CHAPTER

ONE

INTRODU

CTION

• 1.1 Background Study

The electric power system is one of the essential infrastructural facilities that are

indispensable to a nation’s economic development (World Bank, 2010). The country's

reliance on fossil fuels and inadequate power infrastructure has resulted in an erratic power

supply, negatively impacting economic growth, industrial development, and the overall

quality of life (Eberhard et al., 2019). As a result, power failures have led to people

purchasing generators for their daily activities, and many businesses are unable to function

due to the lack of a stable power supply.

In recent years, the over-reliance on fossil fuels (approximately 90%) (NERC, 2020) and

the increasing demand for energy have led many nations to adopt renewable energy

sources. Solar energy, in particular, is one of the most promising renewable energy sources,

as it is abundant, clean, and can be generated locally, reducing reliance on grid electricity

(IRENA, 2020). It is also important to note that Nigeria has significant solar resources,

with an average daily solar radiation of 5.5 kWh/m² (NASA, 2022), making it the most

suitable renewable source of energy. An inverter plays an essential role in a solar energy

system, with its main function being to convert DC power to AC power. The DC power is

generated from the solar array

The inverter plays a crucial role in the modern technological world, driven by the rapid

growth of renewable energy. Although the inverter itself does not generate power, it relies
 on a DC source to function (Kumar et al., 2019). By converting direct current to alternating

current, the inverter enables precise variable control of motor speed (Singh & Singh, 2018)

and are widely used in various industrial applications, including pumps, conveyor belts,

and food processing equipment (Rahman et al., 2016).

• 1.2 Statement of Problem

The price of fuel continues to increase in Nigeria (Oyedepo, 2012), leading to a reduction

in the operating hours of the school generator, which is now scheduled to run only

between 11 a.m. and 2 p.m. on specific days of the week. This situation is further

complicated by the increasing demand for electrical energy on the campus. The need for

an alternative energy source has become essential to ensure a reliable power supply in the

Professorial building on the Ikole Campus. This has necessitated the exploration of more

sustainable and cost-effective means of power generation (Akinbami et al., 2016) which

would be beneficial for the faculty and the campus as a whole.

• 1.3 Motivation

The motivation behind this project was the quest to provide an alternative means of

power supply due to the unreliability of the power sector, particularly in the Faculty of

Engineering, Ikole campus.The search for knowledge was also a motivation behind this

project as many skills and new ideas will be acquired during the project execution. More

also to build my practical experience so I can practice as a successful engineer and a

problem solver.

• 1.4 Significance of the Study

 This study on the design and construction of a 3.5kVA solar power system is significant

as it promotes renewable energy sources, enhancing energy security and reducing

dependence on fossil fuels (Oyedepo, 2012). The solar power system provides a reliable

and sustainable energy source, reducing the risk of power outages and associated

disruptions (Bhattacharyya, 2015), while also demonstrating potential cost savings

(Akinbami et al., 2016) and environmental benefits.

Notably, this study showcases the practical application of solar power systems in

converting direct current to alternating current, enabling the operation of various

equipment such as household items, computers, power tools, and more, in academic,

residential, and commercial settings, simply by plugging into the inverter. Additionally,

the study contributes to capacity building and knowledge transfer in renewable energy

(Ilori et al., 2017), and its replicability can promote the adoption of renewable energy

solutions in other institutions and communities (Oyewola, 2019). Overall, this study

supports Nigeria's efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transition to a more

sustainable energy future.

• 1.5 Aim and Objectives of the Project

The aim of this project is to design, construct and install a 3.5KVA solar power system with

energy storage for the professorial building, Federal University Oye-Ekiti (FUOYE) Ikole

Campus.

The objectives are:

 • To design a 3.5KVA solar inverter system as a back-up power supply for the third

floor of the professorial building, FUOYE, Ikole Campus.

• To construct a Solar panel Rack in a car-park structure by which the solar panels

for the solar system will be mounted upon.

• To evaluate the performance of the constructed solar power system using the
oscilloscope and a digital multimeter.

• 1.6 Scope of the Project

The scope of this project encompasses the design, construction, and installation of a

3.5kVA solar power system for the Professorial building in Ikole Campus, with specific

objectives including investigating the problem of unstable power supply, integrating

essential components like batteries, solar panels, and controllers, studying major

electronic components used in the inverter, coupling and testing the system with batteries,

and completing the full installation.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE

REVIEW

• Review of Past Literatures:

This section reviews a few related works that has been done on Solar power systems, inverter

design and construction.

(Singh et al., 2022) conducted a comprehensive review of the current state of the art in solar

power systems, highlighting the latest trends and advancements in system design, component
selection, and performance optimization. The authors emphasized the importance of efficient

power conversion and energy storage in solar power systems, and discussed various techniques

for maximizing energy yield, including system configuration, component selection, and

environmental considerations. They also identified challenges and future research directions in

the field, such as the need for more efficient and cost-effective energy storage solutions.

Overall, the review provides a valuable overview of the current state of solar power systems

and highlights areas for future research and development.

(Patel et al., 2019) presented a case study on a solar-powered water pumping system for
irrigation, highlighting the potential of solar energy for agricultural applications. The authors

designed and installed a solar-powered water pumping system in a rural area, using a 5 kWp

solar array and a centrifugal pump. They evaluated the system's performance over a period of

12 months, monitoring parameters such as water flow rate, pump speed, and solar irradiance.

