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PSIR PYQ Paper solution 2021

Paper 1 Section A

1 a. Feminist critique of state (10m)

Intro:

Feminism is a meta ideology, a constant evolution with ultimate aim of liberation of women from patriarchal
dimension of every sense of society. Feminist perspective of state has primarily shown concerned over inferior status
of women in the system of state.

Body:

Feminist scholars have largely seen state as institution of patriarchy, an instrument of power. Scholar like C.
Mackinnon called state as ‘Patriarchal state’ because when (around 1970’s) she observed and analysed USA’s laws on
rape she came to the conclusion that all the laws are men centric. In fact in her work ‘Towards the feminist theory of
state’, she even said “When I look at the state, state appears male to me.”
Susan Moller Okin in her work ‘Gender justice and family’ criticised state for not interfering in personal life
of women and not taking any steps against violations of womens rights. She even argued that state dont want to solve
the problems of womens because state itself is “patriarchal” in nature.
Feminist scholars like Kamla Bhasin cited example of contemporary democracy like India where she argued
that state traditionally gave very low chances to women represent itself as legislatures when they constitute as half
a population of society. Simone de Beauvoir blames patriarchal mindset of state for masculinier and ‘war ready’
attitude of state.
Though there are many criticism, at that same time feminist scholars sees state as a oportunity to make
change in society. Scholar like Iris Marian Young gave concept of ‘Differentiated Citizenship’ in which state will help
for equalisig the difference between men and women. In Indias context reservations for women in local elections and
all other utilities for women is good example of seeing state as opportunity.

Conclusion:

Hence, Feminists have mixed attitude towards the state. On one hand they believe state as an institution of patriarchy,
on the other hand, they believe that only state can improve the status of women. Their ultimate motto is to take
advantage or mold the state for equalization of gender differences.

1 b. Affirmative action (10m)

Intro:

In literal meaning affirmation is something that leads to a positive function. In political science affirmative action
generally denotes the ‘positive action’ taken by the government or state in favor of disadvantaged sections of the
society. Affirmative action aims at making equality in society by taking efforts to bring every person to the same level
field.

Body:

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Every society has a few disadvantaged sections who are as a whole incapable of competing with already established
sections of societies. For example, Blacks in USA or Dalits in India. ‘Affirmative actions’ are taken out here to provide
the catalyst to them to come at par with advantageous sections. In India’s context, the reservation/quota system of
social tribes and social castes is the best example of affirmative action.
Affirmative action is a class-based or community-based system rather than individual-based. That is whole
community must have been suffered from historic disadvantage or violation. In the context of India, a poor Dalit can
get benefit reservations under affirmative action. A poor upper-class person can get benefits from a poverty alleviation
program but can not be called affirmative action. Also, affirmative action needs to be differentiated from ‘preferential
policies.’ For example, reservation to Dalit comes under affirmative action but reservation to dominating communities
like Jaats (in Haryana) or Maratha (in Maharashtra) comes under preferential policies.
Though India has adopted affirmative action in the form of reservation, has always remained a contested
initiative. Scholars like P.B. Mehta commented that ‘reservation policies have made us immoral. Our opinions in public
are different to that in private.’ Many have called affirmative action reverse discrimination or a political gimmick for
gaining the votes. Nobel laureate Amartya Sen calls for alternative action like the ‘Capability approach’(increasing the
capability of achieving well-being) for the wider development of human beings.

Conclusion:

Hence, the policy of affirmative action though criticized off-late, has produced ‘positive’ results for attaining a real
form of equality in society. There is a need for just implementation and conceptualization of affirmative policies like a
reservation to remove the lacunas in the process.

1 c. Equality of outcome as a political idea (10m)

Intro:

Generally, most of the concepts of equality are contentious, but of all of the terms relating to equality, equality of
outcome is the most contentious. According to Professor R. E. Goodin, equality of opportunity means"equalizing
where people end up rather than where or how they begin.” It describes a state where all people are at a similar level
of economic, social, and political outcome.

Body:

Equality of outcome or equality of results is usually described as a state in which people have approximately the same
material wealth or in which the general economic conditions of their lives are similar. Achieving this requires reducing
or eliminating material inequalities between individuals or households in a society. According to K. Pickett in her work,
‘The Spirit Level’ contended that "more equal societies almost always do better." In one report in Britain, egalitarian
nations tended to have fewer problems with societal issues such as mental illness, violence, and social hardships.
According to scholar Oliver, socialists believe in "inequality of opportunity and equality of outcome". They
often see equality of outcome as a positive good, and that policies such as the redistribution of wealth as well as less
progressive taxation are morally good if they achieve equal outcomes. Although only a small minority of socialist
theories advocate complete economic equality of outcome in practice.
An opposing view is that equality of outcomes is not beneficial overall for society since it dampens the
motivation necessary for humans to achieve great things, such as new inventions, intellectual discoveries, and artistic
breakthroughs. Wealth and income are a reward needed to spur such activity, and with this reward removed, then
achievements that would benefit everybody may not happen.
In this context, philosopher John Rawls, in his ‘A Theory of Justice (1971)’, developed a "second principle of
justice" that economic and social inequalities can only be justified if they benefit the most disadvantaged members of
society. Further, Rawls claims that all economically and socially privileged positions must be open to all people equally.

Conclusion:

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Hence, equality of outcome though criticized by many but correct mixture of outcome with opportunity will lead to
real equality. Also, Analyst Paul Krugman writing in ‘The New York Times’ agreed with Rawls' position in which both
equalities of opportunity and equality of outcome were linked, and suggested that "we should try to create the society
where there is an equivocal blend of equality of opportunity and outcome.”

1 d. Tools for the legitimation of state (10m)

Intro:

‘Legitimacy’ in political science means rightful acceptance of an ‘authority’ by the people of the society. Authority in
this sense is the ‘government’ or ‘State.’ State has emerged as an institution that has established legitimacy
successfully. Max Weber famously defined the modern state as a human community that successfully claims the
monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.

Body:

Max Weber has described the following tools for state legitimacy:
• Traditions: This tool of legitimacy derives from societal custom and habit that emphasize the history of the
authority of tradition. State understand this form of tradition as historically accepted because it is the way society
has always been. For example, states under a ‘monarchy’ form of government like North Korea.
• Charisma: This form of legitimacy derives from the ideas and personal charisma of the leader, a person whose
charisma psychologically dominates the people of the society to agree with the government's régime and rule.
The state derives authority from the persona of the leader and usually disappears without the leader in power.
However, if the charismatic leader has a successor, a government derived from charismatic legitimacy might
continue. For example, the rule of Hitler or Mao.
• Rational-legal tool: State derives from a system of institutional procedure, wherein government institutions
establish and enforce law and order in the public interest. Therefore, it is through public trust that the government
will abide by the law that confers rational-legal legitimacy.
• Ideology: States traditionally used ideology as an effective tool for legitimacy in the form of making people believe
in the authority of the state based on the ideology that it possesses. For example, Communist or Liberal states
(Especially emerged in the 20th century.)

Conclusion:

Hence, the state has developed one of the most dominating institutions based on its tools of legitimacy. Though with
the emergence of non-state actors and globalization, scholars have witnessed a dent in the legitimacy of the state, the
state has remained people's first choice to grant authority over themselves.

1 e. J.S. Mill's ideas on women suffrage (10m)

Intro:

The 19th-century British philosopher J. S. Mill has been largely known and regarded for his redefined of thought of the
utilitarian tradition of philosophy put forward by J. Bentham. Unfortunately, his work on women suffrage has largely
been overlooked where he called for legal and social equality for womenin his work ‘The Subjection of Women.’

Body:

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J.S. Mill found that traditionally women are subordinate to men by law and custom. They are only expected to marry,
have children and devote themselves to their families. Women were living in the shadow of their de facto masters
(husbands) and suffering under those practices. He argued to this in his work ‘Subjection of women’ that this is not
only "wrong in itself" but "is a hindrance to human improvement." By denying women the same opportunities as
men, he says, society not only impedes the development of half the population but denies itself the benefit of its
talents.
J.S. Mill says the suffrage of women parallels that of slaves. Mill's case for women's development can be seen
in his Utilitarian tool of concept. He argues that the progress of society requires that all people not be imprisoned in
the ‘fixed social position’ and be given opportunities to develop their talents. To those who doubt women’s talent, he
said “the only way to measure the potential of women is to free them from domestic bondage and give them the same
opportunities(as men), and observe the results.”
Mill argues for equal say for women in marriage and decision-making for the betterment of their life. He said,
“marriages based on equality and mutual respect instead of subordination, prosper indefinitely.” Mill also argues for
equal say of women in decision making of policies, to which he says, “authority to make decisions in any family must
be rest on both, and that even if it rested upon on, this does not mean that the controlling voice on a given matter must
be the husband's.”

Conclusion:

In a nutshell, J.S. Mill argued for ending the suffrage of women which will not only benefit society by triggering the
contributions of women in many fields but will also benefit women by granting them the autonomy which is essential
to happiness.

2 a. How has Rawls enriched the idea of justice in liberalism? (20)

Intro:

Justice is allocation of social goods among various sections of society. Justice is the central concept in Political theory.
However, there are fundamental ideological differences over attainment of justice between various schools of
thought.

Body:

Liberal concept of Justice is procedural in nature. Equality of opportunity forms the premise of idea of justice in
liberalism. As an ideology, liberalism is not a monolith. While classical liberals stress on equality of opportunity without
the interference of state, positive liberals support state intervention to ensure realisation of equality of opportunity
in true sense.

Post World war 2, liberal capitalist model came under stress due to growing inequality in the society. In 1971, John
Rawls, a liberal egalitarian, gave his idea of justice in his work 'ATheory of Justice'. His idea of Justice enriches the idea
of justice in liberalism as it is based on human dignity (inspired by Immanuel Kant).

Rawls idea of Justice is purely procedural in nature. It is a product of overlapping consensus developed by the people
who negotiate with each other for the distribution of primary social goods. To ensure fairness (i.e people's standing
in the society should not impact their decisions, while deciding principles of Justice), the negotiating individuals stand
behind the veil of ignorance.

Based on negotiations, people arrived at three principles of Justice:

• Greatest equal Liberty principle- "each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal
basic liberties compatible with the similar system of liberty for all."

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• Equal opportunity principle - all offices and positions to be open to all under conditions of fair equality of
opportunity
• Difference principle- social and economic inequalities are to be arranged in such a manner that they give benefit
to the least advantaged.

Difference principle is the most egalitarian aspect of Rawls theory of justice. Though it is not meant to replace
inequality with equality in income and wealth but to transform unfair or unjust degree of economic inequalities into a
fair or just kind by maximizing the benefits to the least advantaged.

Rawls principle of fair equality of opportunity stipulates that the state should ensure fair equality of opportunity in
educational, cultural and economic spheres as well as provide unemployment and sickness benefits. These require an
interventionist, welfare state to run or aid schools to regulate the economy etc.

However communitarian have criticized Rawls theory of justice for considering individual as an autonomous moral
agent. Michael Sandel in his work 'Liberalism and Limits of Justice' held that Rawls has focused on 'unencumbered
self' and has missed the embeddedness of individuals in the society.(situated self)

Libertarians like Robert Nozick have criticized rawls for difference principle. They are of the opinion that individual is
the sole owner of his creative potential and owes nothing to the society(entitlement theory of justice).

