EDU 303

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE METHODS

COURSE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Unit 1 Agricultural Education
Unit 2 The Teacher of Agricultural Science
Unit 3 The Task of Agricultural Teacher
Teaching and Learning in Agricultural Sciences
Unit 1 Tools for Agricultural Science Teaching
Unit 2 Teaching Aids in Agriculture
Unit 3 The Teaching-Learning transactions in Agricultural
Education
Unit 4 Teaching Techniques and Procedure in Agricultural
Science
Unit 4 Social Factors in the teaching of Agricultural Science
Methodology of Agricultural Science Teaching
Unit 1 Teaching Methods in Agricultural Science
Unit 2 Planning and Managing School Agricultural
Programmes
Unit 3 Evaluating Agricultural Education Programme
Module 4 Preparation for Agricultural Science Teaching
Unit 1 Agricultural Science Curriculum and Syllabus
Unit 2 Scheme of Work and Lesson Plan
Unit 3 Teaching Practice
Unit 4 Teaching Practice: Preparation and Implementation

The Concept of Agricultural Education

Agricultural Education is a formal instruction in the science and art of agriculture and
agricultural practices offered or organized in institutions of learning. It is aimed at finding
scientific solutions to practical farming problems. In global definition, education itself is
the development of the whole man. Agricultural Education is an essential aspect of our
educational set up because it educates youths of the tremendous opportunity in agro-
business and exposes them to vast store of knowledge available for anyone contemplating
big time agricultural farming.
Approached from a more professional perspective, Agricultural
Education is the systematic planning and implementation of teacher education curriculum
and programmes intended for training teachers of agriculture; qualified in both subject
matter mastery and pedagogy. It is any form of formal and institutionalized training in the
science and art of teaching agriculture at any level of education be it primary, secondary
or tertiary. One of the major purposes of Agricultural Education is to apply the
knowledge and skills learned or acquired from different disciplines to agricultural
production.
Scope of Agricultural Education
Agricultural Education goes beyond skills and knowledge development in that students
acquire appropriate values and attitudes to develop an understanding of:
i. the significance of agriculture in the global society and the
Nigerian society in particular, through the application of scientific and business principles
and problem solving strategies;
ii. the interdependency and relationship between agriculture, environment and the
economy.
Aims and objectives of Agricultural Education at primary level in
Nigeria
Traditionally, the primary school level of Agricultural Education curriculum was
designed to address the following objectives:
i. inculcating in pupils the ability to appreciate and interprete the environment in a
scientific way;
ii. developing in the pupils a positive attitudinal disposition and interest in agriculture
iii. exposing young children to modern methods and technologies of agriculture
iv. developing in children an understanding and appreciation of agriculture as a vocation
v. developing and understanding of the contributions of agriculture
to the economy of the nation and the community
vi. developing and fostering the spirit of inquiry, inquisition and creativity in children.
In summary therefore, agricultural curriculum at pre-professional and pre-vocational
levels was intended to children who would be in harmony with agriculture as practiced in
their immediate environment (Amadi &
Udo, 2018).
3.2 Philosophical Background of Agricultural Education in
Nigeria
3.2.1 Traditional Methods
The history of agricultural education in Nigeria can be traced back to those olden days of
traditional farming. Starting from childhood, children are trained through apprenticeship
experience by their parents or relations. Apart from the acquisition of relevant traditional
skills in tilling the soil, weeding and harvesting, farming apprenticeship also inculcate the
spirit of discipline and endurance. Hence in many parts of Nigeria, the cultural heritage in
agriculture is being passed from one generation to another through the informal
apprenticeship system
Developments in Agriculture
In the early 20th century the British Colonial government got committed to the task of
improving agricultural resources in Nigeria by carrying out a range of research on crops,
as well as training of agricultural staff needed for research and extension. This
commitment led to the establishment of five schools of agriculture in Nigeria between
1920 and 1960. These schools were located at Moor plantation in Ibadan in Oyo State.
Others were located at Akure in Ondo State, Umudike in Abia State, Zaria in Kaduna
State and Kabba in Kogi State. Later on a rural training center was established at Asaba.
The major objectives of these schools included the preparation of competent extension
workers to help Nigeria farmers improve their production techniques. It was also
recognized that the youths needed to be initiated into improved farming rather than to
continue under the traditional apprenticeship system. This awareness led to the
introduction of Gardening and Nature study into primary school curriculum as a way of
improving technical agricultural education in
Nigeria.
The inclusion of Gardening and Nature Study in primary school curriculum necessitated
for the adequate supply of qualified teachers to man the subjects at the level of primary
schools and teacher training colleges. With the Nigeria independence in 1960
and people’s awareness of the rapid improvement in Nigeria’s
agricultural resources, the various regional and later, state governments in
Nigeria introduced the teaching and learning of agricultural science in the secondary
schools.
3.3 Agricultural Science Education in the Nigerian Secondary
Schools system
The teaching of Agricultural Science education in Nigeria secondary schools was first
initiated in 1967. The curriculum in agriculture was jointly developed by the Nigerian
Educational Research Development Council (NERDC) and West Africa Examination
Council (WAEC). The main objectives of introducing the teaching of agricultural science
in secondary schools include:
1. encouragement of students in the use of their hands;
2. the appreciation for the dignity of labour;
3. familiarity with biological processes and thereby instilling rationality in the students;
4. increasing self-sufficiency and self-reliance in food productionstudents to produce part
of their food needs and improve their diet and thus minimize the cost of feeding in their
secondary schools. At the beginning, the number of years agricultural science was taught
as a school subject varied from one school to the other depending on the administration
of the school as well as the availability of teachers.
However, the formal recognition and integration of Agricultural Science as one of the
WAEC subjects has unified the duration of the subject as it is now taught both
theoretically and practically. The school farm or garden serves as land laboratory as it is
often used as a means of providing practical experience for the students.
Agriculture as a Profession
Today, farming is a business, (involving many scientific practices), which has become
highly organized, specialized and mechanized. Production, management and marketing
problems are becoming more complex and competition between farmers becomes keener
each year. In order to be successful, the farmer must be able to assess problem situations
quickly and make rational decisions, if necessary, with the help of professional teachers
and/or extension staff.
3.4.1 Qualifications Required for Entry
Training opportunities for various agricultural occupations exist in colleges of education,
schools of agriculture and university faculties. The basic entry qualifications include
passes in some science subjects at the
General Certificate of Education (GCE) Ordinary Level or the West
African School Certificate (WASC) or Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination
(SSCE). Training lasts between two and four years in different occupations designed to
equip the students with saleable skills. Certificates obtainable in the field of agriculture
include:
1. National Diploma (OND)
2. Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE)
3. Higher National Diploma (HND)
4. Postgraduate Diploma (PGD)
5. Bachelor of Agriculture (B.Agric)
6. Bachelor of Science/Tech. (B.Sc., B. Tech.)
7. Masters of Science/Tech. (M.Sc., M. Tech.)
8. Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
3.4.2 Careers in Agriculture
Opportunities for career development in agriculture are as many as the area of
specialization. These include;
3.4.2.1 Crop Production
1. Agronomy
2. Crop Protection
3. Horticulture
4. Crop breeding
3.4.2.2 Soils and Surveying
1. Soil science
2. Farming planning
3. Soil ecology
4. Soil conservation
5. Fertilizer programming
6. Soil testing
7. Soil Physics/Chemistry
8. Pedology
3.4.2.3 Animal Production/Fishery
1. Fish farming
2. Animal nutrition
3. Animal husbandry
4. Animal Pathology
5. Animal health
3.4.2.4 Agricultural Engineering/Mechanization
1. Tractor driving
2. Tractor maintenance
3. Small equipment (spraying and tillage) mechanic
4. Farm mechanization
5. Building of farm structures
3.4.2.5 Processing
1. Food Chemistry
2. Food engineering
3. Confectionery and preservation
4. Food administration
5. Catering and home management
3.4.2.6 Research
1. Soils; crop production
2. Food manufacturing and marketing
3. Livestock; fisheries
4. Meteorology
5. Rural Sociology and extension
3.5 Types of Agricultural Education
Agricultural education can be classified into four types; namely
1. General type
2. Vocational type
3. Pre-vocational type
4. Technical type
5. Professional type
3.5.1 General Type
This type of agricultural education has the objective of including agriculture in the
general education of the students and it is not intended for them to make specific
vocations or occupations. It is just simply to make it as part of their general educations.
For instance, where students are taught how to grow plants and raise animals, identify
and control insects.
3.5.2 Vocational Type
The field of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) recognizes
Agricultural Education as one of its component programmes.
Here, the objective is to prepare students for a specific vocation in agriculture. This is
often offered in agricultural schools where students are engaged in the actual farming. It
is also intended for people who are experienced in farming and who want to take farming
as an occupation in the future. Beneficiaries of this form are made to acquire
psychoproduction skills, knowledge, values and attitudes requisite to effective
engagement in agricultural production as a useful economic venture.
3.5.3 Pre-vocational Agriculture
The specific objective of agricultural education under this curricular arrangement simply
is to introduce learners to the fundamentals of agriculture and therefore not intended to
make specific vocations or occupations out of it. Emphasis here is primarily on how to
make cultivate crops, rear farm animals and manage diseases and pests at sub
professional and vocational levels.
3.5.3 Technical Type
This form of agricultural education is designed to produce specialists at craft or sub
professional level in such areas like farm mechanization, plant breeding, horticulture,
animal husbandry, fisheries and aquaculture, pest control among others. It may also
include training technical experts in plant propagation or animal breeding. Sometimes
this is equivalent in level to technical colleges and some colleges of education
THE TEACHER OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
The Term Teaching
The term teaching is generic as it encompasses the ideas of helping to develop a desire to
learn; having a dedication to passing information to others; being aware of the needs of
your students and helping them to achieve them. It also includes knowing where to find
required information and the ability to communicate these in the most effective manner to
the students, as well as acting as a catalyst in developing ideas. Teaching could be said to
be an attempt to help someone acquire requisite skills, values, attitudes and knowledge.
Teaching of agriculture therefore is the process of facilitating the acquisition of requisite
psychoproduction skills
in different areas of specialty in the field of agriculture.
3.1.2 The Teacher
A successful teacher is one who teaches effectively, making use of his acquired
professional experience. Teacher effectiveness is a concept that
tries to define the capacity of a teacher to achieve desired professional