The results showed that the system was able to pump an average of 45,000 liters of water per

day, with a maximum flow rate of 120 liters per minute. The authors concluded that solar-

powered water pumping systems are a viable option for irrigation in rural areas, offering a

reliable and sustainable alternative to conventional fossil fuel-based systems .

(Zheng et al., 2023) presented a detailed review of the topologies and control strategies for

solar inverters, with a focus on grid-tied and off-grid applications. The authors analyzed the

advantages and disadvantages of various inverter topologies, including voltage-source inverters

(VSIs), current-source inverters (CSIs), and impedance-source inverters (ZSIs). They also

examined the control strategies for maximum power point tracking (MPPT), grid

synchronization, and islanding detection. Additionally, the review covered the latest

advancements in inverter control, including model predictive control (MPC), sliding mode

control (SMC), and fuzzy logic control (FLC). The authors also discussed the impact of

inverter design on grid stability, power quality, and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
(Zheng, Li, & Zhu, 2023).

In the same vein, the 1KVA inverter system designed and constructed by (E. Abioye et al.,

2018) consists of seven circuits to make the complete inverter system, including the oscillator

circuit; current modification circuit; battery low circuit; battery full circuit; rectifying circuit;

change over circuit; delay and timer circuit. The inverter system makes use of a

monostable/astable multivibrator Integrated circuit (IC) known as CD4047 as the oscillator for

the generation of alternating pulses, which serves as the oscillator circuit. The CD4047 was

designed to operate in astable mode, with the alternating pulses obtained from the pin 10 and

11 of the IC. The system current modification circuit consists of IRF150 cascaded Metallic

Oxide Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) with resistors combination at the gate of the

MOSFETs as voltage dividers for biasing the transistors. The battery low and battery full

circuits used LM358 Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) for detection of battery voltage, while

there are LEDs to show either battery full or low. There are relays to control the energizing and

de-energizing of the battery terminal for charging, which these relays were controlled by

BC547 NPN transistors. NE555 timer IC was used for the delay and timer circuit in the inverter

system, with capacitor and resistor combination for the timing. The inverter was designed to be

a 12V based inverter.

Smart grid technologies have revolutionized the way power systems are designed and

operated. According to (Zhang & Liu, 2023), smart grids enable real-time monitoring,

automated control, and improved energy efficiency. Their research focuses on the deployment

of smart meters, demand response systems, and advanced communication networks. They

argue that smart grids enhance the reliability and resilience of power systems, particularly in

the face of increasing energy consumption and climatic variations. The study also discusses the

economic benefits of smart grids, including cost savings and improved asset management.

Differently from the previous work, (Kumar & Sethuraman, 2022) designed a micro off-
grid inverter making use of Resistors, Capacitors, Voltage regulators, CD 4047 IC, OP07 IC, R-

C Circuit, MOSFETs and step-up transformer. The IC 7812 provided a constant 12V DC to

drive the IC CD 4047 whose square wave output is fed through pin 10 and 11 to the R-C three

stage circuits for conversion from square to sinusoidal wave through amplifiers OP07 IC to

boost the waveform voltage from 3.5 V to 7.0 V. The amplified sinusoidal waveform signal was

applied to the gate of MOSFET (IRFZ44N N-channel) combinations. Each set consists of two

MOSFETs connected in parallel to produce voltage with 180° out of phase waveforms at

MOSFET drain terminal and then supplied to center tapped step-up-transformer to produce
constant 230 V AC output voltage at 50 Hz. The voltage regulation was achieved with the help

of a DC-DC Boost Converter. Implementation of photovoltaic modules was left out of the

work.

In another recent study, (Chen & Wang, 2021) explore the integration of renewable

energy sources into power systems. They analyze the challenges and opportunities associated

with incorporating solar and wind energy into existing grids. The authors highlight the

importance of advanced forecasting methods, energy storage, and grid stability mechanisms to

accommodate the variable nature of renewable energy. Their review of case studies

demonstrates how different regions have successfully integrated renewable energy, leading to

reduced carbon emissions and enhanced energy security.

Energy storage is a critical component of modern power systems, addressing the

intermittency of renewable energy sources. (Kumar & Singh, 2022) review various energy

storage technologies, such as batteries, flywheels, and pumped hydro storage. They examine

the technical specifications, cost-effectiveness, and application scenarios of each technology.

Their findings indicate that lithium-ion batteries are currently the most promising solution for

grid-scale energy storage, offering high efficiency and scalability. However, the authors also

point out the need for continued research into alternative storage methods to overcome
 limitations such as degradation and high costs.

Also, the power rating of the inverter can be increased by increasing the number of the power

switching devices and the current rating of the transformer.

Also, (Niaz et al., 2019) designed and constructed a 100Watts inverter. The system was

designed without any microcontroller, as a snubber technology was used to diminish the

reverse potential transients and excessive heat of the transformer winding and transistor

switches. They used the IC 7805 as the voltage regulator. It provided the 5V for biasing all the
the ICs with a 12v/220V transfer for designing a push-pull inverter. Two MOSFETs were used

for switching purpose, the third MOSFET is used to invert the input pulse. NE 555 Timer was

used for generating switching Pulse and IC: 741 comparators were used to provide proper logic

level pulse for triggering two switches distinctly. To get maximum power from solar or

photovoltaic inverters, a Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) System is needed. Without

microcontroller it’s impossible to do sampling and make it pure sine wave. A closed loop

control system is needed to Implement MPPT circuit. Also, more experimental data is needed

to assess the product for commercial usage.