Conclusion:

Despite the criticism, it can be said that Rawls theory of justice is not only procedural but also substantive in nature.
This is because it balances desert of meritorious to the needs of poor. Corporate social responsibility and the system
of progressive taxation which have been adopted by various nations of the world are reflection of Rawls view of
Justice.

2 b. Examine the importance of behavioural approach in Political Theory. What has led to its decline? (15)

Intro:

According to David Held, Political Theory is a body of thought that seeks to evaluate, explain and predict political
phenomenon. Till World war 2, classical approach, which is philosophical and normative in nature was the prominent
method to study Political Theory.

Body:

However, classical Political Theory which focused on 'what ought to be' was unable to explain events like rise of
fascism and start of cold war. This led to the decline of Political Theory. It was during this time, scholars like David
Easton, Robert Dahl and Arthur Bentley stressed on behavioural approach in Political Theory.

Unlike traditional Political Theory, behavioral approach was value free and focused on facts. This approach studies the
uniformities in political behaviour and express them in generalizations. The generalization the so formed are tested
by observable political behaviour like voting, public opinion and decision making.

Behaviour forms the basic unit of analysis under this approach. It tries to explain political incidents, arranges them in
sequence and does some prediction. Besides this, behavioral approach allows the the advancements made in
disciplines like psychology, anthropology and sociology to improve the study of Political Theory.

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However during 1960s, behavioural approach faced a lot of criticism. It was unable to predict and explain various
political events like continuation of cold war, Cuban missile crisis, feminist movements, demonstrations in major
American University campuses, public spaces etc.

Behavioural approach was considered responsible for decreasing the relevance of Political Theory as it focused more
on procedure than on purpose (it ignored the realities of society). Besides this, it was held that it is wrong to believe
that human behaviour can be generalized i.e they would behave similarly in similar circumstances. Bernard Crick in
his book “The American Science of Politics'' (1959) systematically rejected that political science should be empirical,
predictive and value-free.

Another reason for the decline of behavioural approach is that most of the political phenomena are unquantifiable.
As a result it becomes difficult to study them using empirical approach. Besides this, it was also alleged that a
researcher cannot be value free, thus making the study baised.

Conclusion:

Admitting to these criticisms, David Easton in his presidential address to American political science association in 1969
and a new term post behaviouralism. Post behavioral revolution sought to incorporate the brute realities of political
life. It enabled Political Theory to make transition from pure science to applied science, gave precedence to substance
over technique and to social change over preservation.

2 c. - Can there be universal conception of human rights? Give your arguments.

Approach to the answer

Intro:
• Introduce with the basic definition of human rights

Main Body
• Discuss the theoretical basis of universal conception of human rights.
• Discuss the arguments on which the human rights can be considered as universal.
• Discuss the alternative school who challenges the universal conception of human rights.
• Finally, what are the other factors which challenge universality of human rights.

Conclusion
• Conclude with a balanced argument on universality of human rights.

Intro:

Human rights are those rights to which an individual is entitled by virtue of his status as a human being. These are
international moral and legal norms that aspire to protect all people everywhere from severe political legal and social
abuses. Human rights are an inalienable part of human personality, taking away these rights means degrading a person
from the status of being human.

Main Body:

Universal conception of human rights

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Universal conception of human right has been conceptualised by the liberal scholars-.The human right concept is
essentially a liberal discourse as it espouses Rationalism and Universalism i.e. Man is rational and all men are rational
and hence are morally equal. It is based on the liberal principle of every individual having same or equal moral worth.

The origin of the human rights can be traced to John Locke who has given the system of natural rights, right to Life
liberty and property which cannot be denied to any human being.

Universal conception of human rights is based on the following arguments

1. The very definition of human rights is that these are available to individual by virtue of being human
2. Human rights are universal because everyone is born with and possesses the same rights,
regardless of where they live, their gender or race, or their religious, cultural, or ethnic
background.
3. The universality of human rights is encompassed in the words of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights: “
4. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” They are not a monopoly of any privileged
class of people. They are universal in nature, without consideration, and without exception.
5. They are inherent in all individuals irrespective of their caste, creed, religion, sex, and nationality. Human rights
are enforceable without a national border.
6. Human Rights are also universal because they are not granted by any person or authority. Human rights do
not have to be bought, earned, or inherited; they belong to people simply because they are human.
7. Human Rights do not prescribe and cannot be lost even if a man fails to use or assert them,
even by a long passage of time.
8. Human rights are conferred on an individual due to the very nature of his existence. They are inherent in all
individuals irrespective of their caste, creed, religion, sex and nationality.

But the universal conception of human rights has been questioned by other schools such as the Cultural relativist,
communitarians as well the feminists. These schools challenge the universality of the human rights on the following
grounds
1. Cultural relativist perspective – what are rights are defined by the culture so it differs in different cultures.
Each culture has its own notion of human rights and freedom. Human rights can only exist by reverting back
in cultural norms, not looking in western legal documents.
a. Bikhu Parekh- Universal regime should not be based on values of a single culture but rather be an
outcome of dialogue among civilisations.
b. Lee Kuan Yew and Mahathir bin Mohammed, both claim that Asian values were significantly different
from Western values.
2. Communitarian perspective – Communitarians argues that the individual is not an abstract category but is
deeply embedded in his/her culture. Thus they assert that the community or the group identity of an individual
should be taken into account rather than the individual.
a. MIachaelwalzer – What right is, depends upon the community’s notion of rights.
3. Feminist - Universality of human rights basically privileges the male’s concerns. Thus instead of universality
feminists demands the Differentiated citizenship.
a. Iris Marion Young –Instead of universal set of rights what is needed is the group specific rights –
keeping in mind the group’s culture, history, needs aspirations etc.

There has also been disagreement over the various issues of human rights challenging the universality of human rights
like
1. Definition of Human-whenever terrorist or those who commit barbaric acts.
2. When does human rights start-whether human rights begins in the womb of the mother or after birth-right
to abort a child
3. No agreement on basic human rights which should be available to all.
4. No uniformity in application of principles.

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Conclusion:
Human rights are available to humans because of being the common human being , the concept of common human
being is more fundamental than the culture or community. Michael Ignatieff has rightly held that Universal characters
of human rights are largely opposed because of vested interest and not on logical ground. The universal conception is
opposed by those who commit human rights abuses because of their powerful position in particular culture.

3 a. Explain the Aristotelian view of politics. To what extent do you think it has contributed to modern day
constitutional democracies?

Approach to the answer

Intro:
• Bring the general Intro: of Aristotle as father of political science.

Main Body
• Discuss the Aristotle view of politics
• Discuss the various forms of government by Aristotle.
• Analyse the Polity as the most practicable form of government
• How his idea of politics contributed to modern day democracies.
• Discuss in brief his ideas which were not conducive to modern day democracies.

Conclusion
• Conclude with a balanced conclusion like how despite some negative features he played a greater role
towards the rule of law.

Intro:

Aristotle is known as father of political science. Andrew hacker held that Aristotle is called as the first political scientists
because he has given the conception of science of politics which is based on the observation and classification of
political institutions and behaviours.

Main body:

Aristotle view of politics

Aristotle in his book “Politics” has studied then 158 constitutions of the world. On the basis of his analysis, he has
given the classification of constitutions. Aristotle was the realist and pragmatic thinker and conservative thinker. His
philosophy was guided by realism and gradualism.

Hedoes not only try to find an ideal system of government. Instead, Aristotle explored practical constitutions that city-
states can realistically put into effect. His aim was to “consider, not only what form of government is best, but also
what is possible and what is easily attainable.

He has classified the form of governments in following ways

Number of Rulers Ideal form Perverted form

Single ruler Monarchy Tyranny

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Few rulers Aristocracy Oligarchy

Many rulers Polity Democracy

On the basis of his observation and analysis, he suggests that Polity is the ‘Best Practicable’ form of government. We
can see the application of his principle of ‘golden mean’ while arriving at this
conclusion.
Polity is golden mean of oligarchy and democracy. Since it is situated between these two form in his classification.It
avoids the extremes of the other two systems. E.g. Oligarchy is the rule of few rich while democracy is rule of many
ignorant poor. Polity is a “golden mean”. It is a rule of rich, but not extremely rich. It is rule of many rather than few,
but not of too many.

Polity was another name for the constitutional government characterised by the rule of law. He believed that the
customary law is better than knowledge of wisest ruler.

Aristotle talked about the best practicable state which was “Polity”, was the rule of middle class accompanied with
the rule of law. Polity is rule of many, but not so many, which means the rule of middle-class.

He believed that the rule of middle class is always better because rich and poor both are susceptible to crimes. One
commits crime out of arrogance and the other commits crime out of ignorance. Rich will not trust poor, poor will not
trust rich. Hence either of the rules will not be stable. However both will trust the middle class. Hence the rule of
middle class is more stable.

Contribution to modern day constitutional democracies

Aristotle lays down the foundation of modern day constitutional democracies

• Rule of law and Constitutionalism –In fact Aristotle’s key objection to democracy was that it undermined the
rule of law.A functioning state requires that everything is governed by laws. He believed that where the laws
have no authority, there is no constitution. The law ought to be supreme over all.
• Concept of equality - Aristotle held that “It is unjust to treat equals, unequally and it is equally unjust to
treat unequal, equally.”He linked the concept of inequality to revolution.
• The principle of revolution – he believed that in every form of government the most common cause of
revolution is the feeling of inequality. Hence if there is inequality in the society, real or imagined, there is a
possibility of revolution. In the current form of democracy we see the various forms of movement because of
the feeling of inequality.
o For example – the regional movement because of the unbalanced development. Another revolts like
yellow west revolution in France arising out of inequality.
• Separation of power to prevent the tyranny – Aristotle considered tyranny as the worst form of the
government, thus there is a need of separation of power. Each branch can check the other to prevent
corruption or tyranny.
• Participatory democracy and active citizenry – Aristotle is criticised to exclude the women , children and the
slaves to participate in politics because of the different reasons like women does not enough time to
participate in civic activities and child and old being unable to participate effectively. But the principle in fact
paves the way for the active citizenry.
o In the current age of reluctance towards the politics in western countries his ideal of the giving voting
rights to only those who can participate actively holds true to some extent.
But at the same time he is considered to be against the very basic principles of the democracy now like Universal adult
franchise, equality (because of the justification of slavery) and the exclusion certain class on unreasonable grounds.
Thus it was held concept of citizenship was very limited it was not inclusive rather exclusive which is against the
modern days democracy.

Conclusion:

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Although in some ways we have clearly moved beyond his the Aristotelian view (for example, his belief in the inferiority
of women and his approval of slavery in at least some circumstances), there remains much in Aristotle’s philosophy
that is valuable today like rule of law, active citizenship, constitutionalism and middle path, practicality and gradual
change which is peculiar to the modern days democracies.

3 b. When a nation becomes devoid of arts and learning, it invites poverty. (Sir Syed Ahmed Khan)In the light of this
statement assess the role of sir Syed Ahmed Khan as the as a social reformer in modern India.

Approach to the answer

Intro:

• Introduce Sir Syed Ahmed khan as a reformer.

