Health is the fitness of the body. The health and well- being of the reproductive organs and
issues relating to reproduction is referred to as reproductive health. Importance of
reproductive Health
 i. Encouraging freedom from harmful practices that relate to sex and
reproduction. ii. Enhancing the avoidance of illness, diseases related to sex and
reproduction.
iii. Improving sexual responsibility iv. It also helps to detect
complications during and after pregnancy
v. Gives access to basic reproductive health information, so that; people are better informed
about the functions of their reproductive system.
Ante – natal Care
This is the care given to a pregnant woman before the birth of the child. This is to ensure a safe
delivery. It is done by an experience mid – wife or doctor. It entails examining the baby in the
womb and the woman. A doctor who is specialized in caring for pregnant women is called an
obstetrician. Ante – natal care starts from 3 – 4 months after conception.
Intra – partum Care
After the gestation period of nine months, the woman falls into labour. During labour the womb
contracts to push the foetus out of the uterus through the vagina. It normally last between 12 –
24 hours. During labour the care given to a woman is called intra – partum care.
Post – Natal Care
This is the care given to a mother and her baby within the first 6weeks after delivery it ensures
that the woman recovers from the birth and that the baby is fairing fine. It is also during this
period that the midwife discusses contraceptives.
Child Care:
This is very important for higher animals like humans. They take care of their young ones until
they are able to care for themselves. Animals which feed their young in this way are called
mammals.
Care of the reproductive organs:
i. Wash private parts regularly with clean water. ii.
Wear clean under wears iii. Keep toilets clean
iv. Shave pubic hair when grown
[Link] from sex before marriage vi. Avoid mutilation of the sex
organs, especially the female organ vii. Avoid self - medication.
 THE NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Everything around us is a form of matter.
Matter is said to be composed of particles which are basically atoms /and molecules. All
matter such as solids, liquids, and gases, is composed of atoms. Therefore, the atom is
considered to be the basic building block of matter. However, atoms are almost always grouped
together with other atoms to form what is called a molecule.
ATOM
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element that can take part in chemical
reaction. The concept of atoms was once again introduced to the scientific world by John Dalton
in his 1808 book, A New System of Chemical Philosophy. Dalton put forth the concept of all
matter being composed of small particles called atoms, which varied in weight and size. An
element was a substance that contained only one particular type of atom. The atoms of one
element are different from the atoms of any other element. The atoms of elements combine in
small whole number ratios to form the many chemical compounds found on earth and in the rest
of the universe.
All atoms are composed of a given set of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and
electrons. These particles have definite arrangements for any given element. The important thing
to remember is that the protons, electrons, and neutrons of one element are exactly the same as
the protons, electrons, and neutrons of any other element. It is their number and arrangement that
make the elements different.
Sub-Atomic Particles. The three basic sub-atomic particles are discussed as follow:
i. Protons are positively charged particles, weighing 1 atomic mass unit
(1.67x10-24 grams) and located in the nucleus. ii. Neutrons are neutrally
charged particles, weighing approximately 1 atomic mass unit and located in the
nucleus.
iii. Electrons are negatively charged particles weighing zero atomic mass units
and located in the various orbitals of the energy levels outside the atomic
nucleus. The electron actually weighs 9.11x10-28 grams. This means it
would take about 1,830 electrons to equal the mass of one proton. Since
the heaviest naturally occurring element has only 92 electrons in its
normal state, we do not count the mass of the electrons in calculating the
mass of the atom.
Definition of Terms related to atoms
i. Atomic Number: This is the number of protons in an atom ii. Mass Number
This is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. This is also
called Nucleon number
The Periodic Table: Families and Periods
The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements that is arranged by increasing
atomic numbers. It groups elements according to increasing atomic number.
 In the periodic table of elements, there are seven horizontal rows of elements called periods.
The vertical columns of elements are called groups, or families.
❖ Periods in the periodic table
In each period (horizontal row), the atomicnumbersincrease from left to right. The periods are
numbered 1 through 7 on the left-hand side of the table.
Elements that are in the same period have chemical properties that are not all that similar.
Consider the first two members of period 3: sodium (Na) and magnesium (Mg). In reactions,
they both tend to lose electrons (after all, they are metals), but sodium loses one electron, while
magnesium loses two. Chlorine (Cl), down near the end of the period, tends to gain an electron
(it‘s a nonmetal).
❖ Groups in the periodic table
Members of the families/group (vertical columns) in the periodic table have the same number
of valence electron . The families are labeled at the top of the columns in one of two ways:
✔ The older method uses Roman numerals and letters. Many chemists prefer and still use
this method.
✔ The newer method uses the numbers 1 through 18.
So why do the elements in the same family have similar properties
Hint: You can examine four families on the periodic table and look at the electron
configurations for a few elements in each family.
❖ Families of Elements in The Periodic Table
i. The IA family is made up of the alkali metals. : In reactions, these elements all tend
to lose a single electron. This family contains some important elements, such as
sodium (Na) and potassium (K). Both of these elements play an important role in the
chemistry of the body and are commonly found in salts.
 ii. The IIA family is made up of the alkaline earth metals. All these elements tend to
lose two electrons. Calcium (Ca) is an important member of the IIA family (you need
calcium for healthy teeth and bones).
iii. The VIIA family is made up of the halogens. They all tend to gain a single electron
in reactions. Important members in the family include chlorine (Cl), used in making
table salt and bleach, and iodine (I).
iv. The VIIIA family is made up of the noble gases. These elements are very
unreactive. For a long time, the noble gases were called the inert gases, because
people thought that these elements wouldn‘t react at all.
❖ ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
This is the arrangement of electrons in an atom of an element.
KLMN shells: (2,8,18, 32) Examples:

Fluorine F 2,7 Chlorine Cl 2,8,7

Calcium Ca 2,8,8,2
Do not worry in the exam about colouring in the electrons. Just make them clear and ensure
they are in the right place. You may be asked to use a cross rather than a dot for each electron.
Working out an element's electronic structure
Here is how to use the periodic table to work out an electronic structure:
i. Find the element in the periodic table. Work out which period (row) it is in, and draw that
number of circles around the nucleus.
ii. Work out which group the element is in and draw that number of electrons in the outer circle
– with eight for Group 0 elements – except helium.
iii. Fill the other circles with as many electrons as needed. Remember – two in the first circle,
and eight in the second and third circles.
iv. Finally, check that the number of electrons is the same as the atomic number.
❖ Valency
The valency of an element measures its ability to combine with other elements.
The valency is determined by the number of electrons in the outer shell of each atom of an
element. All atoms with two or more electron shells are most stable when they have eight
electrons in their outer shell, but only a few elements are naturally formed that way (neon, for
example), and most that just have one or two electrons in their outer shell (lithium, for example)
or six or seven (oxygen, for example) tend to react, or combine their outer-shell electrons with
the outer-shell electrons of other adjacent elements to bond and form more stable multi-element
molecules.
Calculating the Valency of an Element (or Molecule)
To calculate the valency of an element, you follow the following steps
1. Consult the periodic table of the elements to determine the valency of an element. The
periodic table is organized by groups in rows and columns, and the elements of groups IVIII
have the same valency as others in their group. All the elements in group VIII have eight
electrons in their outer shells, and thus have a valency of zero (highly stable). Elements in
 group I just have one valence electron in their outer shells and thus have a valency of one,
which means they are very reactive. Group IV/valency 4 elements like carbon are relatively
stable. Group VI and VII elements like oxygen are also reactive as they seek electron pairs
to complete their outer shell octet.
2. Calculate the valency of an element using the total number of electrons. The valency of an
atom is equal to the number of electrons in the outer shell if that number is four or less.
Otherwise, the valency is equal to eight minus the number of electrons in the outer shell.
The number of electrons in each shell of an atom is regular so if you know the number of
electrons in the atom, then you can calculate the valency. All atoms (except hydrogen) have
two electrons in the first electron shell, and up to eight electrons in each succeeding electron
shell. For example, carbon has six electrons, two in the first shell, and four in the outer shell,
giving it a valency of four. Oxygen has eight electrons, two in the first shell and six in the
outer shell, giving it a valency of two (8 - 6 = 2).
❖ Chemical formulae
This is a formula consisting of symbols of elements in the ratio these elements combine to
form a compound. Chemical formulae can be deduced from the valences of the component
elements or radicals.
The following steps are taken in writing the formulae of compounds:
i. Write the symbol for the element and radicals ii.
Write the valencies above and to the right of the symbols
iii. Re-write the symbols exchanging the valencies and write the number below( subscript)
and to the right of the symbol.
iv. The sum of the positive valencies of a compound must be equal to the the sum of its
negative valencies.
v. The number of atoms of the component elements in the formula must be written as a
numerical subscript after the element concerned. If a radical occurs more than once, it
must be enclosed within a bracket.
Example: Write the formula of aluminium
chloride Aluminium Chlorine