Enhancing the reliability and resilience of power systems is paramount to ensuring

uninterrupted energy supply. In their recent paper, (Johnson & Roberts, 2023) investigate

innovative approaches to improving system reliability. They discuss the implementation of

fault-tolerant designs, predictive maintenance strategies, and robust grid architectures. Their

analysis reveals that incorporating redundancy, advanced diagnostic tools, and machine

learning algorithms can significantly enhance the resilience of power systems against faults and

disruptions. The authors also highlight the importance of regulatory frameworks and standards

in guiding the development of reliable power systems.

Economic feasibility is a crucial aspect of power system design and construction. A

 recent study by (Martinez & Garcia, 2022) provides a comprehensive economic analysis of

power system projects. They evaluate the cost factors involved in the construction and

operation of power systems, including capital expenditure, operational costs, and maintenance

expenses. The authors utilize various economic assessment tools such as cost-benefit analysis,

levelized cost of energy (LCOE), and net present value (NPV). Their study concludes that

while the initial investment in advanced power systems may be high, the long-term economic

benefits, including reduced operational costs and improved energy efficiency, justify the

investment..

Finally, Environmental considerations are increasingly important in the design and

construction of power systems. A recent review by (Green and Adams, 2021) examines the

environmental impacts associated with different power generation technologies. They compare

the carbon footprint, land use, water consumption, and ecological effects of fossil fuel-based

and renewable energy systems. Their analysis underscores the necessity of transitioning to

cleaner energy sources to mitigate climate change and reduce environmental degradation. The

authors advocate for comprehensive environmental impact assessments (EIAs) in the planning

and development of new power projects to ensure sustainable practices..

The figure below shows the block diagram of the 3.5kVA Solar Power inverter

system that we proposed to design.

Figure 2.1 : Block Diagram of the 3.5kVA Solar Inverter

• Solar Energy and Applications

Solar energy is one of the available renewable sources of energy. The use of the sun’s

energy is nothing new and dates back to the rapidly beginning of time. In recent years
 however, the focus on energy consumption worldwide spurred growth in the research and

development of ‟ green” alternative fuel source including the sun, wind, hydro, wave,

geothermal, hydrogen and other forms of energy. And today, because of that focus, the

use of solar energy is expanding by leaps and bounds especially since sunlight is free,

unlimited, readily available, clean and reliable. Solar energy(Rai,2014)has found

application in various are as such as heating of buildings, solar water heating, solar

cookers, solar engines for water pumping, food refrigeration, solar furnaces, etc.

Solar inverters are capable of converting the DC voltage produced by the solar panels
(and from the energy stored in the batteries) into AC voltage. The inverter could also

charge the batteries by using an alternative source such as the mains or generator

connected to the inverter when they are available.

2.2.1 How Solar Energy is Harnessed

There are several methods to capture and utilize solar energy:

• Photovoltaic (PV) Systems: These systems use solar panels composed of semiconductor

cells to convert sunlight directly into electricity. When sunlight hits the PV cells, it knocks

electrons loose, creating an electric current.

• Solar Thermal Systems: These systems use sunlight to heat a fluid, which then produces

steam that drives a turbine connected to a generator to produce electricity. There are different

types of solar thermal systems, including: Flat-plate Collectors (often used for residential

water heating) and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) (Uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate a

large area of sunlight onto a small area to generate high temperatures) which can be used to

produce electricity.

• Solar Heating and Cooling: Solar energy is used to heat buildings and water, and can also

be used in cooling systems through solar-assisted air conditioning.

• Major Components of the3.5kVA Solar Power System.
The major components of a complete solar power system includes;

• 2.3.1 NP Photovoltaic Array

In actual usage, the solar cells (RAI,2014) are interconnected in certain series/parallel

combinations to form modules. These modules are sealed for protection against

Corrosion, moisture, pollution and weathering. A combination of suitable modules

constitutes an array. One square meter of fixed array kept facing south yields nearly

0.5kWh of electrical energy on a normal sunny day of the orientation is adjusted to face

the sun’s rays at anytime, the output can increase by 30 percent. The array may be fixed

arrays or tracking arrays. As the fixed array is usually oriented east west and tilted at an

angle equal to the latitude of the site, the tracking array are moveable and seems more

complex than the fixed. Series arrangement of the modules in the array is to achieve

desired voltage and then when stacked in parallel it is to achieve a desired current.

The solar panel works in two steps; Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by

semiconducting materials, such as silicon and Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose

from their atoms, causing an electric potential difference. Current starts flowing through the

material to cancel the potential and this electricity is captured.

The factor in which the output voltage of the solar cell relies on during its operation is the

disturbances such as solar irradiation and it’s the function of the photocurrent. Equation

(2.1) represents the output current for a PV array which comprises of Ns modules in series

connection and Np parallel connected modules. The voltage and current of the PV array are

represents by Equation (2.2) and (2.3) respectively. The power output of the PV array is

given in equation (2.7) which is the product of output current in (2.3) and output voltage in

(2.2) of PV (Salam et al. 2010; Bellini et al. 2009).