Main Body:

• First bring the context and meaning of the quote.

• Then discuss the idea around the quote and his efforts towards it.
• Discuss Sir Syed Ahmed Khan as social reformer
o His educational reforms
o Socio-cultural reforms
o Against social orthodoxy
o Aligarh movement etc.

Conclusion:

• Conclude with his overall contribution.

Intro:

Syed Ahmed Khan was one of the major figures of the 19th century. He contributed immensely to carry out the reforms
among the Muslim community in India. He has been regarded as a visionary, saviour of cultural and lingual identity,
secular, educationist, philosopher, religious scholar, reformer and many more.

Main Body:

“Ignorance is the mother of poverty when a nation becomes devoid of arts and learning, it invites poverty and when
poverty comes it brings in its way thousands of crime”. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan has used this quote in context of the
importance of education for the upliftment of society. He mentioned that conservative and conventional attitude of
Muslims was the greatest obstacle to the material, social, and intellectual progress of the Muslims.

Educational reforms

• His most notable contribution to the field of education is establishing the Madarsatul Uloom in Aligarh in 1875,
now known as the Aligarh Muslim University, a premier educational institution of the country
• He wanted to create a network of educational institutions managed by Muslims and founded the All India
Muslim Educational Conference.
• In 1886, he set up the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental Education Congress, later renamed the Mohammedan
Anglo-Oriental Educational Conference, to bring together education and culture.
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Socio-cultural efforts

• He tried to convince the Muslim community to shun all the ill and impractical religious and social practices
and encouraged them to receive the modern education through his writings published in Tahzib-ul-Akhlaque.
Sir Syed envisioned that past glory of Muslims community could be restored if Muslims accept the modern
education along with traditional education
• Sir Syed established the League for the Defence of Urdu. The advertisement written by him to rouse the
Muslims to the protection of Urdu, and announced: “The loss of the Urdu Language for the Muslims would be
tremendous. No other loss except the loss of their religion could be compared to it”.
• He also established a Scientific Society for empowering the Muslims with scientific temperament by translating
and making available the scientific knowledge in Urdu and Persian language to the people.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh movement

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Aligarh movement. This movement aimed at spreading
modern education and creating political consciousness among the Indian Muslims. The first
national awakening among the Muslims found expression through this movement.
• Through this movement emphasis was given on promotion of modern western education along with Islamic
philosophy of education, adapting English language along with Urdu and protection of Cultural and Linguistic
identity of Muslim community, harbouring the idea of secularism and nationalism.

Against social orthodoxy

• In connection to social reforms, he was against the polygamy and socially ban of widow remarriages. He was
aware that social reforms come through knowledge, awareness and character building. Therefore, he
advocated to the Muslims to adapt refined, valid and scientific modern education

He is criticised to be a leader of the particular community and not a nation because he emphasized on protecting and
promoting the interest of the Muslims but he was not communal in his outlook but he was concerned with the way to
uplift the community which was very backward at that time.

Thus Sir Syed Ahmed truly regarded education and other socio-cultural reforms as the instrumental in pacing the
process of modernization, progress and development among Muslims. He also advocated the need to keep intact with
distinct cultural identities. His had broad vision and adapted holistic approach to uplift the condition of the community
and taking them out of poverty and miseries through such reforms.

Conclusion:

To summarize, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was great Muslim crusader and political leader of the 19th Century. He played a
significant role in imparting modern scientific education to the down-trodden and illiterate Muslims of the sub-
continent to empower them to stand up to the political and socio-economic requirements of the time.

3 c. - Political ideology is primarily concerned with the allocation and utilization of power. Comment.

Intro:

• Discuss the various dimensions of ideology and its concern with power as one of them.

Main Body

• How the ideologies has been interpreted in various ways.

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• Ideology as concerned with allocation and utilisation of power.

• Discuss this with taking every ideology as base and justify how they deal with the allocation and utilisation
of power in various ways.

Conclusion

• Conclude how every ideology shows them as natural and just to maintain the power structure and other
challenges them to change the existing power structure.

Intro:

Ideology is interpreted in various ways like ideology as a science, ideology as opium of masses, false consciousness,
class consciousness, utopia and totalitarianism. Thus the meaning and objective of ideology has been the subject of
such deep and impassioned controversy.

Main Body:

Role of the ideologies has been interpreted in various ways over the time

1. Ideologies provide a perspective through which the world is understood and explained.
2. Ideologies also set goals which inspire political actions.
3. It upholds the prevailing power structure
4. It also provides vision of a future society in the form of alternate ideology

Role of Ideology as allocation and utilisation of power

The power view of politics can be traced to the Machiavelli who has emphasized that power is central to the study of
the politics. In fact, power holds the same position as money holds in the realm of economics.

The Ideology role as the allocation and utilisation of the power is the Instrumental view of ideology through which
we understand that ideology serves as a challenge to existing power structure they highlight the limitations, weakness
and the unjustness of the power structure and they provide an alternate power structure. It serves an instrument to
legitimise or de-legitimise the current system.

Every ideology is for someone and for some purpose - When we analyse the ideologies which has shaped the political
structures of the past we find that every ideology is associated with some class; some group or they carry the particular
value with them defining the political structure at that time or challenging the existing structure.

Allocation and utilisation of power through the particular ideology particular emphasis on the fact that the every
ideology serves the particular interest of some group and another as challenges to that power structure which can be
analysed as follow :

1. Ideology of Liberalism - It was the philosophy of emerging middle class. They demanded equality before law
and equality of opportunity at par with the king and feudal lords.Earlier the power was concentrated among
the kings and feudal lords and the emerging middle class wanted to change the power structure.
2. Ideology of Socialism emerged as a challenge to the liberal ideology who has given the excess importance to
the individual. They believed the collective power of the state can do better justice than the invisible hands of
the market.
3. Marxism – Marx considered ideology as the opium of masses and he believed that ideology is used as opium
to rule over the masses and it is instrument of the capitalist to rule over the worker class. But over the Marxism

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too becomes an ideology, particularly of working class. Marx talked about the dictatorship of proletariat. It is
the proletariat class having the power. Proletariat class will use the power to end the capitalism.
4. Neo Marxism of Gramsci – He held that hegemony is ideological domination. He believes that hegemony is
not because of the coercive institutions but because of the ideological domination. Thus hegemony which is
legitimate power is also the result of the particular ideology. Thus he suggested establishing the counter
hegemony –alliance of intellectuals who are concerned with the cause of the social workers.
5. Feminism by the women – They held that women are disadvantaged position and it should be removed. The
power structure which is dominated by men should change and women should get the equal status and power
in the society. Thus the feminism also works for the allocation of the power to women and utilization of this
power for the empowerment of the women. Women should have equal rights at par with men. They say that
patriarchy is the deep and institutionalised system of power. Women are missing from the structures of power.

New ideologies claims themselves to be different from the classical and meta-ideology but as the power remains
central to the politics the ideologies also cannot move away from the centrality of power.

1. Post Modernist - Biggest critic of ideology comes from post modernists who consider Ideology as Meta
narratives. They believe that Power is everywhere, power flows throughout the society like capillaries, lie in
the network of social relations"
2. Communitarians – They believe that power is not centred in individual rather it comes because of individual
being a member of the particular community.
3. Hannah Arendt held that "ideology and terror are the basis of totalitarianism. Ideology serves the interests of
dominant class.
4. Gandhism - Thought about power not in terms of power of rulers over ruled but he thought of power in
constructive way. He believed in decentralisation of power. He talked of Antyodaya -Empowering the last in
society and Oceanic circulation of power where power is not concentrated but circulates like the ocean
currents.

Conclusion:

Thus every ideology projects itself as fair, natural and rightful to sustain their power structure. New ideology emerges
from those sections that were not happy with the existing arrangement of power. Thus this leads to demand for
redistribution of power, re-allocation of power, shaping of power and re-shaping of power.

4 a. Do you think that Buddhist traditions have lent greater ethical foundations to ancient Indian political thought?
Give your arguments.

Approach to the answer

Intro:

• Basic Intro: with the Budhism as a challenge to earlier Indian political traditions.

Main Body

• The Indian political traditions have always been concerned with ethics and morals.
• But Budhism lent a greater foundation to already existing moral principles.
• Discuss the above argument in various areas of statecraft and Kingship.
• Discuss other ethical principles of Buddhism.

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Conclusion

• Conclude with the transcendental relevance of the Buddhism.

Intro:

Buddhism is characterized as a religious philosophical system which presents a total view of the world and man’s place
in it, including a prescription for the ordering of human affairs. It emerged as a challenge to the earlier Indian political
thought particularly the Dharmashastra and Arthshastra. Bhikhu Parekh writes that The Hindu political thought met
its most powerful critic at the hand of Budhism and Budhism despite being a religion it contains many ethical and
moral ideas.

Main Body:

Buddha’s political and ethical thinking has its emphasis on equal rights, protection against tyranny via equality before
the law, and participatory and deliberative governance. On the kingship The Buddha said that the moral character of
a ruler determines the moral character of society.

Budhism was concerned with harmonizing political power with the ethical and moral principles of the dharma.

From the Buddhist point of view, a political philosophy that ignores the natural law and disregards principles like the
interdependence and unity of life would only harm individuals and communities.

Buddhist political thinking along with earlier Indian political though considers politics as a moral undertaking for any
leader in contrast to modern Western political philosophies construe politics as “morally neutral” based purely on a
leader’s utilitarian considerations of power and public good.

Indian political thought along with the statecraft and the Kingship have always been concerned with the moral and
ethical concerns of the ruled and moral duties of the ruling.

The ancient Indian political thought gave great credence to the religious basis of human existence and acceptance of
traditional morality.

• For example - Manu rejected cruelty and deceit. He emphasized on the rule of law and code of conduct to
the Kshatriyas.
• Manu exhibited a deep concern for the protection of ethical autonomy of the society.
• Manu had not attempted the political phenomenon as a distinct identity; rather it is to be discussed in the
context of wider social purposes connected with religion and morality.
• The Dharmashastra advocates the ‘DharamYudha’ the war fought to accomplish the value
of dharma.
• Thus, the king was a divine creation to promote social harmony peace and welfare

Similarly Arthashashtra also have emphasised on the ethical concerns

• In the happiness of subject’s happiness of king lies - The king according to Kautilya should function on the
goal that it is in the happiness of his subjects that his happiness lies.
• Kautilya advised the state should provide support to the poor, pregnant women, and to their
children, to orphans, to the aged, the afflicted and the helpless.
• Kautilya is categorical that if progress of a kingdom is equally attainable through peace, or war, then peace
is to be preferred.

How the Budhism has lent a greater ethical foundation to ancient Indian political thought.

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But Buddhism has lent the grater ethical foundation to the Indian political thought because in some circumstances the
Dharmashastra and Arthashashtra suggested the king to follow the hard policies and deceit. Arthashashtra also
considers the options of war and imperialism in certain circumstances. He has advised the king to resort to different
tactics: conciliation, gift and bribery, dissention, deceit and pretence, open attack, or war. Sama ,dama,danda,Bheda.

But Budhism never moves towards the unethical and immoral ways and follows the principle of non –violence and the
Dhamma. Buddhist traditions have devoted much attention to the moral significance of thoughts and feelings,
intentions and actions, consequences and character, duties and commitments.