Al3+Cl-
They exchanged valencies
Al3+ Cl- = AlCl3

31
Other examples are:
i. 1 of Mg2+ balances 2 of Cl- because 1 x 2 = 2 x 1 gives MgCl2 or
Mg2+(Cl)2 magnesium chloride
ii. 1 of Fe3+ balances 3 of F- because 1 x 3 = 3 x 1 gives FeF3 or Fe3+(F-)
iron(III) fluoride
iii. 1 of Ca2+ balances 2 of NO3- because 1 x 2 = 2 x 1 gives Ca(NO3)2 or
Ca2+(NO3)2 calcium trioxonitrate(V)
iv. 2 of Fe3+ balances 3 of SO42- because 2 x 3 = 3 x 2 gives
Fe2(SO4)3 or (Fe3+)2(SO42-)3 iron(III) tetraoxosulphate(VI)
 ❖ Oxidation Number and naming of ionic compounds
Oxidation number is the charge on an atom, group of atoms, ions as determined by a
set of rules.
i. The oxidation number of group 1 elements and group two elements are +1 and +2
respectively.
ii. The oxidation number of uncombined element is equal to zero iii. The oxidation
number of oxygen is always -2 except in peroxide where it is iv. The oxidation
number of an uncombined atom is always zero.
v. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except in hydride where it is -1
❖ The Naming Of Compounds
If a given compound is multinuclear, that is, it consists of a single metal ion and a
number of ions of another element then we use prefixes in front of the different parts of
the name to denote how many of these atoms, ions or groups are present. Some of these
prefixes are presented in the table below.
Number of atoms, ios 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
or groups