𝐼𝑐= 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙
Where,

𝐼cell = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 a single solar 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐼𝑜= 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒
Vcell = voltage across PV cell
Rs = series resistance
𝐾 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
n = ideality factor
Vt= 𝑡hermal vol𝑡age
𝛽 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Vpv = output voltage
𝑁𝑝= 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙
𝑁𝑠= 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑃𝑝𝑣 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑃𝑉 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦
𝐼𝑝𝑣 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑃𝑉 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦

Figure 2.2: Representation of a PV Panel (Bellini et al. 2009)

In this project photovoltaic modules of four pcs, 300W rating were connected in series -

parallel form to achieve the desired power in terms of current and voltage.

The two ways of connecting solar PV are as follows:

• Series connection

Series connection simply is connecting solar panel positive terminals to negative

terminals of another. It gives output voltage equals the sum total of the voltage of the

entire module in the string and the output current equals the equivalent of the current for a

single solar. In series connection all the currents are equal while the voltages are the sum

of individual voltages.
 By Series connecting, the voltage equals the sum of those panels, being in series, the

amperage is equal.

Figure 2.3: Series Connection of Solar Modules

• Parallel connection

Parallel connection simply is connecting the solar panel positive terminals to positive

terminals of next and negative terminals to negative terminals of next. When using this

type of connection, your voltage remains the same but your amperage is the total sum of

the panels being used. That is to say, it gives output voltage equals the equivalent voltage

of a single solar panel in the string and the output current equals the sum total of all the

current of the solar panel in the string.

By parallel connected solar panel gives more current (amperage) the sum of individual

currents, the voltage is equals.

Figure 2.4: Parallel Connection of Solar Modules

• 2.3.2 Power Inverter

This is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to

alternating current (AC) .The resulting Ac frequency obtained depends on the particular

device employed. Inverters do the opposite of rectifiers which were originally large
 electro mechanical devices converting AC to DC. The input voltage, output voltage and

frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or

circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the battery.

Common input voltages are 12VDC, 24VDC, 36VDC and 48VDC.And the common

output form can be a square wave, sine wave, and modified sine wave. In this project, a

24VDC input was used with a pure sine wave output form.

• 2.3.2.1 Working Principle of The Inverting Unit

The inverting unit is the major working unit of the inverter system. Its working principle

can be divided into three:

• 2.3.2.2 The Oscillator Circuitry

The oscillator circuitry uses TL494 IC for the generation of PWM which is fed to the gate

of the MOSFETs in this inverter system.As mentioned earlier,TL494 is a16-pin IC,from

which its pin 5 and 6 of the IC are responsible for determining the PWM frequency at

which the TL494 outputs oscillates, which finally determines the frequency of the AC

voltage available at the terminal of the transformer. The TL494 generates a fixed

oscillation in its output pins through the charging and discharge of a timing capacitor

connected to pin 5 of the IC in combination with an external resistor connected to the

pin6 of the IC.The capacitor(100nF) and resistor (100kΩ) connected to pin 5 and 6 of the

IC respectively determines the oscillator frequency through the formula:

f = 50Hz
 2.3.2.3 MOSFETs Circuitry

The MOSFETs circuitry has upper MOSFETs (Q1-Q4) and lower MOSFETs (Q5-Q8)

connected to the output pin 9 and pin 10 of TL494 respectively. When pin 9 of the TL494

goes high, the upper MOSFETs switch on, there by conduction takes place, allowing high

current to flow from the 24V DC battery connected to the center-tap of the inverter

transformer, through the upper windings of the transformer, to flow drain to the source of

each of the MOSFETs Q1 to Q4. This forms the first part of the wave form. In this first
part of the waveform, MOSFETs Q5-Q8 are in zero conduction state as their gate has

been pulled down to ground via 4.7kΩ resistor on each of Q5-Q8.

Figure 2.5; MOSFET

• 2.3.2.4 The High Voltage Circuitry.

The high voltage circuitry is the secondary windings of the inverter transformer.In this

part,220V AC is available for connection of electrical loads. This is the output terminal of

the inverter system.

• 2.3.2.5 Transformers

TransformersgenerallyaredevicesusedtoconvertelectricalACvoltagefromoneleveltoanother level

which may be higher or lower. For this project a step-up transformer with Centre tapped

configuration was used as the voltage was increased from 12v to 230v which is the suitable

requirement for the AC loads.

 For an ideal transformer, where the output is equal to input power, i.e
Secondary power (VA) = Primary power (VA)

VsIs = VpIp
……………………………………………………………………………….(i)

Vp = Primary voltage

Ip = Primary current

Vs = Secondary voltage

Is = Secondary current

• 2.3.2.6 Relays

A relay Is an electromechanical device that can be used to make or break an electrical

connection. It is basically a mechanical switch that is controlled by an electronic signal

(through an electromagnet) instead of manually switching and it is used mainly used to control

a high-powered circuit using a low power signal say, to control the high voltage circuit (230V

circuit AC) with the low voltage power supply(a DC voltage).

• 2.3.3. Charge Controller

A charge controller, or charge regulator, as the name implies, is a voltage and current regulator

designed to prevent batteries from overcharging. It limits the rate at which electric current is

added to or drawn from electric batteries to protect against electrical overload and

overcharging, and it may also protect against overvoltage. This helps prevent conditions that

could reduce battery performance or lifespan and pose a safety risk. Depending on the battery

technology, it may also prevent complete discharge (deep discharging) or perform controlled
 discharges.

Common types of charge controllers include Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Maximum

Power Point Tracker (MPPT) technology. An MPPT was chosen for the purpose of this project

because it operates with higher efficiency under various conditions compared to the PWM.