It lent the grater ethical foundation in following areas of statecraft and kingship

1. Origin of state-
a. Dharmashastra tradition believes in divine origin of the state.
b. Arthashashtra tradition believes in the origin of the state to save the people from Matasyanyaya.
c. Buddhist tradition believed in the democratic or republican tradition.
i. They believe that there was once a glorious society which degenerated over the time and
affected with lot of vices. Hence to protect the society from the vices the people entered into
a contract with each other and they elected the most virtuous person called mahasammata
(meaning the great elect) as the ruler.
d. AT Embree – calls the Buddhist contract tradition of the state as one of the earliest contract tradition.
i.
2. Function of state
a. Both Arthashashtra and Dharmashastra focus on the Welfare activities of the state King has to ensure
Raksha Palan etc.
b. In the Buddhist tradition Jataka talks about the ten duties of the kings. It also highlights the virtues
that king have.
i. King should live a simple life and not a luxurious life.
ii. King should be compassionate, king should care for the welfare of the people, the king should
be truthful etc.
c. Thus these 2 duties of the king add the greater ethical foundation to the functions of the state.
3. Principles
a. The earlier Indian philosophical tradition like Arthashashtraemphasied on the principles like Balance
of power, the spy system, imperialist foreign policy, The Kautilya has talked about the dual morality
that in case of exigencies King can resort to violence and stratagums etc. and
b. But the Buddhist tradition is completely different from the earlier tradition and they emphasized on
the Virtue of the king who has to win the world not through the military power but the soft power
and Virtue. Replacing the Bherighosa with Dhammaghosa. Principle of righteousness as the main
guiding principle.
c. Prof .MP Singh writes that principle of righteousness was emphasized in the Buddhist political
thought.

Other principles of Budhism which lent a greater foundation to Indian political thought

1. The notion of equality –The doors of Sanghas were open to all without any discrimination based on the caste
and other things unlike the earlier Indian political tradition.
2. The notion of deliberative democracies – The programmes of Sanghas were decided after due deliberations.
Since all were going to be affected by decision, everybody was entitled to participate.
3. The Noble Eightfold path to enlightenment consists of cultivating the following: (1) Right View, (2) Right
Intention, (3) Right Speech, (4) Right Action, (5) Right Livelihood, (6) Right Effort, (7) Right Mindfulness, and
(8) Right Concentration. These virtues generally fall into three categories. The first two tend toward cultivation
of wisdom, the middle three toward ethical conduct, and the latter three toward mental development.

Conclusion:

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The Buddhist traditions of political thought also become the guiding light for the Gandhian principles and the
Panchasheel principles as well as the principles of the constitution like the Article 51 of the constitutions – how the
state should promote international peace and security.

4 b. Marx’s concept of ‘alienation’ is an essential part of the reality in capitalism. Explain.

Intro:

• Introduce with the concept of alienation given by Karl Marx.

Main Body

• Background of the concept of alienation.

• Discuss alienation as the essential part of the capitalism.
• Discuss in what ways capitalism has alienated man in various forms.

Conclusion

• Conclude with the conception of one dimensional man which is further expansion of the alienation concept.

Intro:

The concept of Alienation is given by the young Marx in his book ‘Economic and Philosophic Manuscript.’ He has taken
idea from Hegel and Feuerbach. By alienation he meant estrangement and Separation from self. He held that
capitalism alienates man from man.

Main Body:

Background of concept of alienation

Alienation was first explained by Hegel. According to Hegel, on this earth man gets alienated from God, which is a
cause of unhappiness of man. The alienation of man ends in the state because state is March of God on earth.

Feuerbach came to the opposite conclusion. He held that God is source of alienation. Hence to be happy, we should
be free from religion. He held that God is a source of unhappiness. God reminds us about our weakness.

Marx believed that it is not enough to be free from God, for the real freedom we need to change the basic structure
of the society.

Marx Concept of alienation as essential part of capitalism.

Marx believed that capitalism creates a structure where our reasons are not owned by us but it is owned by others.
We are not in a position to enjoy and own our labour and not able to enjoy the creativity of own self.

Marx believed that in capitalist cultures, freedom is a false notion. Freedom is the ability to carry out one's desires. .
The source of happiness and health is freedom. He aimed to demonstrate that the so-called freedom seen in capitalist
nations is essentially alienation. Marx believed that independence from requirements was true freedom. It implies
that man cannot be free unless his basic necessities are met.

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The so called freedom in capitalist societies is isolation. Capitalism destroys the organic link between man and his
society. It gives rise to atomistic man, the abstract individual.

He held that Capitalism does not allow man to live as per his true nature.Man is creative by nature and is social by
nature. Capitalism destroys the human essence. In capitalism man faces alienation at four levels.

1. Alienation from the process of production – The process of production has become so mechanized that man
is reduced to mere cog in the wheel.
2. Alienation from the product of his labour – Production has become so much specialized that one does not
even know the final shape of his labour.
3. Alienation from society – In capitalism, working conditions are such that man does not
have the scope for realization of his social nature.
4. Alienation from himself–The cumulative effect of the alienation at three levels is man
gets alienated from himself.

He held that alienation can be ended byestablishing communism and destroying capitalism. In communism man will
produce what he wants. In communism there is no contradiction between man and his society.

Thus it was said by Marx that there is no real freedom or happiness in capitalism. Freedom is possible only in
communism. When man is fully assured that he can do what he wants to do and society exists for protection of his
basic necessities.

Conclusion:

The concept of alienation was further established by the neo –Marxists like Herbert Marcuse who has given the
concept of One Dimensional Man- He held that a man is a multi-dimensional personality. However, we have become
‘One Dimensional Man’ in a One dimensional society of capitalist structure.

4 c. Free and fair deliberation is the foundation of democracy.

Intro:

• Introduce with the concept of deliberation and its role in democracy.

Main Body

• Discuss the evolution of role of deliberation in political sphere.

• Deliberation in the modern form of democracy.
• Discuss the various aspects of deliberative democracy
• Discuss the factors which challenges deliberation
• Joshua Cohen essential conditions for deliberative democracy

Conclusion

• Conclude with the overall significance of the deliberative democracy.

Intro:

The idea of deliberation is inherent in democracy because the democracy is based on rational discourses.It insists
upon political institutions that guarantee participation in all deliberative and decisional processes in a way that

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provides each person with equal chances to exercise the communicative freedom to take a position on critical
validity.

Main Body:

Deliberation in democracy is important for the reason that Persons should be treated not merely as objects of
legislation, as passive subjects to be ruled, but as autonomous agents who take part in the governance of their own
society, directly or through their representatives.

Deliberative in democracy emphasizes reaching a consensus on public affairs including decision-making and legislation
for public interests with universal participation of citizens under the background of a pluralistic society.

The idea of deliberation in the politics goes back to the ancient Greek philosophers like Plato who suggested the
method of dialectics to come at the better decision.

Later Aristotle held that ordinary people deliberately can arrive at better decisions than experts. He suggests that
deliberation is the best way to reach the decision because it represents the collective wisdom of the people.

Rousseau also suggested that deliberation is the best way to know the general will of the people. Other scholars also
have the vision of the deliberative democracy is the JS mill who was the firm votary of the freedom of speech and
expression.

The goal of deliberation is typically to make our decision-making more "reflective"; to assist us in selecting a course of
action after careful consideration rather than simply choosing a course of action without giving it much thought, with
little regard for the available evidence or arguments.

The argument for the deliberative concept of democracy, thus, emerges from a claim about
the political equality of citizens as grounded on their equal moral status as autonomous
individuals capable of giving and exchanging reasons.

The idea behind deliberative democracy is that laws and policies are legitimate to the extent
that they are publicly justified to the citizens of the community.

Habermas and later Rawls, and a group of deliberative democrats with them, regard it as democratically crucial for
citizens to engage in actual rather than merely hypothetical discourse.

According to Rawls, deliberative democracy requires citizens actually, not just hypothetically, to exchange views and
debate their supporting reasons concerning public political questions.

They suppose that their political opinions may be revised by discussion with other citizens; and therefore these
opinions are not simply a fixed outcome of their existing private or political interests. It is at this point that public
reason is crucial.

There are certain limitations and challenges as far as a free and fair environment for deliberation is concerned. Thus
we can say that it is a key for democracy but in reality we face so many challenges and limitations.

1. Diverse society -it becomes very difficult to come on common stage for everyone by the way of deliberation.
There emerges the difference among the members on various grounds.
2. Inequality and Gaps in the level of development - in terms of social, educational and economic – As Amartya
sen held that deliberation is the key to democracy but there is need of the capacity building of the people to
participate in the deliberation on equal terms.
3. Dominant position of some groups – Dominant position of some group in society affects the deliberation
process which is hijacked by the dominant groups. In India caste system is the typical example of this.

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Thus Joshua Cohen gives essential elements of the deliberative democracy in which every member of the community
can participate on equal terms

1. Consensus that deliberation is the basis of legitimacy

2. Non coercive environment
3. Expected continuity of deliberation
4. Respect for plurality of views.

Thus it can be said that Participatory democracy in itself may not become deliberative unless we provide a conducive
environment.

Besides these this model also invokes the standard of reasonableness, namely, that citizens acknowledge the fact of
reasonable pluralism and seek to offer reasons that other reasonable citizens could not reasonably reject

Conclusion:

Deliberative democracy tends to produce outcomes which are superior to those in other forms of democracy.
Deliberative democracy produces less partisanship and more sympathy with opposing views; more respect for
evidence-based reasoning rather than opinion; a greater commitment to the decisions taken by those involved; and a
greater chance for widely shared consensus to emerge, thus, promoting social cohesion between people from
different backgrounds.

Paper 1 Section B

5 a. The constitution of India is a product of historical process, rich with constitutional antecedents.” Comment.

Approach to the answer

Intro:

• Introduce with evolution of the Indian constitution.

Main Body

• Discuss the various historical precedents like British laws, freedom struggle precedents which shaped the
Indian Constitution.
• Discuss other factors like constitutions of the contemporary world, the knowledge of the members, and
which shaped the Indian constitution.

Conclusion

• Conclude with the trascendality of Indian constitution because of it being such diverse and living document.

Intro:

The Indian constitution does not reflect a distinctive break from the past but it is an example of the continuity with
Change. It is not the product of sudden change but the product of development over time. Development of the Indian
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constitution happened through a series of many antecedents and historical events which resulted in the development
of the Constitution of India, the world’s largest written constitution.

Main Body:

Historical precedents which shaped the Indian constitution:

Prior to the constituent assembly that convened in 1948 to draft the Indian constitution adopted in 1950 and still in
force to date, the fundamental law of India was mostly embodied in a series of statutes enacted by the British
Parliament for example -

• The Government of India Act, 1919-The British adopted a bicameral structure with separate central and
provincial governments. This was also the first time when people could elect their own representatives
through direct elections. The Constitution later adopted this quasi-federal and bicameral structure.
• The Government of India Act, 1935-this law defined the nature of federation, Institution of governor and form
of government Even the Indian Constitution adopted these provisions of the act.