Naming prefix mono Di- Tri- Tetra- Penta- Hexa- Hepta-

In ionic compounds containing metal ions, the name is formed with the name of the metal
(with the positive oxidation number), followed by the name of the non-metal (with the
negative oxidation number) with the added suffix '-ide'. The name of a binary compound
(compounds that are made up of only two different atoms of elements) ends in the suffix –
‗ide‘. For example:
i. HCl - Hydrogen
Chloride, ii. NaOH- Sodium
hydroxide iii. NaCl - Sodium
Chloride, iv. MgO -
Magnesium oxide,
v. AlCl3 - Aluminium trichloride,
vi. NaH - Sodium hydride
We can also have more complex cations (positively charged) and anions (negatively charged)
which are molecules themselves, but carry an overall charge. There are a range of molecular
anions called 'oxo ions' which contain the atoms of an element bonded to several oxygen atoms.
The overall charge on these ions is the sum of the oxidation number for the central atom and
those for the oxygens present. If the central atom is in its highest oxidation state, the names for
these ions tend to end with the suffix '-ate'.
For example:
i. CO32- -Trioxocarbonate (IV), ii. SO42- -
Tetraoxosulphate(VI) (containing sulphur(VI)), iii. NO3- -
Trioxonitrate (V), iv. PO43- - Tetraoxophosphate (V).
❖ Balancing Equations
A chemical equation is the representation of the chemical reaction taking place. This gives us
the exact moles of reactants reacting and the products formed. So, it is important to provide
the exact moles of the reacting substances and products. Also, we know that according to the
law of conservation of mass, moles of a product formed would be equal to the moles of the
reactant. Nothing will be lost in the process of a chemical reaction.
How to Balance a Chemical Equation Step by Step
The number of atoms of each element is conserved during a chemical reaction. A correctly
written chemical equation reflects this observation. To satisfy the law of conservation of
mass, we need to insert the right coefficients into a chemical equation.
 This process is referred to as balancing an equation. Trial and error is the best way to learn
how to balance equations. There are an equal number of atoms for each element on each side of
the equation, when the equation is balanced.
A general method to learn the balancing of chemical equations is as follows :
i. Write down the unbalanced equation containing the correct molecular formula of all
reactants and products.
ii. Determine whether or not the chemical equation is already balanced.
iii. If the equation is not balanced, start by balancing the element that occurs in the fewest
number of reactants and the product molecules. Start with carbon or any other atom
with a high molar mass.
iv. Balance the remaining elements.
v. Make sure that the number of atoms in each element is balanced.
Example :
Balance the chemical equation:
Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
We can see that the equation is not balanced.
i. We start by balancing Fe, since it has a high molecular mass atom and only appears once on
the reactant and the product side. We see that there are three Fe atoms on the product side,
so, we can balance Fe by adding a coefficient '3' to Fe on the reactant side. So:
3 Fe + H2O → 1 Fe3O4 + H2
ii. Having balanced Fe, we can then turn to oxygen, since it occurs with Fe in Fe3O4, and we have
already balanced Fe. There are four atoms of oxygen on the product side, so we can
balance oxygen by placing a coefficient of 4 in front of H2O on the reactants side.
3 Fe + 4H2O → 1 Fe3O4 + H2
iii. Finally, Hydrogen is the only one, left unbalanced. We have 8 hydrogen atoms on the left
side, in water and so, we need 8 on the right side too. By placing '4' in front of H2, we will
get 8 hydrogen.
3 Fe + 4H2O → 1 Fe3O4 + 4H2. This equation is balanced now.
Though, there are many types of chemical reactions, all reactions are balanced in the
same way, except for redox reactions, which require a different method of balancing.
❖ Simplifying Chemical Reactions
Let us start with a chemical equation for a reaction involving the combustion of hydrogen gas
with oxygen gas. The two gases are ignited and the products formed are water and energy.
Write the formula for balancing the chemical equations for the reactants and products.
H2 + O2 → H2O (not balanced) Balancing the Chemical Equation of Water
The number of atoms in a chemical equation can be equally balanced. Two oxygen atoms can
be presented in the reactant side but on the product side only one atom is presented here.
To solve the equations, on the product side, place 2 before the formula for water.
H2 + O2 → 2 H2O (not balanced)
Now, we can see, two molecules of water can be produced for each molecule of oxygen that
can be reacted. The number is placed before the formula and is called the chemical equation
solver‘s coefficient.
A coefficient represents the number to be multiplied by everything in the formula for both the
reactant and the product sides. The water molecule on the product side is doubled so that the two
oxygen atoms and four hydrogen atoms combined, on the reactant side, equal the number of
atoms on the product side.
For balancing the equation, on the reactant side, place 2 in front of the H2.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (balanced)
Hence, there are four hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms represented on both the reactant and
the product side.
 Question 1: Balance the following chemical equation: NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O
Solution:
Let us write the unbalanced equation first:
NH3 + O2→ NO + H2O
Now, counting the number of each atoms on both sides