• 2.3.4 Battery

The battery acts as energy storage bank such that it stores energy from the charging action of the

charging circuit in the inverter or from the output of the charge controller connected to the solar

modules. It also acts as power source to the AC loads through the inverting action of the inverter

that converts the DC voltage to AC voltage. The battery can be composed of wet or dry cells.

The wet cell is the adopted package in this project. Batteries come in different configurations

based on the voltage ratings of the most common one are 12V and 24V.

Solar batteries store the electricity generated by solar panels for later use, ensuring a continuous

and reliable energy supply. They are vital for optimizing the efficiency of solar power systems

and enhancing energy independence.

Figure 2.6: A Battery

2.3.4.1 Key Features used in Battery analysis

• Capacity: Measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), it indicates the total amount of energy the

battery can store.

• Depth of Discharge (DoD): Refers to the percentage of the battery's total capacity that
 can be used without damaging the battery. Higher DoD means more usable energy.

• Efficiency: The ratio of energy output to energy input. Higher efficiency means less

energy loss during storage and retrieval.

• Charge and Discharge Rates: Indicates how quickly the battery can be charged or

discharged, measured in kilowatts (kW).

2.3.4.2 Types of Solar Batteries: Storage batteries used in solar power system are majorly

divided into the following sections

2.3.4.3 Lead-Acid Batteries:

(i) Flooded Lead-Acid (FLA): These require regular maintenance and water refilling. They

are cost-effective but have shorter lifespans and lower efficiency. Having a Lifespan of 3-5 years

and a Depth of Discharge (DoD), around 50%.

Figure 2.7: Flooded Lead-Acid (FLA) Battery

(ii) Sealed Lead-Acid (SLA): Includes Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) and Gel batteries. They

are maintenance-free and more efficient than FLA. Having a Lifespan of 4-7 years for AGM, and

5-7 years for Gel batteries. It also has a depth of Discharge (DoD) of 50-60%.

Figure 2.8: Sealed Lead-Acid (SLA) Battery

(iii) Tubular Batteries: Tubular Lead-Acid: These batteries are known for their durability and
longer lifespan compared to other lead-acid batteries. They are commonly used in off-grid solar

systems and have a Lifespan of 5-10 years and Depth of Discharge (DoD) of around 50-70%.

Figure 2.9: A Tubular Battery

2.3.4.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries:

(i) Lithium-Ion (Li-ion): These are popular due to their high efficiency, longer lifespan, and

low maintenance. They are more expensive but offer better performance and a higher depth of

discharge (DoD). Having a Lifespan of 10-15 years and a depth of Discharge (DoD) of 80-90%.

(ii) Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4): Known for its safety, thermal stability, and long cycle

life. Often used in residential and commercial solar systems having a lifespan of 10-15 years and

a Depth of Discharge (DoD) of 80-90%.

2.3.4.5 Considerations for Choosing a Solar Battery:

• System Compatibility: Ensure the battery is compatible with your solar inverter and overall

system design.

• Energy Needs: Match the battery capacity with your household or business energy

consumption patterns.

• Budget: Consider both the upfront cost and long-term savings when investing in solar

batteries.

• Warranty: Check the warranty period and terms to protect your investment.
 2.3.5 Connecting Wires

They are used to connect one component to the other. The generated electricity (electric

current) flows through them to the load. The recommended size of cables is 2.5mm.

2.4 Benefits of Solar Energy

• Renewable and Sustainable: The Sun is an inexhaustible energy source, unlike fossil fuels,

which are finite.

• Environmentally Friendly: Solar energy systems produce no pollution and have minimal

environmental impact compared to traditional energy sources.

• Reduces Electricity Bills: By generating your own electricity, you can reduce or even eliminate

your electricity bills.

• Energy Independence: Using solar energy reduces dependence on imported fuels and enhances

energy security.

• Job Creation: The solar industry creates jobs in manufacturing, installation, and maintenance of

solar energy systems.

2.5 Applications of Solar Energy

For Residential use, Solar panels on rooftops can provide electricity for homes, reduce energy bills,

and contribute to energy self-sufficiency. For Commercial Uses, Businesses can use solar energy to

power operations, reduce costs, and enhance sustainability credentials.

In Industrial Uses, Large-scale solar farms can generate significant amounts of electricity for
industrial processes and the grid. For Rural Electrification; In remote areas without access to the

grid, solar energy can provide a reliable and sustainable power source.

Finally in Transportation, Solar energy is used in some electric vehicles and solar-powered chargers

for electric vehicles.

CHAPTER

METHODO

LOGY

• 3.1 Introduction

This chapter explains the different parts and components used in the design, construction

and installation of the 3.5KVA solar power system, the step by step working principle of

the inverter system and the overall methodology employed in the installation process of

the solar power system.

The 3.5KVA solar power system uses a standalone inverter system based on 24V battery

bank(two 12V batteries in series connection) and six photo voltaic cells(PV) as the source

of energy to recharge the inverter system battery as shown in figure 3.1

Figure 3.1: Block diagram showing the inverter system

3.2 The Solar Panel Unit

The solar panel is basically a PN junction diode that converts sunlight directly to electricity. The

working principle of solar panel is based on the photovoltaic effect.