The Role of the Teacher of Agriculture

In defining the teacher’s role, it should be stated that the function of
the teacher in the classroom is to help his pupils acquire skills in different subject areas.
The role of the teacher of agricultural science can be observed through the following
ways;
1. He imparts skills in his subject’s discipline and to use the various ways
and means to aid his pupils to learn how to employ their talents to acquire the skills the
teacher wishes them to have.
2. He relates with the community particularly in the area of land acquisition for the
school farm and in input acquisition.
3. He also assists the community to solve some problems facing the farmers.
4. As the manager of the school farm, s/he may be responsible for the sales and
distribution of the school farm products.
5. In schools, the agricultural science teacher may also double as the labour master who
sees to the maintenance of the school environment.
Personal Qualities of an Agricultural Science Teacher
Top Qualities of an Effective Teacher of Agriculture
The skills needed for effective teaching involve more than just exrpertise in an academic
field. The teacher of agriculture must be able to interact with people and help them
understand a new way of looking at the world around. As a teacher, you are a role model
who sets the tone for the class.
If you are able to show enthusiasm and commitment, your students are more likely to
reciprocate. Conversely, when you are negative, unprepared, or impatient, these qualities
will reflect in the attitudes of your students towards learning engagements.
Specific personal qualities of an effective teacher of agriculture include the following:
3.3.1 Farming Experience
Traditional experience or training in agriculture is achieved by being raised or reared on a
farm by parent farmers or having offered agricultural science as a subject or course of
study in the school
Rural Mindedness
Teachers of agriculture are generally expected to cultivate an attitude of rural
mindedness, which is being empathetic with rural people and their farming activities. The
must always come down to the level of the rural people/farmers so as to be
readily acceptable to the “ruralites” as against being seen from the
perspective of an alien trying to invade their privacy or culture and tradition.
3.3.3 Character and Personality
The teacher of agriculture must maintain a high ethical standard while enjoying good
relationships with colleagues, pupils as well as members of the host community, must be
amiable, reliable, trustworthy and charismatic.
3.3.4 Confidence
The teacher must have absolute self-confidence to teach successfully.
This requires careful preparation of lessons and instructional materials well in advance,
location and identification of other relevant teaching
resources so that he can impart his knowledge efficiently.
3.3.5 Appearance
The teacher of agriculture should dress neatly as other members of staff and encourage
his/her pupils to keep classroom and tools clean and tidy.
He should not be superfluous and flamboyant but be moderately dressed always. As a
matter of fact, cleanliness should be his identity tag
3.3.6 Dedication to Duty
The teacher of agriculture unlike other teachers, is engaged in full time teaching
activities, that is, if for instance something happens to the chicken or any other livestock
kept in the school farm at any time of the day, the teacher may be called upon to take care
or even give account of situations. He is therefore not at liberty to act or conduct himself
without caution at all times. He must be ever ready to address issues and challenges as
they confront him time and time again
3.3.7 Correct Attitude
The teacher must adopt the right attitude towards work, colleagues, pupils and the
community. He should cooperate with stakeholders within and outside the school and,
accept criticism and praise alike and work for the benefit of the school rather than for
personal interests. He should be selfless and ever willing to accept others and their
varying opinions. The beginning teacher needs time to develop these qualities and this a
challenge to him as he struggles to find his feet.
3.4 Problems and Challenges of Beginning Teachers of
Agriculture
3.4.1 Teaching as profession
Experience has shown that not everybody can engage in teaching effectively and
successfully, hence, the need for teacher’s pedagogical preparation
through training and exposure to relevant learning experiences at both pre-service and in-
service levels. By the nature of his calling, the agricultural science teacher has a lot of
contacts to make with other people unlike teachers in other disciplines. He is an opinion
moulder a leader, a follower and indeed a rural-minded person. This situation gives rise
to a lot of expectations from people he comes in contact with as well as those whose
needs and interests are primarily his responsibility to address. This is a critical challenge
to the beginning teacher of agriculture as he struggles to meet these expectations.
3.4.2 School Organization and Administration
A teacher of agriculture has contact with different administrations or principals
characterized in many ways, some being cooperative or antagonistic, good or bad, high-
handed or easy-going; some with different leadership styles and dispositions – be it
democratic, autocratic, authoritative, laissez faire etc. The teacher of agriculture also has
interactions and relationships with other teachers and non-teaching staff of the school etc.
These varying characteristics and dispositions could present some form of challenges as
the beginning teacher is always expected to be humble, obedient yet, assertive and
resolute with quality service delivery.
3.4.3 Transition from the Institution of Study to the School System
The term “student” is infectious as the saying goes! When students are
in school, regardless of their ages, or parental background, they behave alike as children
but when they are out of school and probably employed, they need to behave responsibly.
There is also a task of being able to apply what is learnt in the school to real life. The
beginning teacher of agriculture is therefore readily confronted with adjusting socially
and psychologically as he transits from school into the world of work.
Relationship with Pupils
The success of a teacher to a very large extent depends on his relationship with the
students. If it is cordial, one enjoys the teaching profession. The teacher should not be the
cause of a strained relationship between him and his pupils. The teacher should
be interested in his pupil’s problems and readily yield to attending to their
needs. The nature of agriculture with reference to practical farm work tends to scare
pupils away but the beginning teacher of agriculture can help them to improve on their
wrong perceptions. This he can do by being friendly, amiable and charismatic in his
approach.
3.4.5 Relationship with Fellow Teachers
There may be conflicts between the agricultural science teacher and colleagues because
of the exigencies of some agricultural activities.
Experience has shown that sometimes other teachers tend to be unfriendly and
antagonistic with the teacher of agriculture just because he controls the dispensation of
farm proceeds. The beginning teacher of agriculture should go about such challenges
placidly and should as much as possible, refrain from open criticism of others and should
avoid dabbling into unhealthy school politics.
3.4.6 The Teacher and Community
The teacher should be ready to engage in healthy and meaningful relationship and
association with members of host community of his school. This is the only way
he can tap into the community’s resource base harnessing both human and
material resource to aid his teaching functions and tasks. Communities are always a
repository of resource persons, places and materials that the teacher of agriculture can
explore to his advantage. The teacher can as well give professional advice to community
farmers alike, settle disputes, provide training and extension intervention in areas of
mechanization, plant and animal breeding and husbandry, harvesting and post-harvest
cultural practices to create or add value to the market potentials.
THE TASKS OF THE TEACHER OF AGRICULTURE
Classroom Teaching
3.1.1 Lesson Planning
Planning simply means putting down actions to be taken and steps to be involved in
taking such actions. Planning what to teach is a very important and indispensable
component of the teaching-learning scheme.
Every planning begins first with identifying what objectives, aims or goals to be achieved
upon implementation of the plan. To the teacher, determination of plan objectives must
take cognizance of some basic learners’ characteristics or disposition which include
sex, socio-economic background, entry behavior. In planning what to teach, the teacher
should have an overview of what the teaching-learning situation ought to be. He
should therefore:
a. determine what behavioural outcomes expected in pupils
b. determine content (i.e. body of knowledge needed to convey the information)
c. select appropriate learning experiences to deliver the content
d. determine time duration for each teachable unit
e. determine appropriate instructional strategies for the content of the plan
f. determine strategies for determining level of achievement of stated objectives.
Effective teaching begins with effective planning. Consequently, effective planning stems
from the initial ability of the teacher to determine and state in unambiguous terms the
general as well as the specific objectives. Experience has shown that the most effective
teachers are those who develop lesson plans and use them. There is no one best teaching
plan format or type. There are basically two major lesson planning formats namely; Essay
format and Tabular format. The type or format of teaching plan chosen and developed
will depend on the problem and the general plan of teaching. A well-developed lesson
plan should be flexible and complete enough for a substitute teacher to use in carrying
out assigned activities/episodes. When preparing your lessons, you should put into
consideration the following variables;
1. the objectives of the lesson (stated at the cognitive, psychomotor & affective levels)
2. time available for the lesson
3. ability and capability of the students
4. entry behaviour of the students
5. size of the class (if it is not too large for instance, you can use demonstration method)
6. facilities available in terms of space and teaching materials.
A good lesson plan that you can prepare and use must comprise of the following
components:
1. identification of subject to be taught
2. problem area or the concept to be taught,
3. objectives of the lesson,
4. procedure:
(i) opening procedures or routine activities
(ii) introduction and linking up of old and new lessons
(iii) development of the lesson
5. instructional materials,
6. assessment or evaluation (summary)
7. assignment, and
8. references/materials for further reading
3.1.2 Why Teachers Need a Lesson Plan
Reasons why you need to prepare your lesson plan are to enable you:
1. allocate your time effectively,
2. systematically present your facts,
3. prevent errors of teaching,
4. effectively hand over to a substitute teacher if you will be absent,
5. meet your stated objectives,
6. prepare adequately for instructional materials,
7. command the respect of your pupils,
8. be in firm control of the class situation, and
9. use it as the best teaching aids
Statement of Intended Learning Outcomes
Instructional objectives are critical components to effective teaching as the teacher would
be effective only when he knows or understands his destination. The teacher should of
necessity have a good cognitive roadmap of the scope he intends to cover in every lesson.
Instructional objective of every lesson is like a destination which must be reached, and on
time too. To have a hitch-free journey, the teacher/leader and the learner should know
where they are heading to and the means of getting there. When this basic understanding
is lacking both the leader/teacher and the led/learner will be disappointed. Instructional
objective is therefore a destination, it is an intended result of an instruction. It is a
performance a teacher would want the learner to demonstrate upon being exposed to a
particular learning package.
3.1.4 A Hypothetical Sample of a Lesson Plan
1. Date: 7/6/2006
2. Name of School: Government Secondary School, Ondo
3. Class: JSS 2A
4. Number in Class: 40
5. Average Age: 13
6. Number of Period/Time: One (1) period of 40 minutes
7. Unit: Maintenance of Soil Fertility
8. Problem Area: Cover Cropping
9. Objectives: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
(i) identify five cover crops
(ii) explain the meaning of cover cropping
(iii) state the functions of cover crops in soil fertility maintenance/management
10. Instructional materials: Textbook, chalk board, five different types of cover crops.
11. Procedure:
(i) introduction
(ii) routine activities
(iii) motivation and revision
(iv) development of the lesson
Step I – definition of cover crops or what is cover crop Step II – teacher presents samples
of cover crops and identifies by their common and scientific names as well as stating
their functions.
12. Closure:
(i) Summary- teacher makes a quick revision of the lesson with the aid of
“chalkboard” summary
(ii) Evaluation- teacher determines level of success using evaluative questions ab initio
stated
13. Home work
14. References

Implementation of Lesson Plan

Lesson implementation is the actual teaching of the planned lesson; put differently, it is
the actualization of the planned lesson or process of putting the planned lesson into
action. Successful implementation of the planned lesson justifies all the efforts put into
the plan including resources expenditure.
The teacher of agriculture needs to implement carefully what he has planned.
Implementation of a lesson plan involves the demonstration or use of the following tasks
among others:
1. Asking questions
2. Using examples
3. Using illustrations
4. Establishing appropriate frame of reference
3.2.1 Asking Questions
Questioning is an activity that arouses the curiosity and mental activity of
a learner. The teacher should develop mastery of the skills in such a way that he can
effortlessly use it in instruction delivery.
The first question should usually be relatively simple and related to pupil’s interests
or to the basic fundamentals of the topic or used to establish entry behavior of
learners. There are good questioning skills which the teacher of agriculture should be
conversant with. Questions are normally asked from simple to complex, from particular
to general, from lower cognitive to higher cognitive order, and from known to unknown.
We also have probing questions, divergent and convergent questions.
Questions should be distributed throughout the whole group of pupils. Do not call the
pupil before asking the question because it can embarrass the student and because others
may not pay attention to the intended question.
Ask the question, pause, and ask for volunteers to answer the question.
You may encourage some students by names, wait for an answer, evaluate the answer,
react to the answer (reward or otherwise). Used wisely, questions can be used to induce a
set, for stimulus variation, and for revision and evaluation purposes.