Element Reactants Product

s side side
Nitrogen 1 1

Oxygen 2 2

Hydroge 3 2
n

Except for hydrogen, the other two elements present are balanced. Let us start with balancing
the hydrogen
Since hydrogen occurs in only one substance, in both products and reactant side, and also,
since in one side, its number is an odd number, 3 and on the other side, there are 2 numbers,
which is even, let us take a common multiple and make the number of hydrogen on both sides as
'6'. And also, satisfying the nitrogen, by adding a 2 before NO:
2NH3+ O2 → 2 NO + 3 H2O
On doing this, the number of oxygen and nitrogen changes too. And we have the same odd
and even problem now with oxygen too. There are 2 oxygen on the reactants side and 5 on the
product side.
By doubling all coefficients to make it even:
[2NH3 + O2 → 2 NO + 3 H2O ] x 2 4NH3+2O2→4NO+6H2O
Now, finally, we see that oxygen is still unbalanced. It is less on the reactant side.
Changing the coefficient of oxygen on the left-hand side, the reactants side, we get
4NH3+5O2→4NO+6H2O
The equation is finally balanced.
Question 2: Write the balanced chemical reaction for the combustion of glucose, C 6H12O6 in
air.
Solution:
To solve this question, we start by showing the unbalanced reaction
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
We can start by balancing carbon. There are 6 C atoms on the left-hand side, so we can place a
coefficient of 6 in front of CO2, on the right-hand side. This gives us:
C6H12O6 + O2 → 6 CO2 + H2O
Now, we can move to hydrogen. There are 12 H atoms on the left so we can add a coefficient
of 6 in front of water.
C6H12O6 + O2 → 6 CO2 + 6H2O
Now, only oxygen is left to be balanced. We have a total of 12 + 6 or 18 oxygen on the
righthand side.
In the left-hand side, we have 6 oxygen in glucose molecule.
Therefore, we need to make sure that there are 12 more oxygen atoms on the left, which we
can accomplish by adding a coefficient of 6 in front of Oxygen.
C6H12O6 +6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6H2O Thus, the equation is completely balanced.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
 ❖ ACIDS
Acids have long been associated with the sour taste of some fruits such as lime and lemon, and
their ability to turn blue litmus red. However, scientifically, an acid is defined as a substance
which produces hydrogen ions (H+) as the only positive ion when dissolved in water. For
example;
HCl H+ + Cl-
In water, it has been found that the hydrogen ion (H+) is in combination with water molecules
as hydronium ion (H3O+)
⮚Classification of acids
Acids can be classified based on the following criteria, which are; their sources, their
ionization ability and their concentration.
✔ Classification based on sources: Acids can be subdivided into organic acids and
inorganic (mineral) acids.
i. Organic acids occur as natural products in plants and animals‘ materials. e.g.
Ethanoic (acetic) acid in vinegar Lactic
acid in milk
Citric acid in lime and lemon
Tartaric acid in grape
Ascorbic acid in orange and some other fruits (vitamin C)
Amino acids in proteins
Fatty acids in fats and oil ii. Inorganic acids on the other hands are prepared from
mineral elements or inorganic materials. Examples are HNO3 -trioxonitrate (V) acid H2SO4
-tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid HCl- hydrochloric acid.
✔ Classification based on ionization ability; this divides acids into strong and weak
i. A strong acid is one which ionizes completely in water to give hydrogen ions and
anions (H+ + anions). Examples are tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid and trionitrate (V)
acid ii. Weak acids are only partially ionized in water e.g.
H2 CO3 -trioxocarbonate acid
H3PO4 -tetraoxophosphate (VI) acid
H2SO3 -Trioxosulphate (IV) acid
✔ Classification based on level of concentration: this subdivides acids into dilute and
concentrated acids. They are defined as follows;
i. A dilute acid is formed when a large amount of water is added to a small amount of
acid.
ii. A concentrated acid is formed when a small amount of water is added to a relatively
large amount of acid
⮚Physical properties of acid
i. Dilute acids have sour taste
ii. Acids turn blue paper litmus red
iii. Concentrated solutions of strong acids are corrosive
N.B: Never add water to acids. Always add acids to water, drop by drop.
⮚Chemical properties of acids
i. Acids react with metals like zinc, magnesium to liberate hydrogen gas.
2HCl + Zn ZnCl2 + H2
ii. Acids react with bases and alkalis to form a salt and water as the only product.
This reaction is known as neutralization reaction.
HCI + NaOH NaCI + H2O
iii. Acids react with trioxocarbonates (VI) to liberate carbon (IV) oxide
Trioxocarbonate (IV) + Acid Salt + water + CO2
The chemical equation is
Na2CO3 + 2HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
 Another example is
CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
⮚Uses of acids
i. Hydrochloric acid is used for removing rust and to make chemicals.
ii. Teteraoxosulphate (VI) acid is used in the manufacture of many car batteries. It
serves as a drying agent for making chemicals and as an electrolyte in accumulators.
It is also known as 'Oil of Vitriol'. The chemical formula is H2SO4.