3.2.1 Panel Configuration and Arrangement

For the 3.5 kVA solar system, 4 units of 300W mono crystalline solar panels were used. The

panel configuration was designed to optimize energy output while ensuring compatibility with

the system's electrical requirements. 4pcs of panels were arranged in 3 rows, with 4 panels per

row. In each row, two panels were connected in series to form a pair, resulting in 6 pairs. The two

pairs in each row were then connected in parallel, creating 3 sub-arrays. The 3 sub-arrays (rows)

were connected together in series, forming the final array configuration. Each pair (2 panels in

series): 600W, 60V, 10A. Each sub-array (2 pairs in parallel): 1200W, 60V, 20A. Final array (3

sub-arrays in series): 3600W, 180V, 20A

Figure 3.2: 300W Solar Panels (PV Cells)

3.2.2 Panel Mounting Structure

To create a sturdy and angled mounting structure for the solar panels, a framework of

galvanized steel pipes was designed and constructed. The structure consists of:

i. Galvanized steel pipes (9ft and 8.6ft) as support columns

ii. Horizontal pipes for panel mounting and bracing

iii. Pipe fittings (elbows, tees, couplers) for connections

3.2.3 Construction Steps

• Layout: I marked out a rectangular area of 12ft x 11.5ft to define the solar array rack's

footprint.

• Column Installation: I dug holes for the vertical pipes, setting the tallest pipe (9ft) at the

highest point and the shortest pipe (8.6ft) at the lowest point, creating a slope of about

30° .

• Frame Assembly: I connected the horizontal pipes between the vertical columns, forming

a rectangular frame while using pipe fittings to secure connections.

• Bracing: I added diagonal bracing pipes to ensure structural stability and prevent racking.

• Panel Mounting: I Attached panel mounts to the horizontal pipes, spaced to

accommodate the solar panels then placed the connected panel array on it.

3.3 The Charge Controller Unit

To regulate the energy flow from the solar array to the battery bank, a 45A MPPT (Maximum

Power Point Tracking) charge controller was selected and installed.:

3.3.1 Installation Procedure: I mounted the charge controller in a well-suited area, close to the

battery. Then I Connected the battery bank’s terminal to the charge controller's input terminal.

Then I connected the solar array terminal to the charge controller's input terminal.
 Figure 3.3: MPPT Charge Controller

• 3.4 The Battery Unit

The battery of the system receives energy to recharge from the combined power from the PVs.

The battery units are 240Ah,12V each, combined in series for obtaining 24V, as this is required

for the inverter circuit of the solar system. Also, the battery management unit linked with the

charge controller is responsible for the control of the following:

• Charging voltage: the maximum charging voltage for 24V battery systems based

on lead acid chemistry is 28.5V. At this voltage, the battery system will optimally

charge from boost charging mode till it enters float charging mode. The float

charging is also called maintenance charging, which is to keep the battery terminal

potential at a charged state while the battery is in rest mode.

• Charging current: the charging current for acid-based batteries is 20% of the rated

capacity of the battery. For this case, this is calculated as below:

charging current = 20% of Battery rating

Total battery rating = 240 Ah

battery charging current = 20% 𝑜𝑓 240

Figure
3.4; Charging Circuit Diagram

• Discharge of the battery: the MPPT charger has a battery state indicator which

shows the user the instantaneous state of the connected battery system ensuring the

battery discharges without dropping below 23.25V.

 Figure 3.5: The 240 Ah Battery Unit

• 3.5 The Inverter Unit

The first step was to connect the Center-tapped transformer correctly to step-up the switching DC

voltage. First, I identified the primary winding (low resistance side) of the inverter transformer

and located the center tap. Next, I connected the center tap to the inverter circuit's neutral point or

ground, making sure it was secure. Then, I connected the upper and lower ends of the secondary

winding to the inverter's DC output terminals, double-checking my work. Finally, I ensured the

secondary side had a 220V AC output connection, with high voltage and low current, while the

primary side had low voltage and high current.

The transformer winding and calculations is as

below: Secondary winding voltage: 12V-0V-

12V = 24V

Secondary winding current:

Primary winding voltage: 220V

Assumed efficiency: 90% = 0.9

Primary winding current:

Copper gauge for primary winding (20A current): 14 AWG

Copper gauge for secondary winding (167A current):12AWG (six 12AWG combined in parallel)
 Figure 3.6: The center-tap transformer(12-0-12) and the24VDC fan for the inverter

circuit

• IRF3205 (Metallic Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors): the

MOSFET was added to enable switching on the secondary side of the transformer. I

selected the IRF3205 MOSFET, capable of handling over 100A on its drain terminal,

making it perfect for voltage regulation and power conversion. To achieve the required

current handling capacity, I used four IRF3205 MOSFETs, two for the HIGH side and

two for the LOW side of the transformer. Next was to connect each MOSFET, ensuring

proper placement and thermal management to prevent overheating. With the four

MOSFETs in place, then it was confident that the inverter could now handle over 400A,

enabling efficient and reliable power conversion.

• TL494 Integrated Circuit (IC): The 16-pin TL494 IC, with maximum operating

voltage of 42V, which is however powered from 12V in this case for optimal

performance and to prolong the lifespan of the IC. The IC was implemented to

provide a stable oscillator frequency for the PWM generator and oscillates within the

frequency range of 1kHz - 300kHz with the oscillator timing capacitor (connected to pin

5) within the range of 0.4nF -10,000nF, and the oscillator timing resistor within the range

of 1.8kΩ - 500kΩ

Figure 3.7: The Pin Configuration of TL494 IC

• LM7812linearvoltageregulatorIC:thisisalinearvoltageregulatortoregulatehe12V

DC used by the inverter circuit oscillator The input voltage to the LM7812 is 12V

DC from the battery, with a 35V 1000uF electrolytic capacitor to smoothen the

voltage across the input to the voltage regulator. The output of the LM7812 is also
 havingan electrolytic capacitor to smoothen

the12VDCappearingattheterminalsofTL494.