3.2.2 Using Examples

The use of examples is a critical skill required in the teaching –learning process, and to
effectively use this skill the teacher must be conversant with various categories of
instructional materials. The use of examples or instructional materials in instructional
communication removes the constraint and drudgery of abstraction in the lesson content.
The teacher is expected to bring meaning, and better understanding of some otherwise,
abstract concepts. This he does by explaining their meanings through the use of
examples.
Examples may be oral, visual, tactile, olfactory or gustatory. They should usually proceed
from the simple to the complex and as far as possible be interesting to the pupils. Above
all they should be relevant and meaningful. Appropriate examples are always necessary;
they aid retention of facts and information.
3.2.3 Using Illustrations and Analogies
Illustration simply means explaining. Something within the experiences of knowledge of
the pupils in that so it can help the students to make new concepts or new experiences
became clearer. When you illustrate, you help the pupils form a visual and mental image
of what is being taught.
Analogy is a type of comparison or contrast used to make an emphatic point. Analogy
should be clear and related to the topic.
3.2.4 Establishing Appropriate Frame of Reference
A student’s understanding of the material of the lesson can be
measured if the material is organized and taught from the several points of view.
These “points of view” are also called frames of references. The use of
several frames of reference broaden the general view of understanding more completely
than it is possible will only one.
3.3 Field Project Work
Project-based learning is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge by
working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an authentic,
engaging, and complex question, problem, or challenge. The method is based on the
philosophy pragmatism and the
principle of “Learning by doing”.
In this instructional strategy, pupils perform constructive activities in natural
setting. It is teacher-facilitated, collaborative approach in which students acquire and
apply knowledge and skills to define and solve realistic problems using a process of
extended inquiry. A project is a list of real life that has been imparted into the school. It
demands work from the learners. Projects are student centred, follows specified
standards, parameters and milestones clearly identified by instructor.
Role of the teacher in a project goes as follows;
1. the teacher of agriculture is a guide, friend and working partner
2. he should provide occasions for even shy pupils to come forward and contribute
something meaningful towards the success of the project
3. should help learners develop character and personality by allowing
them to accept responsibilities and discharging them effectively
4. should have initiative, tact and zest for learning.
Types of project Method
Kilpatrick W.H. in 1918 classified projects on the basis of task involved as follows:
1. Problem Type: this are projects that involve investigating and solution of practical
problems.
2. Product Type: involves construction of a useful material object or article to embody
some idea or plan in external form ( e.g. making a model of spade or hoe)
3. Consumer Type: one that provides opportunities for experience on
a particular area/field and reporting an account of it ( e.g. attending
New Yam Festival after which he writes a report on its aesthetic or socio-cultural and
philosophical values)
4. Drill Type: is a project that provides opportunities for mastery of skill or knowledge on
a particular area/field.
Principles of Project teaching method
1. Principle of utility- the learner must be convinced of the need for undertaking the
project as it has impact on life around him- finding solutions to practical problems
2. Principle of readiness- learners are allowed the freedom to choose from a set of
problems presented. Choice is based on interest.
3. Principle of learning by doing- must be activity-based as learners are expected to
acquire the knowledge based on work and practical experience
4. Principle of reality- projects must be real and related tolife situations of learners and
the society
5. Principle of social development—such a project must focus on on
Merits of project teaching method
1. It is learner-centered and activity-based
2. Students are holistically involved in learning process according to needs, interest,
attitude and ability
3. Related to real life situation
4. Develops in learners problem-solving skills and ability
5. Gives real work experience
6. Develops social qualities and synergism in the learner’s heart
7. Develops responsibility realization of the students
Farm experience or student farm projects form an integral part of agricultural education.
They provide realistic and pragmatic experiences to students hence, it is activity-based.
The teacher of agriculture is a key person in the development of pupil’s
projects as he supervises their activities and assists them in making decisions
directly related to the success of their projects. It is his/her task to encourage pupils to use
the most productive agricultural methods, while persuading them to discard those
traditional practices which have been superseded by modern practices. It is the task of the
agriculture teacher to set up work experience programmes for the school. The role of the
teacher of agriculture in organizing and assisting the pupils with their farm projects is one
of the most important and satisfying aspects of his job. It results in a close relationship
being formed between pupil and teacher from which both derive enormous mutual
benefit.
3.4 Teaching manipulative skills
Pupils should be made to realize that manipulative skills also referred to as
psychoproduction skills are essential aspects of the course being taught and they should
be given every opportunity to practise them to point of mastery. They include both
animal and crop production skills that require series of drills for mastery level attainment.
Procedure for Teaching a Manipulative Skill
1. For you to teach manipulative skill, you should follow the following guidelines:
2. Determine beforehand the abilities that are to be learned by the pupils,
3. Encourage a strong desire in the pupils to possess manipulative skill,
4. Theoretically teach the pupils,
5. Demonstrate the procedure for the pupils to grasp,
6. Allow the pupils to perform the operation by themselves,
7. Give the pupils further exercise,
8. Give opportunity to the pupils to evaluate their achievement of societal needs, social
development and usefulness to the society.

SOCIAL FACTORS IN THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

Pupil’s Bias against Agriculture in Schools
Most of the students of agriculture come from families that practice traditional farming
These students have individual impressions on what…. Sometimes, these impressions
come from personal traditional farming entails
3.1.1 Effective Programming of Agricultural Activities
The teacher should plan school farming programme to cover a wide variety of subjects,
many of which will be new to the pupils and thereby arouse their attention and interest.
An example is organization of Young
Farmers Club (YFC).
3.1.2 Effective Lesson Plan
Pupils may not be responsive to the teaching of agriculture in the hot afternoon;
therefore, agricultural lessons should be in the morning or evenings. Ample use of visual
aids should accompany teaching.
3.1.3 Developing Positive Attitudes in Pupils
Attitudes can be learnt. You should strive to develop the right attitudes in your pupils,
particularly towards acquiring manipulative skills in agriculture. To do this, you should
identify which aspects or practices in agriculture interest the pupils most. You, as a
teacher of agriculture should take advantage of these.
Positive attitude can be developed in pupils also through:
(i) Awareness creation: The subject-matter the teacher wants the pupils to know must be
identified for the student learner. It is only when they are aware of what they are to learn
that they react to it.
(ii) Understanding: Understanding involves identifying the principles and science
underlining any activity. When students have a good understanding of what they are
doing, the more they feel towards it. Understanding would make the pupils to drop the
earlier attitude they have towards a situation.
(iii) Interest: Activities must be presented to the pupils in the way it will interest them
and when they become interested, that can annul the earlier attitude. Therefore,
agricultural activities or
agricultural lessons must be made active particularly by allowing the pupils to contribute
their own ideas and experiences.
(iv) Appreciation: We appreciate a thing or situation when we have personal experiences
of the situation. The feelings we develop during an activity goes a very long way in
forming our opinions.
Thus appreciation is learnt by experiencing. The teacher can encourage pupils to
appreciate situations in agricultural practices through illustrations, demonstrations and
observable examples from their immediate environment.
3.2 “Low” Status of Agriculture
One of the social factors affecting agriculture in the Nigerian context is
its “low” status. The low status of agriculture is attributed to the
following
factors:
1. the drudgery involved in farming practice
2. the neglect of agriculture for higher income earning ventures
3. the long investment period before farm activities yield profit
4. natural factors such as weather and disaster
3.2.1 Mode of farming
Another factor that lowers the status of agriculture is the mode of farming.
Mode of farming involves clearing and burning, tilling the soil, with primitive farm
implements. All these activities are energy-sapping yet, the returns to investment remains
very low and not commensurate with the level of drudgery involved. The adult farmers
resist change and therefore, have their level of income remaining very poor. Where they
are ready to adopt new technologies, the needed funds are not readily available thus, their
mode of farming operations remains crude and less efficient.
3.2.2 Neglect of Agriculture in Preference for Oil Wealth
With the exploitation of oil resources in Nigeria, the attitude of both the government and
the people towards agriculture changed. This is because
Nigeria and indeed Nigerians, could earn more income or money from oilwith lesser
efforts.