Some features of the British Acts which have been adopted are now part of the Basic structure of our constitution like
parliamentary form of government , Rule of law , Federation etc. But some unique and noble features have been
adopted which were unique to the Independent Indian constitution like Fundamental rights, Directive principles etc.

Indian national movement –The biggest inspiration of Indian constitution.

Apart from the British law Indian constitution has also been influenced by the biggest political as well as social
movement of India i.e. Indian national movement. The demand made by the nationalist during the freedom struggle
made the base for the independent Indian constitutional provisions like

• The INC session of 1931 Called Karachi session brought a resolution on fundamental rights to protect the civil
liberties and the Resolution for the first time put forward a list of socio-economic principles/rights that the
Indian state had to adhere to.
• Nehru report which recommended the provisions like Bill of Rights, Assigning Equal rights to men and women
as citizens and Formation of a federal form of government with residuary powers in the hands of Center which
became the basis for the Independent Indian constitution.

Constitutional antecedents which shaped the Indian constitution

Along with historical precedents the Indian constitution is also known as bag of borrowing .Scholars like Pratap
Bhanu Mehta in his book - Oxford handbook on Indian politics has written that Indian constitution is cosmopolitan
constitution reflecting the ideals of various constitutional visions. It has also borrowed features from British
(parliamentary form and rule of law) American (Fundamental rights ) France (Idea of equality, liberty and fraternity)
etc.

The Constitution which is still in force has been amended over 100 times making it one of the most frequently
amended constitutions in the world and changing its nature as per the changed aspirations of the people of India.

Conclusion:

Thus we can say that it is a product of historical processes as well as constitutional antecedents Because the very basic
idea of Constitutionalism as well as many basic features of the constitution are the result of historical background
which started with the British Rule in India.Indian constitution is a result of a set of interactions between constitutional
texts, historical precedents , constitutional aspirations and succession of amendments over the years.

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5 b. the constitution makers faced the great task of forging a common national identity in the face of unparalleled
social and cultural diversity in India. Comment.

Approach to the answer

Intro:

• Introduce with explaining the diversity of India.

Main body

• Discuss the diversity of Indian in detail with leaders and scholar’s view.
• How forging the common identity was a tremendous task.
• How the constitution makers overcome such huge task through Indian constitution.
• Discuss some Constitutional features which show that constitution was successful in forging the common
identity.

Conclusion

• Conclude with showing the success of Indian constitution in fulfilling the aspirations of each and every
section of the diverse nation.

Intro:

India has been a diverse country in respect of culture, people, and its terrain. So it was a challenging task for the makers
of the constitution to form a supreme rule book according to which this rich diversified nation can be effectively
governed. For the constituent assembly it was a tremendous task to constitute a constitution for a country like India.

Main Body:

The Supreme Court of India has highlighted that democracy is the golden thread that has woven the Indian
constitution and so the people of such a diverse nation.

The country was so diverse and divided into many cultures, languages and ethnicities that it was difficult to forge a
national identity among the people of India at that point of time.

Ambekarhighlighted that India is not a nation and sooner we recognize it better it is. Until and unless we have a sense
of community and fraternity nationalism, cannot exist and he believed that many marginalized communities do not
have a scope for their emancipation in the nationalist narrative.

The colonial scholars highlighted the diversity of India very emphatically to show that it is very difficult to forge the
national or common identity in India. The diversity and disunity of India were always emphasized by the colonialist
thinkers as justification for the colonial rule.

John Strachey- wrote in his book, India: Its Administration and Progress (1888): “This is the first and most essential
thing to learn about India that there is not and never was an India or even any country of India, possessing according
to European ideas, any sort of unity, physical, political, social or religious.

Right since early days of colonial rule, India was depicted as a land of hostile and warring units. W.W. Hunter, Herbert
Risley and many others emphatically attempted to prove it by segregating and classifying the country in innumerable
tribes and castes.

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Thus the division of India which was in terms of language , religion , geography and many more which divided the
nation. But to forge a national identity and ensure that no one is left behind. The constitution of India is committed
to create a society which respects human dignity. It gives the guaranteed rights to the citizens like equality before
law, equal protection of law, abolition of untouchability and so on.

Pratap Bhanu Mehta calls Indian constitution as a consensus document -Bases on the constitutional ideals like liberty,
equality and fraternity , and he noted that constituent assembly was a deliberative platform which took into view the
different sections of the society and assimilated them to forge a national identity. There are various provisions which
helped assimilation of different section of society for example

1. Article 15(3) makes it possible for the state to create special provisions for protecting the interests of women
and children.
2. Article 15(4) capacitates the State to create special arrangements for promoting interests and welfare of
socially and educationally backward classes of society.
3. Article – 46 in the directive principles of the state policy - The State shall promote with special care the
educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the Scheduled
Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

Like the pluralistic culture of India, the Indian constitution also adopted multiculturalism as well as imbibed various
needs and aspirations of different social and cultural perspectives of India. It has provided special provision for the
different sections of society.

• For example Article 330 of the Constitution lays down that the provisions of the Constitution relating to the
reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
• Fundamental rights specially Article 29 and 30 for the protection of the rights of the minorities to provide
them the equal protection of their development with respect to their cultural and social practices.
• Asymmetric federalism catering to the special needs of the different states so that there do not emerge the
sub-regional political deprivation and forging a national identity. Like Article -371 for the North eastern
states.

Conclusion:

The Continuation of India as a nation with the Idea of India is a reflection of the fact that despite enormous diversity,
various communities have gone for mutual adjustments, and have recognised the importance of peaceful co-
existence, people in India have developed overlapping consensus on fundamental principles of the constitutions
resulting into the idea of India and a national identity.

5 c. Mention the founding principles that define India’s constitution.

Approach to the answer

Intro:

• Introduce with the Indian constitution as the transformative document.

Main Body

• Discuss briefly the factors which affected the principles of Indian constitution
• Discuss in detail the founding principles of Indian constitution.

Conclusion

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• Conclude with how these founding principles shaped the vision of India.

Intro:

The Indian constitution is considered a revolutionary document which was created not just to provide a book to rule
/ govern the nation but to change the life of millions of people and give them a life of dignity which was inherent from
the idea of Swaraj during the Indian national movement. Thus it was based on various principles which can ensure the
fulfillment of the aspirations of people of India as well as ensuring India’s rightful position in the world.

Main Body:

The Indian constitution is the combination of the various principles inspired by India’s rich tradition, India’s struggle
for independence as well as the vision of our founding fathers like Mahatma Gandhi ,Ambedkar, Sardar patel and
Nehru which has been reflected in the provisions of the constitution.

Founding principle of Indian constitution

1. Rule of law or constitutionalism- Which has been the continuation from the British rule when it was not in
substantive form and one of the main demands during the freedom struggle movement.
2. Principle of liberalism as reflected in the form of govt. we have adopted that is parliamentary democracy and
in the chapter of fundamental rights.
3. Indian model of secularism which is different from western model which separates the state from the religion.
The Indian model is based on principled distanced models.
4. Welfare state and democratic socialism which is found in part 4 of the constitution in the form of directive
principles of the state policy.
5. Principle of multiculturalism - Multiculturalism –we provide special protection to the rights of the minorities
reflected in the provisions like Article 29 and 30 of the fundamental rights.
6. Vision of our founding fathers like Mahatma Gandhi.The principle of Gandhi’s philosophy reflected in DPSP
in the form of Panchayati Raj,Cottage Industries , the concept of co-operatives etc.

Conclusion:

As mentioned in the preamble the basic idea behind these principles has been to promote unity and integrity and to
give life of dignity and Justice to the people of India and making the independence of Indian not just a transfer of
power but to transform the traditional Indian society into the modern democratic society based on the principles of
equality, liberty and fraternity as well as protection of political and socio-economic rights of the people.

5 d. Analyze the Marxist perspective of the nature of Indian national movement.

Approach Box

Intro:

• Introduce with the basic tenets of Marxist perspective on Indian national movement.

Main Body

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• Analyze the each and every aspect of the Marxist aspect along with scholar’s view and analyse those views
in brief.

Conclusion

• Conclude how No historiography can present a complete picture because Indian national movement was
interplay of various factors.

Intro:

The Indian national movement has been the most spectacular movement which has been tried to be understood
through various perspectives. The Marxist perspective on Indian nationalism is informed by a class approach related
to politics and ideology. The basic position is that the nationalist leadership and the nationalist ideology objectively or
subjectively represented the Indian bourgeoisie and wanted India to evolve on the path of independent capitalist
development.

Main Body:

Analysis of Marxist perspective on Indian national movement

• The Marxist perspective of the mainstream national movement and independence or freedom struggle begins
with Karl Marx. Karl Marx reflected euro centrism and he held that the revolt of 1857 was a feudal revolt.
• A.R. Desai in his book Social Background of Indian Nationalism and RC Dutta in his India today presented
indian national movement as a movement dominated by the bourgeoisie he held that although various
classes, including the peasantry and the working classes, participated in it, its basic character remained
bourgeois.
• Later on MN Roy in his book “India in transition” has analyzed the role of Gandhi and Congress and he held
that so called INM is more of a bourgeoisie movement and he considered Gandhi’s political programme to
benefit the Indian Bourgeoisie class as well as metropolitan bourgeoisie but it is not in the interest of the
people.

Not only the nature and character of the Indian national movement has been a matter of contestation among the
different schools of historiography from nationalist to subaltern. Within Marxism also there is a lack of consensus

• Marxist Scholars like Sumit Sarkar in his book Modern India have warned orthodox Marxist not to have a very
casual approach and he believes that Indian national congress did not have any specific programme for masses
but they have not neglected the masses purposefully.
• Bipan Chandra in his book “India’s struggle for Independence” - Despite being a Marxist Scholar has
acknowledged that the Movement led by Gandhi has been one of the most spectacular mass movements
whose warmth is felt even today.

Conclusion:

No historiographical attempt to paint a complete and general picture of the national movement is ever completely
successful. For a nuanced understanding of an event like the Indian national movement, we have to keep our minds
open to acknowledge the interplay of various forms of struggle and resistance, with varied social backgrounds and
differences in paths and particular goals, working at the same time.

5 e. Underline the significance of the first constitutional amendment.

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Intro:

• Introduce with the amendment features of the Indian constitution.

Main Body

• Discuss the first amendment –its context, features and relevant changes.
• Discuss the significance of the 1st amendment and its future impacts

Conclusion

• Conclude how it paved the way for the further changes in the constitution.

Intro:

Amendments are the essential feature of the written constitution because they act as a safety valve for a healthy
democracy. Dr. Ambedkar held that ``ordinarily, federal constitutions are rigid but the Indian constitution is a
combination of flexibility and rigidity." The element of flexibility has to be there to avoid the rigidity and to bring the
constitution in sync with the aspiration of the people and changing time.

Main Body

According to Andre Beteillewe can say that India is a unique case where the constitution has to be amended within
the very first year of the existence of the Republic.

Historical background in which the 1st amendment act was introduced was the ChampakamDorairajan case- the first
case involving the dispute between the fundamental rights and DPSC.