Figure 3.8; LM7812 IC

• Fan: A 24V DC fan is implemented in the inverter circuit, in order to blow to the

heat sinks used in the inverter circuit for cooling the heat sinks, indirectly cooling

the MOSFETs of the inverter.

• Heat-sink: the heat sink is used in the inverter system extract the heat from the

MOSFETs.

The MOSFETs in the inverter will heat up during operation as a result of high current

flow. The heat on these MOSFETs cannot be dissipated to any extent due to low surface

area of the MOSFETs. In order to extract this heat, heat sinks are added to serve as heat

transfer medium by increasing the surface area for heat dissipation through the vents

behind these heat sinks.

3.5.6 AC and DC voltmeter: a voltmeter is necessary in electronic circuit to measure

voltage across a particular circuit, such as the battery in this case. The battery voltage is

displayed on the DC voltmeter connected across the battery, while an AC voltmeter is

connected across the AC output terminal.

Figure 3.9: Image showing the combined circuit diagram of the inverter

CHAPTER 4

CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND DISCUSSION

• 4.1 Construction

A solar-powered system provides power backup for mains-based appliances in the event

of a power failure. Many of the solar-powered systems available in the market have

complicated circuit designs and are not very economical. Some of them produce a square-

wave output, which is undesirable for inductive loads. In this project, we designed a sine

wave inverter circuit that produces a 50Hz quasi-sine wave output using a single TL494

IC and some discrete components, making it a very cost-effective solution.

Below is the result of the construction and installation work done at the Professorial
building, Ikole Campus

Figure 4.1: Image of final project work

4.2 MAINTENANCE OF SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS

Solar panels have no moving parts, and therefore no potential points of mechanical failure. As a

result, a properly installed PV system requires very little maintenance. After the installation of

the solar system, the best maintenance practice is to inspect the equipment, especially the

batteries and modules, to ensure all electrical contacts are tight. We can keep the solar system

operational through maintenance techniques which include:

4.2.1. Solar PV Maintenance

You should wash the PV array during the cool part of the day when there is a noticeable buildup

of dust and dirt. Periodically inspect the system to ensure all wiring and supports are intact.

Additionally, check for tree growth that may be shading your modules, and also inspect for birds’

nests in your modules and junction boxes.

4.2.2. Battery Maintenance

The battery is a very important component in the solar system. For long life, the battery should

be cleaned monthly, the electrolyte level should be checked, and it should be kept in a high state

of charge. When cleaning batteries, be cautious of the battery acid and avoid shorting the

terminals. Carry the battery outside when cleaning to prevent acid spills, and keep plenty of

water nearby to rinse any spills.

4.3 General precautions to be carried on the system include:

• Observe the tightness of screws on all connector strips, controls; switches, etc. make sure that

they are well chewed. This is mostly important for old or exposed wire.

• Look at the junction boxes to make sure that insects have not build house there, and also

make sure they are watertight when exposed to the environment.

• Inspect the fuses to ensure no one is blown. If blown, find the cause and replace or repair

with a new one of the same size.

• Inspect the indicator lamps on the charge controller. The solar charge controller indicator
 should be ON when the sun is up. If is not ON. Check to see if batteries are being charged.

• 4.4 Testing

The physical realization of the project is very important. This is where the entire concept

moves from fantasy to reality. I not only set the work on paper but also completed it as a

finished hardware product. After carrying out all the design and analysis, the project was

implemented and tested to ensure its functionality and was finally constructed to meet the

desired specifications. The process of testing and implementation involved the use of some

test and measuring equipment, as stated below:

Firstly, the bench power supply was used to provide voltage to the various stages of the

circuit during the breadboard testing before soldering. Additionally, during the soldering of

the project, the power supply was used to test various stages before they were finally

soldered. After the final construction, the following were used to test and measure the

overall performance.

4.4.1 Oscilloscope: this was used to observe the oscillator waveform output to ensure the

waveforms were correct and180 degrees out of phase. The driver and the MOSFET gate

were also checked.

• Figure 4.2: Oscilloscope with output waveform

4.4.2 Digital multimeter: This basically measures voltage, resistance, continuity, current
frequency, and temperature. The process of implementation of the design on the board

required the measurement of parameter like voltage, continuity, current resistance values

of component and in some cases frequency measurements. The digital multimeter was

used to check frequency of the oscillator stage, also for the general trouble shootings of the

project construction.

• 4.5 Electrical Energy Audit

The electrical energy audit is being conducted to evaluate the efficiency and performance

of the electrical systems in the building. The scope of the audit includes all the lighting,

fans, charging sockets, televisions, and other resistive loads in the offices that we intend to

power in the aforementioned Professorial buildings. The table below shows all the loads

and their respective ratings:

• Table 4.1 Electrical Energy Audit

Load Number Unit rating Total rating

Florescent bulb 15 3W 750w

Fan 12 75 W 360w

Florescent bulb 50 6W 250w

Socket outlets 12 180 W 2160 W

Total 3405 W

• 4.6 Load against duration

Duration of Operation of the Inverter. Household appliances such as TV sets, Radio

 Cassette players, fan, computer system, as well as lighting bulbs were connected to the

inverter and the duration was measured as shown table 4.2. The outcome of this test shows

that as the electrical load connected to the inverter system increases, the duration of the

inverter decreases. Therefore, the load connected to the inverter system is inversely

proportional to the duration of the system.