3.2.3 Long Investment Gestation Period

When investment is made on agriculture, particularly on crop plantations, it takes a long
period before the farm begins to yield. Most production activities in agriculture require
time for the investment to mature and yield returns. Most farmers have nothing to fall
back on during the long gestation period.
3.2.4 Natural Factors and Disaster
Certain factors such as drought, excessive rainfall, intensive heat, pest invasion and fire
disaster are often beyond human control. They are forces of nature that man can do little
or nothing about. There is also fluctuation between glut and scarcity. All these make
farming a risky venture which young people will not want to take the risk for.
3.3 The Community’s Expectations of the Agriculture Teacher
Another factor affecting the teaching and learning of agriculture is the community’s
expectation of the teacher. Parents expect their child’s teacher to fulfill
several functions. These functions are;
3.3.1 A Model Teacher
The agriculture teacher has been trained in the field of agriculture as well as in the
field of education. He is therefore a “specialist farmer” and also an
educator. This makes the community to regard him as an expert full of ideas in improved
methods of agriculture. He is therefore viewed as a model teacher capable of helping
them to solve all their problems and challenges.
3.3.2 An Adviser
The Community expects the teacher of agriculture to advise the farmers on ways and
means of combating prevalent problems they encounter on their farms using improved
methods and strategies
3.3.3 An Innovator
The school-farm supposed to be a “model” to other farms in the community. This is
because in-school farming is characterized by improved cultural activities and methods of
farming which subsist in the planning of the school farms due to the synergies and
linkages the school has with research stations from where they obtain latest findings on
farm practice. Parents visit the school and school farms on seeing these innovations, they
to adopt new practices.
3.4 Meeting the Community’s expectations
The Community’s expectations of the teacher of agriculture pose some
challenges that keep him always on his toes. In order to position himself better to take up
the challenges, he needs to evolve some strategies to meet these expectations. The
strategies should include efforts to:
1. maintaining good intra-school relationships
2. planning school community activities
3. publicizing school agricultural projects
4. providing the school and community with feedback on agricultural programmes
3.4.1 Maintaining Good Intra-School Relationships
The teacher should adopt efficient intra-school relationships by maintaining cordial
working relationships with the school administration and should assist the school in
planning the entire school programme.
3.4.2 Planning School-Community Joint Activities
Teacher of agriculture should embark on programmes that will bring the school and the
community together for interaction. Programme such as agricultural shows, field days,
exhibitions, home and farm visits, school inter-house competitions can bring the two
groups together in a closer relationship.
3.4.3 Publicizing school’s Agricultural Science activities and the
School’s Farm Projects within the host community and environs
When the teacher comes in contact with improved methods of farming as a result of his
opportunities to the sources of such innovation, he should attempt to disseminate the
same to the community. This can be passed through the community council or
cooperative groups within the community. It may also be publicized through radio,
television, posters or even through the religious bodies recognized in the community.
3.4.4 Provide Feedback to the School and the Community on
Agricultural Activities
Though agricultural activities take place within the school vicinity, some staff members
and students who have little or nothing to do with agriculture or farm projects may be
ignorant of the teachers efforts on the farm projects. The teacher of agriculture should
therefore make his efforts known to the school and the community. School’s
assembly and Staff meetings could be an appropriate medium for passing such
information.
3.4.5 Maintaining good inter- and intra-school relationships
Planning school-community joint activities, publicity of agricultural
programmes and projects and providing feedback on agricultural projects to the school
and the community will enhance meeting the community’s expectation for the
agriculture teacher.
RESOURCES AND TOOLS FOR AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
TEACHING
Goals and Objectives
Clear objectives can act as bases for determining, first the content of the lesson, and
second the appropriate methods for teaching the lesson.
Effective instruction is invariably based upon an understanding of the concepts, skills or
generalizations that the pupils must learn in order for the teacher to judge the
effectiveness and success of instruction.
Objectives also help teachers to answer such instructional questions as what should I
teach today? How would I teach what I am supposed to teach? How will I determine if
my teaching has been successful with students learning what I intend to teach? To a
teacher, well-stated objectives give specific direction and guidance in what to teach, how
to teach it, what to evaluate, and how to carry out the evaluation.
3.1.1 Goals
Objectives are often confused with educational goals or aims. Goals are general
expressions of intent which provide scope, instructional tactics and strategies for learning
activities, statements of goals are characterized by such verbs as “understand”,
“know” , “appreciate” and “possess”. By their functions and nature, goals are
broader than objectives.
Examples of educational goals in agriculture are as follows:
1. that agriculture students should come to know the fundamental
facts and principles of agriculture.
2. that agriculture students should possess the abilities and skills
needed to engage in agriculture.
3. that agriculture students should understand the practical nature of
agriculture.
These statements are too vague for agriculture teacher who is looking For
a clear guidance in his selection of appropriate content area, a teaching
method, and an effective procedure for evaluating outcomes.
3.1.2 Objectives
Objectives indicate what a student should be able to do as a result of his or her
learning. It is preferably called “Learning Outcomes” Objectives must
also be expressed, in measurable terms, in the knowledge, the skill or attitude which the
learner will be expected to demonstrate when instruction is completed. Statements of
objectives are characterized by such verbs as “measure”, “draw”, “enumerate”,
“label”, “identify”,
“demonstrate” and so forth. Examples of statements of objectives are:
1. the students should be able to draw and label a hoe;
2. the student should be able to identify the soil samples;
3. the student should be able to demonstrate the operation of a sprayer.
3.2 Instructional versus Behavioural Objectives
As has been noted earlier, objectives are derived from goals. However, two types of
objectives are commonly stated in teaching and learning processes. These are
instructional objective and behavioural objective.
3.2.1 Instructional Objective
Objectives can be stated in terms of what an agriculture teacher is going to do during a
particular lesson or period. This type of objective is called instructional objective because
it focuses attention on the teaching process or strategies rather than on the learning
outcomes to be attained by the student. Examples of instructional objectives are as
follows:
1. to show students the various parts of a farm tool
2. to demonstrate how a sprayer can be used to spray
3. to state the functions of soil water.
3.2.2 Behavioural Objective/Intended Learning Outcomes
Behavioural objectives or Learning Outcomes are stated in terms of the outcomes the
teacher expects from his teaching, what he expects to see the pupils do resultant from the
teaching-learning encounter. Attention is thus shifted from the teacher to the learner, and
the distinction between instructional objectives and behavioural objectives is in stating
the former in terms of what the teacher does and the latter is stated in terms of the
learning outcomes. When performance statements are defined, they express in
measurable terms, the skill, knowledge, and/or attitude which a student will be expected
to demonstrate at the completion of instruction. Example;
“Given a diagram of a hoe, the student should be able to:
“ label the following parts, the handle and metal blade”. This is
behavioural objective because:
(1) the objective is stated in clear unambiguous and performancebased terms which the
teacher could recognize when it is attained
by students.
(2) it is stated in terms of the behaviour expected of the learner. The following list of
action-verbs will help agriculture teachers formulate behavioural objectives: Compare,
classify, record, demonstrate, name, measure, describe, explain, construct, show, dissect,
operate, apply, label, identify, state, draw
3.2.4 Instructional Advantages of Behavioural Objectives
The school syllabuses in their present form offer little or no guidance to the teacher,
therefore, the use of behavioural objectives in lesson planning will partly require the level
of mastery of all students using the same syllabus, and may also function as a link
between the subject- matter and teaching effectiveness. Behavioural objectives aid
instruction by providing direction as to what the teacher expects from the students in
terms of the level of achievement and specific skills and abilities to be developed in the
students. It is admitted that writing behavioural objectives for the purpose of agriculture
teaching is by no means an easy task, at least it is time consuming, and nevertheless,
stating behavioural objectives may facilitate the process of identifying appropriate
content area and may also make it possible to evaluate accurately the extent to which the
desired abilities have been developed in the learners.
3.3 Other Relevant Skills for Agricultural Science Teaching
Other than the effective preparation of the syllabus, scheme of work, lesson plan and
lesson notes there are certain skills which if possessed by the teacher will ensure effective
teaching and learning of agriculture. The skills include; communication skill, questioning
skill, classroom management, class testing and its interpretation, use of teaching
materials.
3.3.1 Communication Skill
Effective instructional communication is a prerequisite condition to effective teaching of
agriculture. Teaching is about establishing effective and affective relationships with the
learner. Effective teachers are by extension effective communicators, they understand the
interdependency of communication and learning. They equally understand that the
knowledge and attitude pupils take with them for any teacher-student encounter are
selectively drawn from a complex assortment of both verbal and no-verbal messages
about the subject, the teacher, and themselves.
An effective teacher is one who is concerned about what the pupil has learned other than
what the teacher has taught. He is that teacher who is concerned with what is
communicated and how it is communicated.
Instructional communication therefore is the process of establishing an effective
communication relationship with the learner to grant him the opportunity to achieve
optimum success in the instructional environment.
The teacher of agriculture should develop early the skill to speak fluently and audibly. As
a teacher you should practise speaking slowly in the classroom and when we want
students to do something, the instruction should be given in the simplest way possible.
An effective teacher should be able to notice when communication is not flowing
normally through students’ reactions or even facial expressions.
3.3.2 Questioning Skill
Questioning is part of guided enquiry in agriculture teaching. Questioning can be used to
stimulate thought or other higher cognitive operations such as critical thinking,
intrapolation and extrapolation as the case may be, as well as questioning aimed at
making children reason or explain such things as cause and effect. Most agriculture
teachers ask direct factual questions which do not provoke deep thinking. Teachers
should avoid vague questions to which there may be many possible answers.
3.3.3 Classroom Management Skill
What teachers do to create an atmosphere that ensures meaningful interaction between
pupils and pupils, and pupils and the teacher during teaching and learning processes is
what is known as classroom management. The classroom is a social system made up of
structured activities of independent parts, and for meaningful progress to be made unless
these tasks are effectively managed by the teacher. Some of the classroom management
tasks include; maintaining effective discipline, instructional resources management,
managing classroom activities, and maintaining of effective and affective relationship
between the school and host community. Some of the approaches the teacher can use are
based on:
1. inter-personal relationship;
2. permissive attitude;
3. authoritarian attitude;
4. behaviour modification approach;
5. social systems approach.
3.3.4 Class Testing and its Interpretation
A good classroom test is a form of learning stock-taking. Most teachers unfortunately use
tests as a threat – to learning as tests are mostly used for selection purposes and for the
determination of grades. When a test can be used as part of the teaching process, it will
show the teacher where teaching should begin that is the entry behavior of students
3.3.5 Effective Use of “Teaching Resources or Aids”
Effective integration of instructional materials is the hallmark of every lesson or
classroom instruction. Instructional materials adds flavor to lesson presentation thereby
facilitating instructional communication. The teacher of agriculture should be able to
employ and deploy instructional materials appropriately in every lesson delivery.
Though there are many senses through which the human body perceives stimuli, seeing,
touching and listening have been ascertained to be gateways of human learning. Materials
meant for learning should be presented in a manner as to provide students with the
opportunity to become actively involved intellectually, perceptually and physically.
Cognition and internalization of environmental stimuli in a teachinglearning situation can
as well be jeopardized by the way and manner the teacher uses instructional aids.
TEACHING RESOURCES/AIDS IN AGRICULTURE
Teaching Aids and Resources for Agriculture Teaching
Instructional materials also known as teaching aids are materials and devices used to
supplement or support the written or spoken word in instructional communication for the
purpose of effective transmission of knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and ideas to
learners. They help to emphasize, clarify or vitalize the instruction. The teaching of
agriculture can be made more effective by the use of locally available teaching aids.
Teaching aids may be audio, visual or audio-visual. The teacher of agriculture, therefore,
is expected to be familiar with a variety instructional materials, their sources and use in
the teaching-learning process.
3.1.1 Sources of Teaching Materials/Aids
Some common instructional materials or aids for teaching agriculture include: chalk
boards, charts, graphs, diagrams, exhibits, flannel boards, flat pictures, photographs,
maps, globes, models, mockups, realia (real objects) and specimens, motion pictures,
textbooks and reference books.
Conventionally, teaching aids are classified on the basis of the body sense organ they
appeal to. Those that stimulate the sense of hearing are referred to as audio materials or
aids. Some of the most frequently used aids in this category are:
1. human voice
2. record player
3. tape recorder and
4. radio transmission/broadcast
On the other hand, those teaching materials/aids that appeal to
learners’ sense of sight are classified as visual materials/aids. These include:
1. models, specimens and collections (soils, rocks, weeds, crops, pests, seeds, fertilizers)
2. still pictures and chalkboard
3. overhead transparencies
4. charts, maps, exhibits and graphic materials
5. real objects (realia)
There are yet those instructional materials that simultaneously appeal to both senses of
sight and hearing; they are referred to as audio-visual materials/aids. Most common
examples are:
1. Television
2. Both still and motion pictures with sound track

3. Film projectors
4. Video
Other classes of useful teaching aids include printed and non-printed materials such as:
▪ syllabuses
▪ textbooks, work books
▪ newspapers
▪ journals
▪ hand books, magazines and reference texts
We also have community-based resources which are resources in and around the school
environment and host community that the the teacher
can resort to in time of need. These include forest reserves, market
squares, shrines, farmlands, erosion-sites, factories, rocks etc
3.2 Significance of Teaching Aids
Ideally, the teacher should use a combination of verbal instruction and teaching aids in
accordance with sound principles of teaching and not introduce teaching aids merely as
entertainment for the students. Properly used teaching aids will help to give first concepts
or impressions correctly, stimulate interest, promote better understanding of the lesson
and add variety to teaching methods. They may also help to promote intellectual
curiosity, contribute to longer retention of learning and clarify principles outside the
range of ordinary experience.
3.3 Selection of Teaching Aids/Criteria
In selecting teaching aids for a particular class or topic the teacher should use the
following criteria;
· consider the instructional and behavioural objectives, the relevance of the material the
plans and the benefit the students are
likely to gain from it;
· consider the characteristics of the class s/he is teaching, whether or not the
materials/aids will be above their level of ability or within their level of understanding
and interpretation,
· consider the physical qualities of the material/aid and its condition.
For example, if s/he plans to use a chart, is it clear enough?
The teacher should give the class a brief introduction to the material/aid, including what
they will see, why and how it relates to what he intends to teaching.
3.4 Characteristics of a good Instructional material or Teaching Aid
The effectiveness of any instructional material lies in its ability to:
1. appeal to the senses – sound and sight, Instructional materialzzz
2. attract and hold attention,
3. focus attention on essential elements to be learned at the proper time.
Certain characteristics are common to all suitable or good instructional materials
/teaching aids and these include:
1. Simplicity
The teaching material/aid must be simple and should present only a few ideas at a time,
as pupils especially the very younger ones cannot comprehend complex ideas presented
to them for a short time. The teacher needs to select simple illustrative teaching aids for
instructing his pupils especially at the primary stage.
2. Colour
Since pupils are attracted by bright colours, a good combination of colours should be
used on suitable backgrounds, in the preparation of instructional materials or teaching
aids. However, too much brightness should be avoided since it may distract
pupils’ attention from the objective of the lesson and the instructional material.
3. Flexibility
In the classroom. a good teacher of agriculture will attempt to teach his lessons using a
variety of methods, techniques, strategies and materials. He should therefore select or
construct teaching materials/aids that can be instantly modified to suit changes in
the approaches to instruction.
4. Visibility
Any teaching aid to be used by the teacher should be of such a size that the smallest detail
the teacher wishes to emphasize is large enough to be seen by every pupil in the class. It
should be placed conspicuously in front of the class to present a clear view to every pupil.
3.5 Utilization of Teaching Aids
The use of teaching aids is called for:
(i) when the objective of instruction is either too big or too small or too spread out to be
comprehended effectively by the students. For example, when teaching about the
vegetation or rainfall of an area, diagrams and pictures are useful;
(ii) when the objects or examples of the subject-matter are not readily available to in the
classroom. Such objects like irrigation schemes, erosion sites and dams could be
displayed to the class with films or models;
(iii) If an object is too expensive or delicate for the students to handle or use such as in
toxic agrochemical;
(iv) If the process being studied is a very slow one e.g. observation of various stages of
plant growth, the use of picture is preferable;
(v). When the process the teacher wants to emphasize is not visible to the naked eye, for
example, the flow of electric current through a copper wire, it could be illustrated by a
diagram or picture.
When using teaching aids, it is important for the teacher of agriculture to consider the
following precautions/suggestions:
1. ensure that the material is accurate and acceptable to the students;
2. preview a material/aid before using it in class;
3. arrange the materials/aids in such a way that students will see them from where they
are sitting;
4. use the materials/aids at the appropriate time in the lesson, and after that remove them;
5. do not use only one type of teaching aid to the exclusion of others. There is need for
change and variety;
6. always remember that pupils are different in age, interest, maturity and experience, it is
always an advantage to combine the aids to meet the needs of the various groups in the
class;
7. the class needs should determine the type of aid
to be used;
8. do not cause confusion by presenting too much information;
THE TEACHING-LEARNING TRANSACTION IN AGRICULTURE
TEACHING
3.1 Teaching of Agriculture
To some people, teaching is dynamic where the teacher teaches the pupils who accept it
while others see it as triadic because it involves the teacher, the learner and the subject
matter, a relationship that results in intellectual exchange.
Teaching is an attempt by someone to share the learning (subject matter) with the learner
or someone. Looking at the above definition, you can crystalise three things that is, the
teacher, the learner and subject matter.
Teaching, as the activities initiated or promoted by an instructor, enhances student
learning. It can also be seen as the direction of Learning process to bring about the
desirable changes as a result of instruction. These changes may be in attitudes, interests,
ideas, appreciations, understanding, habit and abilities. The object of teaching or
instruction is human growth and development. The teacher’s role is to
devise situation which will produce this expected changed behavior.
Students’ learning remains the only viable and reasonably accurate criteria for
evaluating the effectiveness of teaching. It is often said that unless the student learns, the
teacher has not taught, hence teaching sets the stage for learning. There are two definite
roles of a good teacher of agriculture.
These are;