The 1st amendment act made the following changes

1. Article 15 (4) -Special provision for the socially and educationally backward classes - Empowered the state
to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and economically backward classes.
2. Added Ninth Schedule to protect the land reforms and other laws included in it from the judicial review. After
Article 31, Articles 31A and 31B were inserted. Provided for the saving of laws providing for acquisition of
estates, etc.
3. Article 19 was amended - Added three more grounds of restrictions on freedom of speech and expression:
public order, friendly relations with foreign states and incitement to an offence. Also, it made the restrictions
‘reasonable’ and thus, justifiable in nature.
4. Provided that state trading and nationalisation of any trade or business by the state is not to be invalid on the
ground of violation of the right to trade or business.

Significance of the amendment

• It has strengthened the socialistic nature of the Indian state. It has established that the DPSP though not
legally enforceable cannot be kept below the fundamental rights because it promotes the socialist nature of
the state.
• The other significance is that it has also ignited the debate over the nature and the scope of the amending
power of the parliament.
• Other significance is about the litigation which later on culminated into the doctrine of Basic structure which
has its origin in the 1st amendment act which led to the questioning of the scope of amending power of the
parliament and it has resulted into long term implication on Indian constitutionalism and Indian politics.

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• It also signifies the flexibility of the constitution – which allowed the constitution to be amended in the very
first year itself. It was also envisioned by our founding fathers that constitution should be flexible enough to
meet the aspirations of the people.
• Judicial passivism and the dominance of Indian legislature - The very 1st amendment was challenged in
Shankari Prasad case where SC upheld the amending power of the parliament and this shows that this was the
time of the judicial passivity and the dominance of legislature in the history of Indian politics.

Conclusion:

Thus we can conclude that the 1st amendment stood as a precedent for all other constitutional amendments made
further and important breakthrough of the Indian judiciary and the constitution has been carry forward of the 1st
amendment whether it is Doctrine of the Basic structure, the harmonious construction between the DPSP and
Fundamental rights or the special provisions for the socially and educationally backward classes of the state.

6 a. Constitutionally reconciling the fundamental rights and directive principles has led to the frequent amendments
of the constitution and judicial interventions.

Approach Box:

Intro:
• Introduce with the relationship between the fundamental rights and DPSP.

Main Body
• Reconciling fundamental rights and DPSP – why there is a tussle
• Important cases and constitutional amendment to address the relationship between the DPSP and
Fundamental rights.

Conclusion
• Conclude with explaining how judicial intervention over the time has addressed the ambiguity.

Intro:

Both Fundamental rights and DPSP carries some set of rights. one promotes political rights which is provided under
the part 3 (Article 12-35) of the constitution whereas other promotes social and economic rights mentioned in the
part 4 of the constitution (Article 37-51). They are integrated in such manner that in Nehru report both were part of
the same document.

Main Body:

The fundamental rights are based on the ideal of liberalism and aims to establish political democracy grants certain
fundamental rights with the objective to limit the powers of the state.

Directive principles of state policy contain or inspired by the idea of democratic socialism contains certain social and
economic rights which aim to give a life of dignity.

They came into contradiction due to 2 reasons

1. Based on 2 antithetical ideologies - liberalism vs. Socialism – The fundamental rights are based on the liberal
principles whereas the Directive principles are based on the principle of socialism so they come into the
contradiction with each other.

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2. Legal status - Fundamental rights have been given superior status being enforceable in nature where right to
enforcement itself are fundamental rights. On the other hand DPSP as per article 37 are not enforceable in
the court of law.

These 2 contradictory provisions led to the legal battle which led to various constitutional amendments as well as the
judicial intervention.

1. ChampakamDorairajan case:
o Fundamental rights are superior to DPSP in their legal status. DPSP are nevertheless important. Each part of
constitution is important. A harmony or equilibrium to be achieved b/w fundamental rights and DPSPs. It
should not happen that one part loses the significance. Hence, judiciary directed that by ordinary law
fundamental rights can’t be abridged to give effect to DPSP but by amendment in Part III, it can be
implemented.

2. Golaknath Case 1967:

o Overruled its earlier judgement and has given distinct supremacy to fundamental rights. Fundamental rights
can’t be abridged for giving effect to directive principles even by amendment. 25th amendment act 1971
introduced article 31C. This was government’s attempt to establish harmony b/w part III and Part IV. In order
to implement the directives given in 39B and 39C the law giving effect to these directives shall not be
challenged on the ground that it contradicts fundamental rights article 14 & 19.

3. Keshavanand Bharati case 1973:

o SC upheld the validity of 25th amendment act. Judicially also recognised that both parts are important.
Judiciary had gone for the application of “Doctrine of Harmonious constitution”. 42nd amendment 1976
destroyed the balance achieved in 25th amendment act and the harmony recognised in Keshavanand Bharati
Case. It amended article 31C - any law implementing any directive shall not be challenged on the ground that
it contradicts fundamental rights given in article 14 & 19.

4. Minerva Mills case 1980:

o SC declares above section of 42nd amendment act as null and void. Court restored the position as existing in
25th amendment act re-established the harmony. The case held that he foundation of constitution is the
harmonious relation between Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of the State Policy. Striking a
harmonious balance between the provisions of Part III & Part IV is where justice lies and making one part
subservient to another would only lead to chaos

Thus it has been established over the time that Fundamental Rights and the DPSP are supplementary to each other
and are essential to meet the social and economic dimensions of a democratic government.

Conclusion:

Since judiciary is the arbiter of the constitution, wherever there has been an ambiguity over the relationship been FR
and DPSP. Judiciary in India has risen to the occasion to address this ambiguity and given the principle of harmonious
construction so that the FR also remains relevant and DPSP also can be implemented. Thus it can be said that the need
for the reconciliation of the FR and DPSP has led to the frequent amendments and the judicial interpretation.

6 b. The role of president of India becomes more significant during the minority government and the coalition
government. Explain.

Intro:

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India has adopted the parliamentary form of government in which there are two heads one is real and another nominal
head. The council of minister headed by Pm is the real head and the President is the nominal head.PM is called the
head of the government whereas the president is called the head of the state.

Main Body:

The rationale behind two heads is to provide continuity in administration and to have a head that can be considered
as head of the government and another who can represent the state.

Understanding the role of the president

Role of president in India can be understood on the basis of Article 74(2) which is in accordance to 42nd Constitutional
amendment and the principles of the parliamentary system, of government which says that president shall act on the
aid and advice of the council of ministers.

President is more of a symbolic head. Since he is a symbolic head article 371 grants the immunity to the president so
he is not held responsible for any acts done in his name, it is the ministers who are held responsible.

How the role becomes significant during the minority and coalition government

The minority government represents the situation when no party has a clear majority and it is sustained by outside
support. Similarly coalition government arises when a single party does not have sufficient majority to form
government thus 2 or more parties may combine together to form the government.

The common thing in minority and coalition governments is that no party gains majority in the elections which is often
expressed by the term of hung parliament.

In the wake of the current political trends, appointment of a Prime Minister, in case of a fractured mandate, seems to
be a President's nightmare. Not only is he bound by the duty imposed upon him by the Constitution but he also has to
do justice to the millions of people who have entrusted their faith in the highest executive office of the land.

In this situation the role of president becomes more important. In case of minority and coalition governments
president’s role increases.

• When no political party or coalition of parties enjoys the majority in Lok Sabha, then the President has
discretion in inviting the leader of that party or coalition of parties who in his opinion is able to form a stable
government.

Pratap Bhanu Mehta and Devesh kapoor in their Book “Public institutions” In case of minority and coalition
governments the power of the regulatory institutions like Supreme Court, the election commission, the CAG, and the
president increases.

• For example, the President gains discretion in formation of the government in case of coalition and minority
government. However at union level we have seen that health conventions have developed w.r.t the
formation of the governments.

According to Prof. MP Singh, the coalition government also weakens the position of the PM hence there is a relative
rise in the position of the president.

Instances when the president has played an imp role during coalition

In case no party or pre-poll alliance gets an outright majority in the Lower House, the President’s role becomes crucial
in the choice of the next prime minister. There are no definitive precedents to guide the President in the matter.

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1. President R Venkataraman and, following him, President Shankar Dayal Sharma, chose to call the leader of
the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha.
2. President KR Narayanan, however, ascertained the support of claimed allies of the group whose leader made
a pitch for the PM’s post.

Conclusion:

Former President R venkataraman has clearly explained that the position of the president in India is like an emergency
lamp which comes to light only in emergency situation and when main switch falls. So it can be said that coalition
government gives greater role to president due to the PM lacking the clear majority.

6 c. -Do you think that despite having significant limitations the PRI’s (Panchayati Raj institutions) have strengthened
the process of democratic decentralization. Give your views.

Approach Box

Intro:

• Introduce with the vision and achievements of the 73rd amendment act after 3 decades.

Main Body:

• Why Panchayati Raj has not been much successful – Limitations and drawbacks
• Despite limitations there are certain achievements towards the democratic decentralisation which needs to
be highlighted.

Conclusion:

• Conclude with the futuristic way forward including overall suggestions.

Intro:

Panchayati Raj institutions which have been given constitutional status by 73rd amendment act aims at achieving the
idea of democratic decentralization based on the Gandhian vision of the oceanic circle of power. It is based on the
vision of “Maximum democracy and maximum devolution”. Though projected as a revolutionary act 73rd CAA has
created dissatisfaction to the extent it has been called as half baked cake. It has been held that it creates the skeleton
but does not infuse the flesh and blood.

Main Body:

Grassroots democracy is a system of governance in which Gram Panchayats are the basic units of administration.
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) have been involved in the programme implementation and they constitute the core
of decentralized development of planning and its implementation. Panchayati Raj Institutions aim at translating the
Gandhian dream of village self-governance (Gram Swaraj) and to become an effective tool of rural development and
reconstruction.

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Manishakar Ayer committee which was constituted in context of evaluation of the working of Panchayati raj has
highlighted that it has created a bad Panchayati Raj and he mentions that Bad Panchayati raj is worse than the no
Panchayati raj he pointed out that

• There is no clear mapping of the functions of the 3 tiers on the basis of subsidiaries principles
• Gram Sabha has been created but it does not mention the clear role functions and responsibilities.
• It ensures the representation of the SC and ST community but does not ensure their participation.
• Similarly the representation of the women is not yet in accordance to their population.

The progress of democratic decentralization has been dwarfed by the numerous systemic challenges and institutional
bottlenecks.

• Devolution of functions- Article 243G of the Indian Constitution, which requires the State governments to
devolve distinct functional items to Panchayats, remains a constitutional promise even to this very day.

o While some States like Kerala and West Bengal have devolved as many as 26 departments to
Panchayats, several States have devolved only few functions, even as low as 3 functions.

• Expert Committee on Leveraging Panchayat Raj Institutions for more Efficient Delivery of Public Goods and
Services" revealed that except for the MGNREGA and the Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF), none of the
over 150 centrally sponsored schemes had provided a role for the PRIs.

• Short on finances - Local governments can either raise their own revenue through local taxes or receive
intergovernmental transfers. The 73th Amendment recognized both forms of public finance, but did not
mandate either.The power to tax, even for subjects falling within the purview of PRIs, has to be specifically
authorized by the state legislature

• Lack of capacity has come hard on the credibility of this very promising institution-States have not paid any
serious attention to building the capacities of newly elected representatives many any elected representatives
remain totally dependent on officials to perform even rudimentary responsibilities.This situation is more
precarious in the case of PESA Act (Fifth Scheduled Areas).