iii. Trioxonitrate (V) acid is used for making dynamites and as an explosive. iv. Fatty
acids are used for the production of soaps.
v. Milk contains lactic acid. Lactic acid is named after the Latin word 'lac', which
means milk.
vi. Vinegar is very dilute acetic acid. The vinegar used in cooking contains
approximately 4% of acetic acid. The chemical formula of acetic acid is CH3COOH.
vii. Trioxocarbonate (IV) acid is responsible for the 'fizz' in soft drinks. The carbonic
acid decomposes into Carbon dioxide bubbles. The chemical formula of Carbonic
acid is H2CO3.
viii. Ascorbic acid is the chemical name of Vitamin C. Deficiency of Vitamin C in the
body may result in a disease known as scurvy. The chemical formula of ascorbic acid
is C6H8O6.
❖ BASES
⮚What is a Base?
The term base refers to substances that neutralize the effect of acids and turn red litmus blue.
However, scientifically, a base is defined as any substance that produces hydroxyl ions (OH-)
as the only negative ion when dissolve in water. Most oxides and hydroxides of metals are bases.
⮚Characteristics of alkalis/bases
i. Bases are bitter in taste and soapy to touch.
ii. They have bitter taste iii. They turn red litmus paper blue iv.
They conduct electricity in aqueous solution.
v. Strong alkalis are corrosive.
If hydroxyl ions are found in a solution, the solution is basic in nature. Hydroxyl ions are the
only negatively-charged ions (anions) formed when a base dissolves in water. All the properties
of a base are due to the presence of these ions. The chemical formula of an hydroxyl ion is OH-.
⮚Examples of Bases
✔ Antacids help to neutralize the acidity (of hydrochloric acid) in the stomach. They
chiefly contain two bases, namely Magnesium hydroxide and Aluminum hydroxide. The
chemical formula of Magnesium hydroxide and Aluminum hydroxide are Mg(OH)2 and
Al(OH)3 respectively.
✔ Sodium hydroxide is also known as 'Caustic Soda'. Its chemical formula is NaOH.
✔ Potassium hydroxide is also known as 'Caustic Potash'. It is used in the manufacture of
alkaline batteries. Its chemical formula is KOH.
✔ Ammonia is a basic gas which is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as Urea,
Ammonium trioxoitrate (V), and Ammonium tetraoxosulphate (VI). The chemical
formula of Ammonia is NH3.
✔ Alkalis are bases (hydroxides of metals) that are soluble in water.
⮚Physical properties of bases
i. Alkalis have bitter taste ii. Alkalis are soapy to feel/touch iii. Alkalis turn red litmus
paper blue iv. Concentrated solutions of KOH and NaOH are corrosive, they are called
caustic alkalis
⮚Chemical properties of bases
i. Bases react with acids to produce salt and water as the only product
 (neutralization reaction). ii. Bases react with ammonium
salts to liberal ammonia gas.
❖ SALTS
A salt is defined as a compound formed by the complete or incomplete replacement of the
hydrogen ion of an acid by a metallic or an ammonium ion.
⮚ Types of salts are normal salt and acid salt There are
different types of salts. These include:
i. Normal salt is formed by the complete replacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by
a metallic or ammonium ion e.g. sodium chloride (NaCl), Sodium sulphide (Na2S),
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
ii. Acid salt is formed by the incomplete replacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by
a metallic or ammonium ion e. g. sodium hydrogen tetraoxsulphate (VI) NaHSO4,
ammonium hydrogen carbonate, NH4HCO3, sodium hydrogen sulphide, NaHS etc
iii. Basic salt: Basic salt contains hydroxide ion together with metallic ions and negative
ions from an acid. They are formed by the incomplete eplacemen o he hydroxide ion
o a base by a negative ion from an acid. This occurs when there is insufficient acid to
completely neutralize the base. Examples are basic zinc chloride, Zn(OH)Cl, basic
magnesium chloride, Mg(OH)Cl
iv. Double salt: Double salt is a ype of salt that ionizes to produce three different types of
ions in solution, two of these are usually positively charged and the other negatively
charged. Examples are ammonium2 iron(II)4 tetraoxosulphate(VI) hexahydrate, (NH4)2
Fe(SO4)2.6H2O; potash alum or aluminium potassium tetraoxosulphate(VI)
dodecahydrate, KAl(SO4)2.12H2O; and chrome alum or chromium(III) potassium
tetraoxosulphate(VI) dodecahydrate, KCr(SO4)2.12H2O.
v. Complex salt: Complex salt contains complex ions, i.e. ions consisting of a cenral
metal(positive) ion surrounded by other atoms, group of atoms or ions. Examples of
complex salts are sodium tetrahydroxoz incate(II), potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) etc
⮚Uses of Salts
i. Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is used in the manufacture of detergents and glass. ii.
Sodium chloride is used to add taste and to preserve food.
❖ MEASUREMENT OF ACIDITY AND ALKANITY
The acidity and alkalinity of substances are measured using a scale of numbers from 0 – 14
called the pH scale. The solution with the pH of 7 is neutral. A solution with a pH less than 7 is
acidic while one with a pH greater than 7 is alkali. Acidity increases with decreasing pH values
while alkalinity increases with increasing pH value