· to prepare the learner, this requires pedagogical skills

· to present the knowledge and this requires the technical knowledge of the subject
matter.
3.1.1 Basic principles in teaching
The four basic principles of teaching are
1. Principle of Democracy
This principle demands that the teacher treats the pupils equally and as he would like to
be treated. No child should be segregated against on the basis of religion, tribe, health
status, parental background etc. The teacher should allow the pupils to freely ask
questions and interact in the class.
2. Principle of Use or Relevance
The content to be taught must be one the knowledge of which the pupils can readily
apply. It must be relevant to addressing the needs and interest of the learners.
3. Principle of Readiness
It is useless to teach something to students before they are ready to learn and if the
student sees no immediate use for the instruction he may not be ready to learn. The
children must be maturationally and cognitively ready for learning to occur and to occur
effectively too.
4. Principle Activity/Learning-by-Doing
Pupils should be allowed to use their hands along with what they are taught, what they
use their hands to do make the learning more permanent. Learning in agriculture is more
effective if anchored on hands-on experiences such as psychoproduction activities.
5.1.2 The Purpose of Teaching
1. Teaching is the process of attending to learners’ needs, experiences and
feelings, and making specific interventions to help them learn specific things. The central
purpose of teaching is to facilitate and promote learning in those we teach.
Teaching shapes the conduct, emotional and intellectual dispositions of the learner. The
teacher’s strategic effort is thus to determine on the bases of the larger
experience and trivial wisdom how the discovery of knowledge should come to the child.
2. During the process of teaching, the teacher brings his “superior”
knowledge to aid the child in making sense out of his life experiences. It therefore
follows that, the very essence and effort of teaching is to keep the experience of pupil
moving in the direction of what the expert-teacher already knows and intended for the
pupils to learn. During teaching, pupils are exposed to what must have meaning and
relevance to their life in and out of school and to help them to see the relationship of their
experiences with real life experiences in the society or in the world of work.
2 Learning of Agriculture
Learning is the observed changes in behaviour, attributable to active experience.
Learning experience is what students obtain, (tangible or intangible) from the interaction
with the external condition in their environment. Learning is the process of acquiring new
understanding, knowledge, behaviours, skills, values, attitudes and preferences. Learning
is the acquisition of knowledge, skills through experience or by being taught.
The mechanism of learning cannot be observed directly, but the evidence that learning
has taken place can. Moreover, a kind of change called learning exhibit itself as a change
in behaviour and the influence of learning is made by comparing what behaviour was
possible before the individual was placed in a learning situation and what behaviour can
be exhibited after such treatment.
Types of Learning
There are three basic types of learning that can occur in namely; visual, auditory and
kinesthetic. Too learn, we depend on our senses to process the information around us.
Most people tend to use one of their senses more than the others hence the three most
common different learning styles. Learning of agriculture characteristically cuts across
the three basic learning types or styles and the teacher of agriculture should ensure
success in this direction. Deep and long-lasting learning involves understanding. Relating
ideas and making connections between prior and new knowledge, independent and
critical thinking, and ability to transfer knowledge to new and different contexts.
3.2.1 The Purpose of Learning
Learning takes place because the organism (the learner) is consistently exposed to
environmental stimuli or experiences to which he can react.
The learner interacts with the environment both physical and psychological and as this
synergy takes place between the learner and his environment, changes are observed in
him/her and this in effect
3.3 The Teaching-Learning Transaction in Agriculture Education
The teaching-learning transaction involves four critical elements namely the student, the
teacher, the subject-matter and the conditions present during the interaction.
3.3.1 The Student
What can be learned in the agriculture classroom depends primarily on the students as
only the student is intended to learn or does the learning of the information. Their
attitudes, expectations before coming to school and ability to acquire knowledge will
determine the extent and the rate of learning which will occur in the agriculture
classroom.
3.3.2 The Teacher
The teacher represents the key element in any structured learning situation. He brings to
the class a set of prior expectations on a particular level of knowledge of technical
agricultural information and an ability to interact with the students. Teacher’s
knowledge of technical agricultural depends on formal courses and experience
acquired in a particular subject towards students.
3.3.3 Conditions in the School System
The importance of conditions in the school system on learning can be surprisingly great.
Certain questions can be considered with respect to conditions in a school system. These
include;
1. what kind of discipline is maintained in the school system?
2. Who is responsible for supervising agricultural programmes during the school hours?
3. What kind of attitude exists towards agricultural programme?
It can be emphasized here that these conditions are created both by the teacher and the
students.
3.3.4 The Subject-Matter of Agriculture
This refers to the technical and scientific information which the subjectmatter contains.
The interaction between the teacher and the learner students is usually on the subject-
matter. The depth and coverage of thesubject-matter varies with age and level of student
and finally, the environment.
TEACHING TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURE
IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
3.1 Questioning
A question is a sentence which requires a response. Asking questions in class discussions,
tests or assignments is one of the basic ways by which the teacher can stimulate pupils to
think, listen and learn. It is by asking questions and studying the answers that the teacher
can measure and evaluate the progress of his pupils in thinking, listening and learning.
3.1.1 Pupils Think in Four Main Ways
1. Remembering – This is an activity which makes the pupil to think in order to recall
various facts that he has previously been taught.
2. Reasoning – This is response to questions which demand explanation for an action or
deduction from known facts.
3. Evaluating and Judging – Pupils need experience in weighing alternatives, in judging
and making decisions; they need to learn how to decide whether or not a statement is true
or a plan is sound.
4. Creative Thinking – This type of thinking produces ideas; proposes solutions to
problems as well as invents ways of doing things differently.
3.1.2 Designing Questions
To design a good classroom question, the teacher needs first to analyze and plan the kind
of task to be set and then formulate the question itself.
Types of questions can be identified through their functions.
The following types of questions are most common in classroom
situations:
1. Data Questions – Questions focusing on specific facts or figures that may be required
during lesson. For example, what is the planting distance of maize?
2. Questions that pin-point problems – This type of question helps to pin-point problem
areas e.g. what should farmers guard against when carrying harvested, infested cocoa
beans across a plantation.
3. Summarizing Questions – This sort of question focuses attention on, or summarizes,
crucial points in thedevelopment of the lesson for example, how would you arrange, in
order of importance, the causes of low productivity in Nigeria.
4. Interesting Questions – This type of question helps to stimulate the interest from the
students. It helps to involve the pupils and make learning material relevant and
meaningful to them. For example, what advice would you give a farmer whose birds are
being attacked by Avian flue?
5. Questions to involve students – The questions require the student to apply some of his
former learning to a current and realistic problem under study. For example, select one
method that can be used to parboil rice.
6. Questions to make the student curious – The question asked to satisfy curiosity as well
as to clarify a situation when the students become puzzled by what they observe. For
example, why do you add acid to water and not water to acid?
3.1.3 Importance of the use of Questions
Effective use of questions can help the teacher to achieve the following:
1. Stimulate the interest of the pupils in the lesson.
2. Establish communication between the teacher and the pupil.
3. Focus the pupil’s attention on the major points or principles to be
remembered.
4. Stimulate “learning by doing” by making pupils apply facts and principles
as they analyze problems.
5. Help pupils to develop a feeling of confidence and success which leads to greater
motivation and competence in organizing ideas and speaking fluently.
6. Encourage cooperation between members of the class through group activities and
shared responsibilities.
3.1.4 Asking Questions in the Classroom
For questioning to be most effective a definite procedure needs to be adopted. The
teacher should therefore carry out the following steps:
• Emphasize the correct answer
• Listen to pupil’s answer
• Call on one pupil by name
• Pause … so that all pupils think of an answer
• Ask the question

1. Ask the question in the class so that every pupil is aware that he is being addressed by
the question.
2. Pause and glance at the pupils’ eyes so that they will have time to
think of the answer.
3. Call on one pupil by name. Every pupil should be asked a question with almost the
same frequency.
4. Listen to the pupil’s answer and decide whether it gives the correct response
or not.
5. Emphasize correct responses by the pupil and reward the pupil who answer correctly.
Correct wrong responses and encourage pupils who give poor answers.
Principles of good questioning
The relevance of questioning in the teaching-learning process can significantly be
affected by the way or manner it is employed by the teacher. To ask good questions, the
following rules must be observed:
1. A good question should be relevant to the topic
2. A good question should be clear and easily understood
3. A good question should challenge or stir thinking in the learner
4. A good question should be answerable
5. A good question should be purposeful and goal-directed
6. A good question should de-emphasize unnecessary repetition
7. A good question should be civil
Self-Assessment Exercise(s)
1. List five important reasons why you as a teacher of agriculture should ask questions in
the classroom while teaching?
2. Outline the qualities of good question.
3.2 Learning through References
In order to encourage greater participation, the teacher could include selected references
as part of the work in his unit plan. Having given references to the pupils, the teacher
then has to find out whether they have read them or not. He can do this in the following
ways:
1. ask questions based on the assigned reference
2. set written questions based on the reference
3. make students to discuss about the text they read
3.2.1 Use of the Library

The teacher and the school librarian can greatly increase the pupils’ ability to locate
and use reference material.
1. The librarian should explain to the pupils the arrangements of books in the library and
the call number of each book or periodical or bulletins. The librarian should also explain
the procedure for borrowing and returning books. He should also tell the pupils who to
contact in case of difficulty.
2. In this era of ICT, open educational resources (OER) and e-library services should be
made accessible to students
3. The pupils should be given special assignment which involves the use of the library.
3.3 Learning through Assignments
Assignments are a very useful way of increasing pupils’ thinking and
organizing ability of the pupils. They tend to capture and sustain
pupils’ attention and interest for a long time. Assignments improve the rate of recall of
the pupil. S/he remembers things s/he achieves on his/her own for longer period and can
recall the results faster through the association of the events with the environment and the
facilities used in completing the assignments.
The following guidelines are given for the administration of assignments:
1. the teacher should discuss details of the assignment with the pupils.
2. the teacher should advise pupils to carry out the assignment in a
quiet and conducive atmosphere with no distractions.
3. pupil should be encouraged to concentrate fully on the assignment and plan his time
effectively.
3.4 Note Taking
Taking notes helps students to organize their material and determine salient points they
might have gained from lessons in the teaching. After the lesson, the teacher should
recommend some references to the students for additional information. They should be
encouraged to develop the notes and present them to the teacher for evaluation. In many
schools, pupils are given notes by the teacher. These should be modified for the purpose
they are to serve, they should be brief, but not too short that they are not meaningful and
they must be understandable.
3.4.1 Guidelines for Note Taking
The teacher should give the following guidelines to the pupils:
1. listen to the teacher carefully and take legible note on good paper.
2. 2. listen for the main points (the teacher should list the main points
3. on the chalk board for the students).
4. 3. take brief notes in outline form (The teacher should endeavour to
5. make brief notes on the chalk board).
6. 4. keep all your notes relating to one subject in one section or use
7. separate notebooks for separate subjects.
8. 5. review your notes before you forget all the facts.
 9. 6. read your notes before the following class.
10. 7. ask the teacher questions on any aspect of the previous note you
11. do not seem to understand.