• There has been little progress in terms of bringing panchayats under the ambit of e-governance- leveraging
of new age technologies (ICT) can transform accountability, transparency and effectiveness of panchayats
but over 2.4 lakh panchayats in the country, only about 50,000 of them have implanted e-Panchayat project.

Why short on achievement:

• Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 2008 blame the reluctance on the part of State Governments
and higher bureaucracy to share powers with panchayat bodies in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity
to the continued low momentum of decentralization process.

• While the majority of the States appear to have met the necessary conditions, such as enactment of the State
Panchayat Act; setting up of the State Finance Commission and the State Election Commission, and
constitution of the District Planning Committee, a majority of them have not devolved funds and functions to
these bodies.

• There has been low demand at the local level for reform and it was introduced to fulfil the international
obligations of good governance.

Achievements over the drawbacks

Panchayati Raj institutions has been projected as the revolutionary step towards strengthening democratic
decentralization in the country

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• It led to the establishment of the 3 tier panchayati raj at all level elected bodies . It creates an institutional
structure for the participation of the people at the lowest level and engages in deliberation on the matter of
common concerns.
• It created the institution of gram sabha which can be considered as the heart and soul of the experiment
representing the deliberative and participatory democracy.
• From being toothless bodies in the decades earlier the post-1993 panchayats not only have been vested with
many functions ranging from civic welfare to preparation of plans and their expenditures, these self-governing
units have also been provided with sizeable funds to look after their day-today affairs.
• Reservation policies for women Scheduled caste and scheduled tribes and OBChas brought representatives
from these sections to the democratic space. They aresuccessfully asserting their political rights and
beginning to emerge as leaders breaking away from centuries of oppression and subjugation.
• Scholars like Esther Duflo and Raghavendra Chattopadhyay have analyzed that districts with female
sarpanch/pradhans, significantly greater investments are made in drinking water, a priority public goods issue
for women.

Thus the decentralization process has deepened democracy, political inclusion and participation among the most
marginalized sections of the society and overall decentralization process has taken a strong root and looks ’irreversible’
in India

Conclusion:

Mere constitutional creation of new political space would not become the answer to the growing demands for
inclusion and participation. For substantive democracy to become a reality, the Center and States need to show
willingness to share powers in terms of fund functionaries and functions. At the time when local level governance
proved to be most significant during the pandemic, one hopes to see a certain degree of urgency and seriousness from
the leadership to walk the talk on devolution and decentralization as promised through 73rd amendment.

7 a. Indian party systems is shaped by a complex interaction of the country's federal structure, electoral system and
social cleavages. Explain.

Approach Box

Intro:
• Start with the party system and its significance

Main Body
• Uniqueness of Indian party system
• How the different factors affect the Indian part system
o Federal structure
o Electoral system
o Social cleavages

Conclusion
• Conclude with highlighting how we can understand the Indian party system in better manner.

Intro:

Political parties are indispensable for the working of representative democracy. Party system does not operate in
vacuum rather to quote Joseph La palambra and Myron Weiner “It is shaped by the complex interpretation of the
various sub systems”

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Main Body:

Political parties perform the function of interest aggregation. According to Sartori - Indian party system is shaped by
not just the number of parties but parties having systemic relevance.

The unique nature of Indian party system

Indian party system is dynamic oneProf. Suhas Palisakar has explained the evolution of Indian party system into
phases for example

• One party dominant system

• Majoritarian system - one party system
• The coalition governments
• The re-emergence of the majoritarian system- one party led system.

Party system in India has been shaped by the various factors like: -

Complex interplay of countries’ federal system

• Prof MP Singh Indian party system reflects the trend of regionalisation, and fragmentation.
• To quote Prof. MP Singh - It has been a major factor behind the fragmentation of the regional parties or the
phenomena of regionalisation of the party system.
• India being a diverse and vast country the problem at regional and national level are different that can be
visible during elections when people vote for one party at state and another party at centre. Federalism is
primary responsible for the fragmentation and rise of the regional parties.

Electoral system

• Duverger law - the majoritarian system results into 2 party systems and the proportional representation
results into the multi party system and coalition governments. India is a unique case of the complex interaction
where we do not find Duverger law sufficient to explain this uniqueness.
• Ideally India’s majoritarian system should have stabilized the 2 party systems but we see the trend either the
system settles for one party dominant system be it congress system or BJP system or it goes for the multi-
party system or the coalition government.

Social cleavages

As far as the role of social cleavage on the party system is concerned we can give reference to Zoya Hassan–

• Zoya Hassan - It always plays an important role and that is why the study of political party is an important
aspect of the political sociology approach. So political parties are not operating in vacuum even in western
countries.
• In western countries the prime social cleavages are class based though the influence of the religion is
increasing.
• However in the case of India as mentioned by Zoya Hassan as well as Paul Brass -Social cleavages are more
complex in nature. Because Indian politics is not Uni-dimensional along with class we see the social cleavages
in terms of caste and in terms of religion.
• Different political parties especially the regional parties can be associated with a particular caste and a
particular religion. Situation is not very different as far as national parties are concerned

Conclusion:

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• Thus Indian party system reflects the unique situations, unique impact of the social environment in which it is
pledged and in order to understand Indian party system we must go for the system approach and political
sociology approach to understand this complex interaction.

7 b.Do you think that there has been a gradual shift in the basis on which the demands for the creation of the new
states have been raised in the different regions of India. Explain.

Approach Box

Intro:
• Introduce with the changing dynamic of state formation in India.

Main Body
• Discuss the basis or factors on which state formation happens.
• Discuss the evolution of the basis on which Indian states has been created since independence and analyse
challenges.

Conclusion
• Conclude with showing the complexity of state formation which is result of interplay of various factors
together.

Intro:

According to Louise Tillin -remapping India. The internal map of India is not yet settled. Still the reconfigurations are
going on. If we mention Bibek Debroy - he suggests that at least India should have 50 states. As of now the state
formations in India is guided by the principles adopted by the state reorganization commission which has given certain
guiding principles that primacy has to be given to the sovereignty and integrity , second to the ethnic considerations
and next to the administrative efficiency and economic angles.

Main Body:

Factors behind the formation process of the states

1. Political economy factors – Atul Kohli.

a. The economic policies of the state dictated the creation of smaller states e.g. The main consideration
behind creation of Chhattisgarh was government’s neo-liberal approach to mining. Once Chhattisgarh
becomes state, it will have no option but to open its mines and minerals.
2. Sociological factors -Ramchandra Guha and Yogendra Yadav.
a. The demands represent the assertion by the marginalized sections. To assert their share in power and
development.
3. Political analysis of state formation - Louis Tillin,
a. The main consideration behind state formations has been political. The timing, the possibility of
formation is primarily dictated by the interest of the ruling party at center
• For example, Congress kept on postponing the creation of Telangana and made
announcement just before elections. Similarly, BJP created Uttarakhand to consolidate its
position. Laluprasad Yadav agreed for bifurcation of Bihar because it consolidates the position
of RJD.

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4. Christophe Jaffrelot also considered state formations in India including linguistic reorganization as purely
political phenomenon and primarily based on caste.
a. Pandit Nehru opposed linguistic states because he was concerned about the future of Congress
system. However, he held that multilingual states are showcases of India’s unity in diversity.

Gradual shift in the basis on which demands for creation of new states has been raised

Louise Tillin in her recent book “REMAPPING INDIA “hasgiven the exhaustive analysis of the process of state
formation.

New states have been formed in different phases with different logic/reasons.
● 1st phase: 50s and 60s –
o Geography- Reorganization of peninsula.
o Basis of re-organisation-The main basis was linguistic.The re-organisations of the state on the
linguistic lines go to pre -independence time. Andhra Pradesh was the first states to be created on
linguistic basis. Later the Gujarat and Haryana has been created on linguistic basis.
● 2nd phase: 60s and 70s –
o Geography - Reorganization of western and North Eastern part.
o Basis of re-organisation -As far as North East is concerned, ethnicity was the criteria. These north
eastern states has been organised based on the ethnic criteria.
● 3rd phase: 21st century
o Geography-Reorganization of Hindi heartland besides Telangana.
o The logic has been ‘good governance’ and development. The states like Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and
the Chhattisgarh has been created on the premises of good governance and the development.

Thus we can see that the state formation in India since Independence has never been on the uniform basis and it kept
changing over the time.

Conclusion:

To conclude Louis Tillin also highlight how political factors have played the major role in deciding and especially the
electoral calculation of the ruling party at thecentre but we can say that the formation of states in India is a complex
interplay of the various forces.

7 c. What explains India’s modest improvement in the social development outcomes even as the rate of growth
accelerated since the initiation of economic reforms?

Approach Box

Intro:
• Introduce with showing the dichotomy of economic growth without social development.

Main Body
• Explain why the economic development has not resulted into the similar level of social development.
• What needs to be done to end this dichotomy.

Conclusion
• Conclude with the solution based approach showing how both the development can be entwined together.

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Intro:

India was notorious for the Hindu rate of growth however after the adoption of new economic policy it has jumped to
the extent that it has been considered as one of the fastest growing economies of the world. However unfortunately
India’s achievements or records have been modest in terms of social developments.

Main body:

India’s growth Miracle has attracted worldwide attention now it boasts of being the Sixth largest economy and the
2nd largest economy in Terms of Purchasing Power parity. The growth of India has been pursuant to the wide ranging
economic reforms introduced in the early 1990’s.

India, once cruelly mocked for its “Hindu rate of growth” -- per capita GDP growth of just over 1 percent a year -- is
now the fastest-growing large economy in the world. Its economic landscape has been altered completely; it’s no
longer the agrarian economy it was in 1991.

Why modest social improvement despite high economic growth

1. The very ideology of neo-liberalism which has guided the reforms in 90’s - the philosophy of neo-liberalism is
actually pro-rich rather pro-poor which has resulted into the concentration of wealth.
2. India continues to be a soft state; there is a prevalence of huge corruption which also creates an impact on
the social development because the fruits of the development have been enjoyed by the few because of the
administrative corruption.
3. Abhijeet Benerjee - have held that the faulty policies not taking people at the centre have resulted into the
economic growth without social development.
4. India economic reforms have not been corroborated with political reforms - Once economic decentralization
deregulation has happened, Political decentralization should also have happened. We should have
strengthened the institutions of democracy to enhance the participation of the people. India has taken some
measures like creation of Panchayati Raj institutions but we have not given enough powers to these
institutions.
5. India continues to be an overdeveloped state - India continues to be a traditional society. There is lack of
effective decentralization.

We can also give reference to the view that it is the result of the Complex interaction of the various forces which has
led to such situation.

What needs to be done?

• As suggested by Amartya Sen there has been a need to strengthen democracy. Government should have
invested in the capacity building of the people.
o It isneeded to promote inclusive growth and growth cannot be an end in itself.
• The very philosophy of neo liberalism needs to be changed – by the government and follow the Indian
constitution principle of welfare state.
• Renewed look to past reforms and corrective measures- It’s high time we have to take the corrective steps it
is also very important that a renewed look is given to the land reform to achieve the objective of redistributive
justice.
• It is also suggested by Martha Nussbaum that the model of development should not be where people are
used as a means and growth is an outcome where economic growth is means and human development is an
outcome.