• Table4.2: Time Duration Based On Load

LOAD (KW) TIME DURATION (HOURS)

1 9

2 4.5

3 3

3.5 2.57

Figure 4.3: Real time test graph

Table 4.2: Calculated Load to time duration.

LOAD (W) TIME DURATION (HOURS)

1KW 9hrs

2KW 4.5hrs

3KW 3hrs

3.5KW 2.57hr
 Figure. 4.4: Calculated Load to time curve.

The graph in fig. 4.4 shows the variation of load on the inverter with respect to time is

called the load curve of inverter. The load on an inverter does not remain constant; it

changes from time to time. These changes in the load on an inverter during whole day

(i.e.for 24 hours) are recorded

half-hourly or hourly and are plotted with respect to time on the graph. The obtained graph

is called the daily load curve on the inverter.

• 4.7 Analysis of Inverter performance

After successful testing of the inverter, the response was satisfactory. Even when

inductive loads were connected, no humming noise or damage was observed in the entire

system. The approach used for the construction was very reliable and can therefore be

recommended for reproduction. For this design, it is advisable not to exceed a load of

3.5kW to maintain the reliability and performance of the inverter system. Moreover, the

system is well-structured and simple, making maintenance or the replacement of any

damaged components very easy.

Table4.3 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Estimation (BEME)

S/N Items Value Price(N

1 IC 1 SG3525 1,0

2 IC2 LM741 50

3 IC3 LM741 50

4 IC4 NE555 50

5 C4 470µf 30
6 T3 3.5KW,24V/240V 600

7 Q3, Q4 2N2222 20

8 RL1, RL2 24V, 400 Ω 50

9 RG1 7824 40

10 RG2 7811 40

11 BR1 Bridge rectifier 1,0

12 C1 0.1µf 20

13 C2 1000µf 15

14 C3 470µf 20

15 R2 150KΩ 7

16 R1,R6,R5,R7,R9,R14,R16 1KΩ 35

17 R3, 6KΩ 7

18 R4 100KKΩ 7

19 R8,R13,R10 10KΩ 15

20 VR1,VR2,VR3,VR4 150KΩ 40

21 R12 200Ω 10

22 R11 1500Ω 7

23 R15 1MΩ 10

24 MOSFET1-48 IRFP4668(520W) 96,

25 T1 240V/12V 1,0

26 16mmsg 2KW,240/26V 6,0

27 D1,D2 LED 20

28 SWITCH 63W 20

29 DC VOLTMETER 12V 3,5

Sub-Total 713
30 AC VOLTMETER 240V 3,500.00

31 OUTPUT SOCKET 3.5KW, 240V 1,500.00

32 COOLING FAN 12V 3,000.00

33 IRON SHEET - 15,000.00

34 PAINT - 5,000.00

35 BATTERY x2 12V,230mAH 590,000.00

36 40m DC/AC CONNECTING WIRE 40m 208,000.00

37 AC wire Colman 20m 60,000.00

38 BATTERY CONNECTOR - 8,000.00

39 MISLLENEOUS - 20,000.00

40 BATTERY RACK 40,000.00

2x40A,AC,
DC and AC breakers 20,000.00
41 2x63A,DC

42 Voltage Regulator 1 13,000.00

43 Transportation and Logistics 79,500.00

44 Solar panels 4 x 300W 440,000.00

45 Charge Controller Construction 1 221,500.00

Sub-Total 1,740,000.00

Grand Total 2,

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• 5.1 Conclusion

The application of our engineering knowledge to solve problems is something

desperately needed in our society, and this project provided that opportunity. By

implementing this project, I have successfully made the Professorial building less reliant

on grid-supplied energy, which should boost productivity.

The project was a 3.5kVA solar-powered system designed to serve as a backup power

supply, capable of withstanding substantial loads without any variation in output voltage.

The methodology employed involved using an IC (TL494) to generate a sinusoidal wave,

then using MOSFETs and a transformer for final amplification, making the system ready

for use.

The aims of the project were achieved, as the system is capable of providing a 3.5kVA

pure sine wave AC voltage backup power supply to the first floor of the Professorial

building.

• 5.2 Limitations of the project

As a general knowledge, no system can be 100% efficient no matter how great the

design, and problem that it aims to solve. Hence, the following are the limitations of the

solar power system:

• Highly Inductive loads should not be connected to the inverter.

 • The battery temperature should be examined constantly,to avoid overheating.

• Loads that have heating element should not be connected to the inverter

• 5.3 Recommendations for future works

The power inverter can operate safely and effectively on a flat, dry surface, but it must be

protected from hot weather and kept close to the battery supply to receive a direct and

clear signal. A system that is not overloaded with high power ratings would be beneficial.

Although the project goals were met, the inverter cannot be used to power equipment

with higher power ratings. Additionally, any variations in the AC input are reflected in

the inverter output when the inverter is powered by a mains source. Therefore, further

research could focus on improving this aspect of the project.

• Adding more batteries in order to extend the battery duration.

• Converting the inverter to act like a UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply) through an

additional Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR).

• The power capacity of the system can be improved by increasing the number of

MOSFET in the inverter.

• A maximum power point tracking mechanism should be adopted to increase the panel

exposure to sunlight with respect to the incorporated solar panels.

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