TEACHING METHODS IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

3.1 Demonstration Method
Demonstration method is one of the greatest strategies for acquisition of agricultural
fundamental skills in the relatively short time. In demonstration, the teacher shows,
explains and does something (some acts of skills for the student to see). It is best used in;
1. teaching manipulative/psychoproduction skills
2. developing understanding of operational procedures
3. securing the acceptance of new and better ways of doing things
There are two types of demonstration namely: method demonstration and
result demonstration.
(i) Method Demonstration – This is used to show how to do a particular operation, the
procedures in performing an activity for example fertilizer application.
(ii) Result Demonstration – This is used to show the result of doing something in a
particular way. For instance, the teacher of agriculture may invite an extension worker to
give a result demonstration of recommended farm operations to the students. Here, the
yield from farms that had different farm operations are exhibited for students to observe,
compare and be able to draw logical conclusions.
3.1.1 Planning a Demonstration
Before the teacher appears to carry out demonstration for the students, he should be
mindful of the following guidelines;
1. plan the demonstration in three phase/parts – the preparatory
phase, the demonstration and the follow-up phases.
2. rehearse the demonstration beforehand or in advance.
3. to save time, outline the main steps on the chalkboard before the
class begins.
4. make sure that every pupil will be able to see and hear what the
demonstrator is saying from their individual standing/sitting
position.
5. time the demonstration to include a question phase/session
3.2 Discussion Methods
This method involves a group of people or a class who get together in order to exchange
ideas, facts and opinions orally about a topic of mutual concern and interest. The teacher
acts as a conference leader and directs or redirects ideas and information produced by the
pupils in the class. He listens to what is said by each individual pupil in the group as this
gives an insight into this level of knowledge and understanding of subject matter. In any
case, topics for discussion is allocated to discussants/students in advance to enable them
to prepare.
3.2.1 Method of Discussion
A discussion can be started in different ways depending on the competence of the teacher
and the approach he wishes to accept. This in turn will depend upon the subject matter
and topics of discussion and the experience of the pupils.
In starting a discussion session, the following steps could be followed:
1. announce the topic for discussion to the pupils
2. indicate that each person is expected to express his/her own idea on the subject
3. ask challenging questions as the discussion progresses and call on individuals to
respond
4. as pupils respond, draw in others by allowing them to express their opinions.
As the discussion continues there is the danger of drifting away from the focus, the
teacher should step in by summarizing the main facts and refocusing their attention on
object and course of discussion. Significant points should be summarized on chalkboard
or whiteboard as the case might be.
3.3 Problem-Solving Method
This is an attempt to discover the route to a goal, in the light of past experience and in
manner appropriate to the present situation. In this case, the learner encounters
difficulties in trying to achieve this goal but obtains satisfaction when he eventually
reaches it. Problem solving is used to:
1. guide and stimulate the learner into discovering the solutions to certain problems
arising in his course of study by himself
2. encourage the learner to reason and pass judgements in order to arrive at a reasonable
solution to his problems.
The teacher should provide the pupils with sources of information and help them to
analyse the problems or problem situations. The activities involved in the problem-
solving approach are:
1. identifying the problem.
2. interpreting the problem for clearer understanding – defining it.
3. formulating tentative solution.
4. gathering of relevant data.
5. analyzing or evaluating the collected data.
6. verifying the result.
7. drawing conclusion and inferences.
3.4 Field Trip Method
This is a planned visit to a place of interest outside the classroom to obtain information
concerning an academic problem, issue or challenge. The method can be used to broaden
the knowledge of pupils as they could see and hear more that were told in the classroom.
A relationship can be encouraged through the method between the school and the
community.
3.4.1 Planning a Field Trip
1. Select the place of interest to be visited
2. Obtain permission from the school authority
3. Obtain the permission and assistance from the authority of the place to be visited
4. Sensitize the pupils on the visit and what and how
5. to prepare for the trip

Role Playing
By this method, the students are made to see themselves in the light of others through
acting a part or parts. It is important that they have enough background knowledge of
what they are required to do such that the acting, dramatizing, singing and dancing can be
relevant. For effective use of this method, the teacher of agriculture should:
1. not appoint show offs or class clowns to act as they are likely to
make a mockery of the whole exercise.
2. not interfere unnecessarily as the pupils act their parts rather encourage them to act
freely
3.6 Project Method
In this method, the pupils assisted by the teacher, plan and execute in a logical sequence
every step from the beginning of a topic to its completion. The teacher merely guides and
coordinates the work while allowing the pupil do the rest. The project method, if well
implemented, helps to hold interest and motivate the study of technical facts and related
knowledge in agriculture. Projects are most suitable for pupils who are inquisitive,
creative and interested in immediate result of their efforts.
Projects can be executed in crop production, livestock management, etc.
3.7 Exhibitions
Exhibitions are displays of materials for visitors to observe and from which they can
learn. Some school exhibitions may be the results of individual or group projects of
pupils in a class.
3.7.1 Planning an Exhibition
1. The purpose of the exhibition and its educational objectives must
be well defined
2. Preliminary plans such as the construction of a site, ideas and materials to be exhibited,
size and space needed by each exhibit
must be considered.
3. Put the plan into action through organizing the materials as planned and have them
well labeled.

PLANNING AND MANAGING SCHOOL AGRICULTURAL

PROGRAMMES
3.1 Factors Affecting Planning of Agricultural Programme
When planning agricultural programmes for schools, consideration should be given to:
1. Market
The students will have to prove for themselves that agriculture is a real commercial
venture and can yield profits if properly executed.
The students should therefore be encouraged to be involved in what they can sell, such as
crops and vegetables and livestock particularly poultry.
2. Climatic condition
Agricultural programmes are usually subjected to the Vagaries of weather particularly,
rainfall. Plans should therefore be made to plant when rainfall is most likely to be stable
for a reasonable period for the plants to attain good yield.
3. Soil Conditions
Considering the available land to the school, the teacher should examine the soil to
identify which crop or crops are suitable for planting. Some crops for instance, grow
better on acidic soils, some on alkaline soils while others grow when the soil is neutral.
4. Capital
The available capital to secure the inputs is a great determinant of what can be planned
for.
3.2 Approaches to Programme Planning in Agricultural
Education
Some of the approaches to programme planning in agricultural education include the
following:
1. Job-Analysis Approach – This entails listing the skills, knowledge and attitudes
which must be taught.
2. Task-Analysis Approach – This also involveslisting all the tasks and the procedure
involved in the programme.
3. Subject Approach – A subject is made up of the variable units that are taught or
offered as separate yearly courses. For example, soil science, crop production, gardening
and livestock production may be offered in the first, second, mid or fourth years
respectively.
4. Integrated Approach – With this approach, each subject is taught as an integrated
unit throughout the school system. Each year the students in a class may learn some
aspects of soil science, crop production and livestock production.
5. Competency Approach – This approach identifies the knowledge, skills, attitudes and
judgement generally required for the successful performance of a task.
6. Occupational Area Approach – This approach involves the analysis of competencies
which are common and to some degree are necessary for initial employment in a number
of related jobs or occupations.
3.3 Managing the School Farm
School farms are not just spaces for growing crops. They are complete learning zones,
which largely succeed in taking learning to new heights or levels. School farms come in
handy when it comes to teaching a variety of topics in agricultural practices be it crop
rotation, mixed cropping, inter-cropping etc.
Management of school farm is defined as the process of planning, organizing, directing,
controlling and evaluating activities in the farm to achieve specific objectives. These
objectives include: to demonstrate appropriate practices, to provide opportunities for
coordinating classroom theory with practices.
With proper management benefits of school farm include: attendance to activities,
behavior modification, diet and nutrition, enterprise and economic well-being, incusion
(closing the gap between theory and practice), learning outside the classroom, extension
to local and global communities etc.
The school farm is very important to any school with agricultural programmes. Teachers
and students of agriculture should appreciate the importance of the school farm in
translating theory from the classroom into practice. The agricultural science teacher
should plan the school farm to facilitate this process of knowledge transfer. Students
should manage individual plots of land, cultivating and caring for the crops throughout
the growing season. If the school can afford to keep livestock, the students should
manage the animals, feeding and caring for them. The school farm is established in the
school to meet the following objectives;
1. To earn money
2. To put theory into practice
3. To provide farming practice opportunities
4. To improve background knowledge
5. To solve individual farming problems
6. For experimentation purposes
3.3.1 Characteristics of a School Farm
In the school, many activities involve field experience. Such activities may include
maintaining the school playing ground, maintaining footpaths, landscaping the school
premises, planting flowers and controlling erosion. The school farm possesses certain
characteristics that distinguish it from these other field activities in the school. The
characteristics of the school farm include the following:
1. Completion of Classroom Instruction
Almost everything learnt in agriculture by pupils in the classroom can be practised,
observed or demonstrated on the school farm.
2. Supervised Study
Most of the activities on the school farm require supervision by the teacher of agriculture.
3. Possibilities for Crop Rotation
The school farm provides an enclosed piece of land carrying many crops.The school
retains this piece of land for a long time without heavy loss of soil fertility
or pests’ incidence. This can be achieved by crop rotation and it provides
a good example of the value of this cultivation technique.
4. Reality of Experience Through Practice
What is done theoretically in the classroom is brought to reality by the school farm.
5. Individual Practice
The school farm provides opportunities for individual pupils to practice certain farming
techniques on their own. This is achieved by giving the pupils individual plots to manage
on their own and at their own rate.
3.3.2 Planning a School Farm
In planning a school farm, major activities involved include site selection, clearance,
laying out or division of land into plots.
3.3.2.1 Site Selection
In sitting the school farm, efforts should be made to identify some areas of the school
land with a low elevation which has not been used heavily.
The school farm must be within walking distance of the school. Other considerations are;
1. Slope of the land - sloping ground should be avoided because of problem of erosion
2. low-land valleys are susceptible to water logging and should be avoided
3. fencing may be necessary to put into check domestic animals
4. It must be accessible to the community to encourage interest.
3.3.2.2 Site Clearance
This involves the removal of vegetation in the area to be farmed. This can be done by
clearing and burning (if desirable) of the plants while tree felling may also be necessary.
3.3.2.3 Laying Out the Farm
The agriculture teacher and the pupils should plan the run of ridges and plants according
to the slope of the ground. The teacher should aim to make efficient use of the land
allocated to the school. Ideally, a regular or rectangular plot is easier to divide amongst
the students. However, whatever is available should be used to the best advantage.
3.3.2.4 Activities on the School Farm
Activities on the school farm can be divided into two major sections.
These are the crop section and livestock section.
1. Crop Section: Activities in this area include:
· land preparation (planning, clearing, marking out the plots, beds making and tillage
operations)
· nursery preparation
· crop propagation and maintenance
· harvesting, processing and marketing of crops`
· seed storage for the next growing season
· keeping farm records

2. Livestock Section: Activities in this area include but not limited

to:
· selection of breeding stock or types of animals to keep
· construction of livestock pens and houses
· rearing the animals (feeding, watering, cutting, disease and past control)
· sales of animal and animal proceeds eg milk, eggs etc
3. Field trips to government and private farms and agro-allied industries.
EVALUATING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMES
3.1 Meaning and scope of Evaluation
Evaluation can be defined as the systematic process or body of processes by which
information or data is collected, collated and analyzed in our efforts to judge and assess
all the component parts of a programme of study with a view to determining their degree
of acceptability, merit, appropriateness, goodness, attainability, desirability or otherwise.
The Importance of Evaluation
The surest way of verifying if one is making progress or achieving success in a particular
assignment or responsibility, is by carrying out an evaluation on such exercises. Same is
the case with evaluation of agricultural education programmes. Evaluation of agricultural
programmes is very important to pupils, teachers and the public and also
for improving the programme and clarifying instructional objectives.
1. The Pupils
▪ Test can motivate learning especially when a pretest is administered before a new
material is taught. The pretest furnishes pupils with the scope of the new materials, thus,
the pupil pursue learning more diligently.
▪ Evaluation can help the pupil to determine the progress s/he has made towards
achieving set goals, identify his/her weaknesses and therefore enable him/her to modify
his/her approach accordingly.
▪ Regular scheduling of classroom test stimulates the review on materials previously
mastered. This type of relearning, aids retention.
2. The Teachers
▪ Evaluating pupils’ progress in the class provides the teacher with
Information on the pupils’ rate of learning thus, enabling the teacher to provide
more appropriate instructional guidance.
▪ Evaluation reminds the teacher of the objectives for the course.