Conclusion:

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• First of all the very philosophy of development has to be changed as well as the strategy of development has
to be changed. We have to make a shift from a neo-liberal to socio-liberal approach and from state led
development we have to go for people led development , from top down model to bottom up approach, we
have to address corruption, bring transparency and as suggested by 2nd ARC we have to go for citizen centric
governance.

8 a. The success of electoral democracy can be partly be attributed to the status and role of the election commission.

Approach Box

Intro:
• Introduce with the importance of free and fair election in electoral democracy.

Main Body
• What are the factors which leads to successful electoral democracy
• Role of election commission in success of India’s electoral democracy
• Limitations of the commission.

Conclusion
• Conclude with suggestion to enhance the credibility and legitimacy of the institution.

Intro:

According to the elitist theory of democracy the most important indicator of democracy is the free and fair electoral
system. It is enough to regard that country as electoral democracy. India can be seen as the most successful model of
democracy in the third world and it has been recognised as the model by many countries.

Main body

The credit to the success of democracy can be attributed to many factors for example the constitution,
India’stradition,and the values of Indian society. The experiment with parliamentary democracy during British rule and
above all the political will.

However one institution deserves special mention which is election commission. Election commission of India has
been globally recognised for the positive contribution it has made towards the success of electoral democracy. Election
commission enjoys huge respect and as per the survey it has been one of the favourite institutions of the people in
India besides CAG and Supreme Court.

Role of election commission in success of electoral democracy

We should give credit to the vision of constituent assembly which has created a unique institution like the election
commission. Perhaps no other country’s constitution has this type of institution. From Article 324 to 329 Parts 15 of
the constitution deals with the election. It has played the various roles towards the success of electoral democracy
like

1. Free and fair conduct of election - Election commission of India has been entrusted with the power to conduct
elections to Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha,President, vice President and state legislatures.To a large extent nobody
has questioned the fairness of the Election commission on valid grounds.
2. Administrative role- It enjoys vast administrative power with respect to the conduct of election; it also has
unique power in context of formation of electoral rolls, delimitation of constituencies.

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3. Enforcing conduct for elections - Some of the works which election commission has taken on its own towards
strengthening the democratic process is the provision for or practice of enforcing the model code of conduct
to establish the level playing field.
4. Role towards Increasing voter participation and education of the voters to make the democracy participatory
in nature.-
a. Through SVEEP (Systematic Voters' Education and Electoral Participation) the ECI engages an
increasing number of voters in the electoral process and ensures that they do so in an ethical and
inducement-free manner
5. Some recent steps taken to ensure the free and fair elections
a. To prohibit a well-known politician from running for office during the recent Lok Sabha election.
b. Election campaign banned in Kolkata when violence broke out.
c. C-Vigilapp - to protect the credibility of the electoral process.
d. Create a committee for media certification and oversight
6. Recognition outside the nation - Election commission performance has been very good to the extent to that
it has been often recognised even in the developed country as the gold standard.

We should be thankful to the vision of the constituent assembly that they have ensured that a fairly autonomous
election commission has been constituted with the chief election commissioner appointed by the president and the
method of removal is at par with the Supreme Court judges.

The other election commissioner cannot be removed except on the recommendations of the chief election
commissioner, the terms and conditions of chief election commissioner are also quite autonomous.

As election form the base of electoral democracy and representative democracy and election commission has done
an important role though at times there has been an allegation that election commission has not been playing the role
of the levellers or it has been suggested that in the interest of the democracy in India it is essential to make certain
amendments for example w.r.t the system of appointment of the election commissioner because it is still too much
controlled by the political executive and there is a need to change and reform the system of removal of other 2 election
commissioners.

Conclusion:

Election commission has played the significant role and it is essential also for the legitimacy of the system that this
unique institution should be made more powerful toenhance the credibility and providing more teeth to control the
malpractices and power to punish those hindrance to the free and fair election.

8 b. Examine the evolution of the jurisdiction of the supreme court as the constitutional court.

Intro:

• Introduce with the role of the Supreme Court as the constitutional court.

Main Body

• Evolution of the role of Supreme Court as the constitutional court.

• Various judgements by the SC in the role of constitutional court

Conclusion

• Conclude how the SC as constitutional court has protected the sanctity of the constitution.

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Intro:

The constitutional court deals with the interpretation of the constitution and it has the ultimate responsibility to
protect the sanctity of the constitution. Articles 132 and 133 explain that Supreme Court is the ultimate arbiter of the
constitution.

Main Body:

Evolution of jurisdiction of the supreme court as the constitutional court

SC in post independence had all the powers of a constitutional court. It has played a role in the interpretation of the
constitution especially where the substantial question of law was concerned. But its role as the guardian of the
constitution was relatively weak.

We can take the example of the very 1st amendment where SC upheld the amending power of the parliament and
this shows that this was the time of the judicial passivity and the dominance of legislature in the history of Indian
politics. The principal of harmonious construction is used to resolve the dispute between the contradicting articles

Since Keshavanand Bharti case when it has given the doctrine of Basic structure. It has more confidently asserted
the role of the guardian of the constitution as well constitutionalism. The landmark judgment in which the court held
that Parliament has the power to amend any part of the Constitution including Part III provided such amendment does
not impinge upon the “Basic Structure of the Constitution”. In the later cases like Minerva mills case the position of
the basic structure was strengthened.

After that the SC has delivered the various judgements in the authority as the constitutional court which defined the
future of the Indian constitution and SC played the role of guardian of Indian constitution. The major judgements are
as follow:

• Interpretation of relationship between FR and DPSP by SC as the constitutional court

o Champakam Dorairajan case: Fundamental rights are superior to DPSP in their legal status but DPSP
are nevertheless important. A harmony or equilibrium to be achieved b/w fundamental rights and
DPSPs.
o Golaknath Case 1967:- Overruled its earlier judgement and has given distinct supremacy to
fundamental rights.
o Keshavanand Bharati case 1973- Fundamental rights can be amended but without hampering the
basic structure of the constitution.
o Minerva Mills case – Doctrine of Harmonious construction.
• Maneka Gandhi Judgment -1978 –The Court holds that as per Article 21, “procedure established by law” must
be “fair, just and reasonable, not fanciful, oppressive or arbitrary”;
• Indra Sawhney case – Landmark judgment pertaining to reservation for backward classes.Court accepts the
recommendations of the Mandal Commission; excludes “creamy layer” from the purview of reservation
benefits.
• National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India – Transgender persons recognised as third gender with
equal entitlement to all constitutional and legal rights as any other person.
• NJAC (National judicial appointment commission) case 2015 - Court holds that National Judicial
Appointments Commission (NJAC), and the Constitutional amendments involved, is in violation of the
Constitution of India; Collegiums system stays.
• Puttaswamy case- Recognition of right to privacy as the part of fundamental right.

Limitations of the supreme court as the constitutional court

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• SC is overburdened - It is highest court of appeal in both civil and criminal cases hence
o Either we should create a separate constitutional court like exist in western countries like France or
Germany or
o We should establish a separate court of appeal so there is a need to avoid the delay in the court
ordinary work.
• It has done exemplary work as far as constitutional court is concerned but at a time this work has been done
at the cost of disposal of the normal appeals or disposal of the normal business of the cases.
• SC has evolved and has made a distinct mark as the constitutional court. There is a need to go for the
separation and have either the separate highest court of appeal or some other institution like France should
be created.
• At times as a constitutional court it has also been criticized for excessive judicial interventionfor example the
various cases of judicial overreach like National Anthem in the cinema halls, Liquor on the national highways
etc.

Conclusion:

Because of the efforts and role of the Supreme Court as the constitutional court, the sanctity of The Constitution being
called a living document rather than a closed and static rulebook and the Constitution, based on the vision of our
founding father, has remained an object of respect and authority even after half a century

8 c. How caste as a social category is also becoming political category in the democratic politics of India.

Intro:

• Introduce with the role of caste in Indian politics.

Main Body

• Explaining in brief the caste and Politics in India.

• Explain how the caste has become the political category.
• Discuss through various scholar’s the increased politicisation of caste in India.

Conclusion

• Conclude with the extent to which caste has entrenched in Indian politics

Intro:

If we go by political sociology approach politics do not operate in vacuum it is shaped by sociological factors and the
most important sociological factor is caste. According to Christophe jaffrelot Caste forms the mosaic of Indian
politics- It is said that in India people do not cast their vote rather they vote their caste.

Main Body:

Caste as a social category

There has been a consensus among the scholars regarding general characteristics of caste system as a social
category.There four essential features of the caste as the social category they are:

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1. Hierarchy
2. Commensurate
3. Restrictions on marriage
4. Hereditary occupation.

As suggested Ambekar himself that caste forms the basic unit of the Indian/ Brahmanic society.

But over the time the nature of caste has changed and it has taken the status of political category and it has played a
very important role which has been highlighted by scholars or political sociologistlike Andre beteille who has analysed
the role of caste in the Indian politics.

Politicisation of Caste.

The phenomenon of politicisation of caste has been described by Rudolph and Rudolph as ‘modernization of the
tradition’ and ‘traditionalization of modernity’.

How the politicisation of the caste happened in India

• Secularisation
o It shows how politics has changed the nature of caste. Earlier, caste was important for ritual purposes
now caste is important for secular benefits like employment, education etc.
• Integration
o Caste is normally understood as a disintegrative force, but democracy has compelled different castes
to integrate and form alliances for their political aspirations.
• Consciousness
o When caste enters into politics, it develops into a new consciousness. The consciousness gets
politicised. It results in the lower castes becoming aware of their importance.
o Hence they themselves go for autonomous mobilisation in politics e.g. Initially Dalits were led by
Congress but gradually they realised their importance and formed their own party for example -BSP.

Other most important study on the role of caste has been of Rajani Kothari who in his book “the role of caste in Indian
politics “hashighlighted the phenomena of the politicisation of the caste.

• Rajni Kothari holds the success of India’s democracy on caste because caste provided the basis for the vertical
and horizontal mobilisation.
• Not only cast has impacted the politics but politics has also impacted the caste.

The role of caste towards deepening of India’s democratic politics has also been explained by Professor Yogendra
yadav when he talks about the democratic upsurge and there he says that the first democratic upsurge has led to the
dominance of the OBC and second to the dominance of Dalits.

There are other scholars like Andre Battelle, CP Bhambri who believe that caste politics may give some electoral
benefits in the short term but it is detrimental to the national unity in the long term.

But there are scholars like Rajni Kothari, Satish Despande and Yogendra Yadav who highlight that the castes do play
a positive role towards bringing the power at the lower sections.

Caste continues to play a prominent role in elections and formation of political parties. Every political party, specially
the regional parties are the parties of a particular caste.

Then Rudolph and Rudolph in their book in “Pursuit of Lakshmi” has highlighted the role of caste based associations.

Conclusion:

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Considering India as a prismatic society, the people are bound to be mobilised based on the ethnic lines like caste and
religion. Thus we can say that caste is becoming important political category to the extent that we also uses the phrases
like Mandalisation of Indian politics , caste based parties , political groups and mobilisation based on the caste.

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