Increasing acidity increasing alkalinity

0 7 14

Highly Acidic Hhighly alkaline

neutral
 ⮚Importance of pH
pH values play important roles in our lifes, examples are:
i. Acidic pH value is required for normal digestion in the stomach while our mouth and
intestine requires alkaline pH values.
ii. The pH of normal blood is about 7.4. iii. Soil pH values ranges from 4 – 9. Most
crops grow optimally between pH of 9 and 8.
iv. pH values are also important in medicine, pharmacy, water purification and sewage
treatment.
⮚Measurement of pH
The pH of a medium can be measured with some of the following;
i. Acid-base indicators:- these are dyes which change colour according to the pH of the
medium.
ii. Litmus is a common indicator which is red in acid solutions and blue in alkaline
mediums. Other indicators include; methyl orange. methyl red, Phenolphthalein [Link] of
solutions are also measured by universal indicators or pH meter.
SKILL ACQUISITION
A skill can be described as the ability to carry out a task and bring about some desired changes
end result with maximum certainty and minimum outlay of time and energy.
Acquisition of skills to perform some employable trades is necessary for an individual. Trade
is desirable for an individual not to seek government work that is not in existence and be
selfreliant. To acquire these skills, the individual some years ends some period of time ranging
from a few months to some years learning under the watchful eyes of the expert. Skill
acquisition can vary from learning the cognitive aspect of the task to learning the practical or
psychomotor aspect of the task.
⮚Reasons for skill acquisition
i. It is a means of survival.
ii. To learn how to mutually live in the society.
iii. It aids in decision making.
To help in managing emergency situations.
Types of skills
● Farming
● Basic computer literacy skills
● Carpentry works
● Electrical installations and repairs
● Photography
● Desktop publishing and networking
● Bricklaying
● Auto mechanic
● Web designing
● Plumbing works

IMPORTANCE OF SKILL ACQUISITION

● To earn a living
● To meet the manpower need of the society
● To reduce unemployment, hence reducing crime in the society
● To reduce idleness