In some cases, the outcome of evaluation process assists the teacher to redefine the
course objectives in clearer terms.
3. The school
▪ Information from evaluation can be helpful in the counseling process especially on
matters relating to the choice of career in agriculture or in other areas.
Evaluation provides a mechanism not only for maintaining standard for a school system
but also for individual standards. It functions as a type of quality control for the school.
▪ Evaluation can be used in the grouping of pupils for instruction.
Grouping is based on the ability as indicated by tests.
4. The Public
Evaluation provides the public with a range of information concerning the achievements
of the, particularly the community in which the school is located.
5. The Agricultural Programme
Effective evaluation leads to improvement in the overall agricultural programme in the
school concerned. It enables for the identification of problem areas identified resulting in
appropriate solution sought for.
3.2 Characteristics of effective Evaluation
Though evaluation is very important for the general assessment of agricultural education
programmes, the objective is only achieved if the evaluation is effective. For evaluation
to be said to be effective it should;
1. Focus on the appraisal of how the objectives of the programme are being achieved
2. Make provision for the participation of all those involved in the execution of the
programme such as teachers, pupils and the school authorities.
3. Be continuous so as to make provision for occasional stock-taking of the whole
programme or at least a segment of it.
4. Encourage people to determine whether certain set goals are realistic and should also
increase awareness of new goals for directing desired levels of progress in agricultural
occupation.
3.3 Evaluation Procedure
There are certain steps to be observed if the teacher must obtain accurate information for
his evaluation process. An evaluation programme that omits any of these steps may do a
lot of harm to any agricultural education programme or project. These essential steps
include;
1. Identifying the key points to be evaluated.
2. Stating the objectives of a programe in specific terms so that evidence of the degree to
which objectives are being achieved can be ascertained.
3. Securing evidence for the achievement of the objectives.
4. Developing ideas about what factors might be aiding or hampering the achievement of
objectives.
5. Securing evidence for and against developed ideas.
6. Revising ideas about what is helping aiding or hampering the achievement of
objectives on the basis of the evidence obtained.
7. Developing and trying out methods of remedying weaknesses in the programme.
The findings and interpretation of facts, obtained from the evaluation programmes, have
to be considered within the limitations of available resources namely time, finances,
competent personnel as well as the willingness of the learners involved to study and
change existing habits.
3.4 Types of Evaluation
Two major types of evaluation that are of importance to agricultural education
programmes are:
1. programme evaluation
2. evaluation of pupils’ achievement3.4.1 Programme Evaluation
School agriculture programmes can be evaluated by determining whether the programme
on its own merit worth being mounted, whether the facilities for the implementation of
the programmes are available and adequate to guarantee the realization of the desired
objectives of the programme within the school. Questions that school programme
evaluation should address are:
1. what are the relevant textbooks and resource materials to which pupils have access?
2. Are the implements, with which the pupils can work on the school’s farm
adequate?
3. What are the number and qualifications of agricultural teaching staff in the school?
4. Are there opportunities for interaction between the pupils and the farming community?
5. What are the methods of instruction adopted by agricultural science teachers in the
school and to what extent are the methods preferred?
6. In what ways has the programme impacted on the community?
Evaluation must also be carried out to determine the extent to which the programme
objectives have impacted or influenced the graduates of the programme/school. In this
regard, and through follow-up studies and employer’s surveys, efforts are
directed at finding out whether the graduates:
1. regard agriculture as a vocation and take pride in undertaking profitable agricultural or
agri-based occupations;
2. acquired sound agricultural education both in theoretical and in practical aspects.
3. are the graduates worthy of emulation by the community and and will they be able to
introduce improved farming strategies that will assist farmers become successful in
agricultural occupations within their respective communities?
3.4.2 Models of Agricultural Education programmes Evaluation
An evaluation model within the context of education may be considered as a set of steps
or system of thinking or reasoning which if followed orimplemented, will result in the
generation of information which can be used by decision makers in the development or
improvement of educational programmes
A comprehensive evaluation of agricultural education programmes can be achieved by
the use of the following evaluation models
(i) Tyler’s objecties-centered model
(ii) CIPP model
(iii) Scriven’s Goal free model
(iv) Stake’s Responsive model
(v) Eisner’s Connoisseurship model
Tyler’s evaluation model proposed by Ralph Tyler in 1950 is one of the
earliest approaches in programme evaluation which still influences
manyb assessment projects or programmes in the field of education.
Merits of Tyler’s model include;
(i) It is relatively easy toto understand
(ii) It is rational and systematic in nature
(iii) It focusses attention on programme strengths and weaknesses
(iv) It emphasizes the importance a continuing cycle of assessment, analysis and
improvement.
Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process and Product (CIPP) programme
evaluation model proposed by Daniel Stufflebeam in the late 1960s and early
1970scame up as alternative to Tyler’s model which had been identified
with some deficiencies. The CIPP model provides means for generating data relating to
four critical stages of programme operation viz:
Context Evaluation: which continuously assesses needs and problems in the context to
help decicion makers determine goals and objectives Input
Evaluation: which assesses alternative means for achieving those goals and objectives so
as to help decision makers choose optimal means
Process Evaluation: which monitors the process both to ensure that the means are
actually being implemented and to make necessary modifications
Product Evaluation: which compares actual ends with intended ends and eventually leads
to a series of recycling decisions.
Stake’s Congruence-Contingency (Responsive) Evaluation model
The model proposed by Stake in 1967 is of the view that programme evaluation should
be concerned with three categories of conditions namely; antecedent conditions
representing informal interactions of the learner with teacher and materials as well aqs
significant others; transaction representing learner’s interaction with
teacher and materials; outcomes representing end-points, behavioural changes that
areanticipated at the end of instruction or upon completion of the programme.
3.4.3 Purposes of Evaluation of Agricultural Education Programmes
Evaluation of agricultural educational programmes among others serves the following
purposes:
(b) To inform learners of their achievement
(c) To familiarize teachers with challenges/problems of the pupils
(d) To provide operational basis for continuous assessment
(e) To inform parent on the progress of their children and wards
(f) To provide guidance services
(g) For teacher accountability
(h) To ensure quality control of programmes
3.4.4 Evaluation of Pupils’ Achievements
The evaluation of the agricultural programme cannot be complete without assessing the
performance of the pupils. The outcome of the assessment will enable the curriculum
planners to identify the areas of the curriculum or programme that should be reviewed for
improvement. It will also enable the school authorities to recognize the aspects of the
programme that are being poorly executed so as to fashion out the possible ways of
correcting these faults.
There are wide ranges of testing techniques for evaluating pupils’ progress. These
include:
1. Essay type test
2. Objective type test
3. Performance (practical) type test
4. Problems (quantitative questions) type test
3.4.4.1 Essay Type Test
This type of test is used as means of evaluating the qualitative aspects of verbal
instruction. The test demands that the pupil compose a response of some length, usually
by integrating materials from a variety of sources. Essay type is used when the test
requires;
1. description, explanation and prediction of a process
2. description of instruments, apparatus and so forth
3. factual knowledge
4. exposition to theoretical knowledge
5. interpretation and discussion of results of experiments
Examples of essay tests in agriculture are:
1. Discuss the contributions of agriculture to national economy
2. What is soil fertility?
Some advantages that are attributed to essay test are that it:
· encourages better study habits
· requires a high degree of critical thinking rather than rote learning
· reduces the possibility of cheating
· demand recall rather than identification
However, the essay-type test has been found to contain the following disadvantages or
shortcomings:
· it is difficult to draw up good questions for the essay test
· marking and scoring takes a great deal of the teachers’ time
· in marking, the teacher tends to carry impressions from one paper to another
· teacher’s mood may affect scoring and so make the scoring less
reliable.
3.4.4.2 Objective Type Test
An objective test is one in which the test items are so framed that there is only one
answer to each. The answer is predetermined and the test will give the same score for any
individual since the marks cannot be influenced by the prejudices of the teacher.
Subjectivity in scoring or marking is therefore eliminated.
There are four classes of objective test that are commonly used in the classroom, these
are;
1. short-answer items or completion test
2. multiple-choice items test
3. matching items test
4. true-false items test
(i) Short-Answer Items or Completion Test
In this type of objective test, the pupils supply answers in short sentences. Examples are:
· Two major simple farm implements are ……
· Agriculture is defined as …..
· Cassava is planted at a spacing of …….

Short-answer objective test has the advantage of:

· reducing guessing to the barest minimum
· demanding recall rather than recognition
The test, however has the shortcoming of
· being difficult to construct
· relatively not rapidly scored
(ii) Multiple-Choice Items
In multiple-choice tests, each test item may start with an introductory question or an
incomplete statement together with a number of alternative answers of which one is
correct while the other alternatives are incorrect.
The multiple-choice test requires the pupils to select the response which is correct for a
particular question. Examples of multiple-choice test are:
“Which of these is not a farm tool?”
(a) Hoe
(b) Cutlass
(c) Catheter
(d) Sickle
“Soil Erosion is controlled by”
- Irrigation
- Burning
- Planting cover crops
- Bare clearing
- Staking
Some of the main advantages of multiple-choice objective test are that it;
· reduces the factor of chance in success
· ensures complete objectivity of scoring
Some of the disadvantages are that it:
· it is prone to malpractice/cheating by students
· aids recognition rather than recall
· it is difficult and time-consuming to construct
(iii) Matching Items
This type of objective test is essentially made up of a series of multiple choice items,
each item in the first column is to be paired with an alternative in the second column.
Every test item consists of two parallel lists: one containing stimulus words or phrases,
the other response alternatives. The pupils are required to match the items on the two
lists.
This kind of test type is particularly useful when the learning of a particular concept
requires the association of two things in the pupils’ mind.
Example of matching item test include:
Match items on column A against item/statements under Column B.
AB
Agriculture Maize
Fertilizer Hoe
Farm Tool Cassava
Root crop Growing crops and raising of animals
Cereal crop Urea
(iv) True-False Items
True-False-item test is usually used for testing factual recall and definition of terms.
True-False item is the most susceptible to guessing of
all types of objective tests. It indicates whether a statement is true or false.
Examples of true/false items:-
* Cover crops supply nitrogen to the soil. T F
* Raising of birds is known as poultry. T F
* Agriculture contributes to national economy T F
3.4.4.3 Written Practical Examination
Practical work of the pupil can be evaluated by inspecting the work of the individual
pupil on the school farm and allocating marks according to selected items of practice.
More importantly, evaluation on practical work can be a written one, intended to test the
ability of the pupils to identify, recall and comprehend. It will include identification and
classification of Implements used in farm operations, livestock management practices,
common weeds, seeds of crops, diseases of plants, pests, fertilizers, soil, rocks and farm
processed products.
3.2 Lesson Plan in Agricultural Science Teaching
Planning includes everything that the teacher does before actually beginning the teaching.
This planning may include what the teacher puts down on paper as a guide to her/his
teaching. It may also include her/his written objectives, what s/he wants to accomplish,
who is to do what, how and when it is to be done, why and where will it be done and
what procedures for evaluation. The success of any course or lesson depends upon the
preparation or the plan and the skillfulness with which it is followed and accomplished.
The first problem in planning is to set aims or objectives in such a way that they can be
easily understood and recognized by the pupils. Plans may be revised as the need may
arise.
There are different types of plans. There are course plans, a yearly plan, term plan,
weekly plan, and daily lesson plan. Each plan varies according to class; the subject and
the extent of the weighting the details included.
3.2.1 The Daily Lesson Plan
This is commonly known as, teaching plan or note of lesson. It is usually a plan for
teaching a class, a job or notes of lesson. It includes what the teacher wants to teach, how,
when and how long to teach it.
There are variety of lesson plans, and so, there is no rigid format lesson plan which is
suitable for every condition. Even though there are variations in the lesson plans, there
are essential things which each plan should include. These are:
(i) the title of the lesson
(ii) the objectives for the lesson
(iii) the materials needed
(iv) the matter or problem of the study
(v) the procedure for attaining the objectives
(vi) evaluation
(vii) references
3.1.3 Preparing the Lesson Plan
Lesson plans are necessary for all types of instruction. Each lesson plan may not
necessarily be written in details; usually it covers one or two pages which the teacher
uses to guide himself. The daily lesson plan contains the following:
1. The Introduction Section–This should include the level of class, the date and the time
duration.
2. The Objectives – These give the indication of what is expected of the students at the
end of the lesson. The changes expected must be observable and measurable to a certain
degree.
3. Procedure – This should include everything that the teacher plan to do including his
plan for the students learning activities. The activities should be listed in order of how it
is going to happen during the lesson and the sequence to follow. The sequence is like
this: · Introduction
· Equipment and material
· Presentation
· Conclusion
4. Application – It involves providing opportunity for active use of what has been learnt
by the student, checking how the student perform and encouraging them to put into more
practice the principles, theories and concepts they have learnt through the lesson.
5. Evaluation Through Testing – This may be used as a guide to know how far the
students are following what they have been taught. Evaluation may take the form of oral
questions, drawing conclusions from observations, etc.
6. Assignment – Assignment or home work is an important part of the lesson plan. In
giving assignment, the teacher must make sure that the assignment is clear, straight
forward, reasonable and not too difficult.
7. References – Relevant references should be given to the students for further reading.
3.1.4 A Typical example of a Lesson Plan
Although there is no pattern or format for lesson plan that can fit into all situations, the
following format is suggested for your practice and adoption for future use..
Lesson Plan
School: Ondo Boys High School, Ondo
Date: 17th May, 2006
Subject: Agric. Science
Class: JSS 2
Time: 8.10 – 8.50 a.m. (40 minutes)
Title of Unit: Farm tools
Topic of the Lesson: Hoe
Behavioural objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:
(a) Draw and label a hoe
(b) State four uses of hoe
(c) Mention three methods of the maintenance of a hoe
Previous knowledge: Students are familiar with simple farm tools
Apparatus: A hoe

Reference: School Certificate Agriculture by

Akinsanmi, O., University of Ibadan Press,
Introduction: Ibadan.
The teacher introduces the lesson by asking the students the following questions:
(a) who are those who use hoes?
(b) Who has ever used a hoe amongst Presentation you?
Step I: The teacher raises up the hoe for identification
Step II: The teacher draws and labels the hoe
Step III: The teacher explains the labeled parts of the hoe
and states the uses as: weeding, ridge making,
Step IV: planting, digging, harvesting. Hoe can Be maintained by keeping away from
water and stored in a dry cool place. Hoe must be cleaned after use.
It must not be left on the ground to avoid termite invasion.
Summary: Hoe is one of the simple farm tools used on the farm. It has a handle and a
metal blade. It is a multipurpose implement.
Assignment: Draw a hoe and state its three uses.
TEACHING PRACTICE
3.1 Characteristics of Teaching Practice
The teaching practice period is characterized by the following:
1. the student teacher normally lives in or near the school to which he has been assigned;
2. s/he may not formally be required to study other courses during the period;
3. the student-teacher is placed under a cooperating teacher who guides him/her during
the teaching practicum;
4. s/he forms a part of her/his cooperating school teaching staff and is expected to adjust
to the prevailing conditions in the school;
5. s/he participates in all the professional, field and extra-curricula activities of the
school.
3.2 Objectives of Teaching Practice
The primary aim of teaching practice in agriculture is to help the student teacher develop
the competences; personal characteristics, understanding, knowledge and skills needed by
a professional technical teacher of agriculture. In broad terms, teaching practice is a
period for testing the individual student-teacher. Specifically, teaching practice is
designed to achieve the following:
1. provide experiences that give the student-teacher an opportunity to
establish his/herself in the challenges of agricultural programme;
2. reveal the student teacher’s personality. Based on the demands and
experiences of the ‘new role’ being played – (i.e. student-teacher) emerge a
refinement of selected traits and sensitivities as: personal appearance, poise and
confidence, enthusiasm, sense of humour, dependability, imagination, creativity,
adaptability, tolerance of stress, empathy with pupils, respect for the opinion of others,
persistence and ability to evaluate self;
3. provide the student-teacher with the opportunity to establish self as a teacher;
4. help self to analyze subject-matter competencies;

5. provide the student-teacher with the opportunity to practicalise management activities

that aid and assist learning activities (such as classroom management, instructional
planning, preparation of materials, presentation of information, problem-solving,
discussion and instructional evaluation;
6. provide self with the opportunity to acquire skills and techniques
that enhance self-teaching competencies; and
7. train self to identify factors that influence the effectiveness of the teaching-learning
process and to find ways to direct or control them.
3.2 The Importance of Teaching Practice
The experience and benefits of teaching practice are shared by the student-teacher, the
staff and students of the cooperating school.
Similarly, the teacher education institution (college or university) stands to gain a lot
from the arrangements.
3.3.1 Benefits to the Student Teacher
A well-planned and organized teaching practice helps you, the student tteacher, to:
1. discover the relationship between educational theory and its application in a real
teaching (live) situation,
2. understand the principles of child growth and development in relation to the learning
process,
3. acquire the art of resourcefulness and creativity in planning, developing and evaluating
effective learning experience for and with the pupils,
4. develop desirable personal and professional attitudes towards members of the teaching
profession,
5. broaden your understanding of curricular, co-curricular, intra and extra practices,
6. identify your strength and weaknesses in the variety of competencies associated with
effective teaching.
3.3.2 Merits to Pupils, Staff and School
The merits of Teaching practice include:
1. helps to improve the supervisory skills of the cooperating teacher,
2. makes possible the contacts between school, staff and education experts from the
colleges or university,
3. stimulates the attention of pupils who are excited by the presence of a new teacher with
new skills, strategies, methods and materials for effective learning, 4. provides new ideas
for improving existing curricular practices,
5. improves the staff situation of the school and particularly reduces the teaching load of
the cooperating teacher.
3.3.3 Advantages to College or University
The college or university, being the reservoir of learning and teaching theories to which
the student teacher has been exposed, initiates and organizes teaching practice for the
following benefits:
1. it provides the college or university with the opportunity to give practical, on-the-job
training to the student teacher in order to supplement his/her theoretical knowledge
2. it creates a favourable environment for conducting research and applying research
findings to actual school situations through student teachers
3. it helps the college or university in the evaluation of the effectiveness of the entire pre-
service teacher education programme
4. it assists the training institution to identify problems of both the school and the student
teacher which require investigation and immediate solution
5. it enhances mutually beneficial relationships between the participating colleges or
universities and the cooperating school
3.4 Selection Procedures for Teaching Practice
3.4.1 Selection of Student Teachers
To be eligible for teaching practice, a student teacher should satisfy the following
requirements:
1. College or University requirements such as successful completion of prescribed
professional or other courses of study. For instance in a course of study of three years,
teaching practice is done in the second and third year;
2. The student-teacher must be physically and mentally fit;
3. Ability to apply the theories of learning in a teaching situation;
4. Possess a working knowledge of child growth and development;
5. Have a mastery of subject matter in the field of specialization.

3.4.2 Selection of Co-operating Teachers

The cooperating teacher plays an important part in student teaching practice. His
selection is based on the following requirements:
1. She/he must be a competent teacher of agriculture with professional training and some
years of experience;
2. She/he must be able to work with novice and inexperienced teachers;
3. She/he must possess the capacity for personal professional growth and maintain good
educational philosophy and professional ethics;
4. He must be skilled in teaching the subjects in the school through the use of adequate
instructional methods and materials.
3.4.3 Selection of Co-operating Schools
A typical school for teaching practice should satisfy the following conditions:
1. have a good quality agricultural programme;
2. possess adequate facilities including a school farm to be made available to the student-
teacher;
3. has easy accessibility to the school and its farm projects for the student-teacher and the
college supervisor;
4. must be typical of secondary schools in the area covered by the teaching practice
programme;
5. should have the approval of the school Board of Governors or
Management, and possibly the board of governors to be used as a student centre.
3.5 Participants in Teaching Practice
A successful teaching practice programme in agriculture involves the active participation
of the principal, cooperating teacher, the college supervisor, members of staff and the
student-teacher.
3.5.1 The Student-Teacher
The student-teacher is the focal point in the teaching practice programme.
In order to succeed in the programme the student teacher has certain responsibilities s/he
must discharge in relation to those of the other participants in the programme. The
student teacher should therefore be carefully introduced teaching by the following
procedures:
1. obtaining information about the school in which he will be
teaching, such as its location, subjects offered and classes available;
2. visiting the school prior to teaching practice to get acquainted with the principal,
cooperating teacher, pupils, syllabus, scheme of work and time table;
3. planning the teaching practice with his college supervisor on the basis of information
obtained during the visit to the school;
4. participating in extra-curricular activities of the school in order to assume a good
leadership role in school activities and improve the experiences of the pupils;
5. developing good relationship with other members of staff through adequate planning
of his/her daily lessons.
3.5.2 The College or University Supervisor
The supervisor in the college or university is the representative for coordinating and
supervising student teaching. His responsibilities include:
1. selecting student teaching centres;
2. assigning student teachers to schools and supervising teachers;
3. liaising between the college and cooperating school;
4. assisting the student teacher in developing his/her teaching programme;
5. liaising with the co-operating teacher;
6. evaluating the student teaching practice.
3.5.3 The Principal of the Cooperating School
As the administrative head of the school and a participant in the teaching practice, the
school principal:
1. gives approval for student teaching in his school;
2. secures accommodation for the student-teacher/s;
3. briefs the student-teachers on important matters relating to the school;
4. encourages the student-teacher to accomplish his/her tasks;
5. keeps progress reports of individual student-teacher from information received from
the cooperating teacher;
6. organizing a short staff meeting in the first week of the student teaching to welcome
the student teacher and introduce him/her to members.
3.5.4 The Co-operating Teacher
The co-operating or supervising teacher should be a teacher of the subject in which the
student-teacher is specializing. His/her roles include:
1. helping the student teacher in all stages of teaching practice from
orientation, observation and assigning activities to responsible reaching.
2. assisting the student teacher in planning field work or farm experiments.
3. familiarizing the student teacher with the school environment and the school farm
programme.
4. planning instructional activities cooperatively with the studentteacher
(indoor and outdoor agricultural activities not excluded).
5. fostering cordial relationships between the student-teacher and other individuals in the
school.
3.5.5 The Members of Staff
The members of the school staff have a major influence on the success of the student
teaching practice. Their roles in the teaching practice
programme include:
Offering constructive suggestions when necessary and maintaining a good relationship
with the student teacher.
3.5.6 The Pupils
Having been informed by their teacher of the arrival of the student-teacher the pupils
should:
1. neither be embarrassed by his presence nor try to embarrass the student-teacher.
2. behave in their normal manner whilst under the direction of the student teacher,
participating fully in class proceedings and at all times observing school regulations.
TEACHING PRACTICE PREPARATION AND
IMPLEMENTATION
3.1 Preparation for Teaching Practice
Adequate preparation is necessary for a smooth commencement of teaching practice.
3.1.1 Preparation by the Supervisor
The college supervisor meets the student-teachers to explain the purposes of student
teaching and the roles of student-teachers during teaching the mpractice, and to give them
the opportunity to choose the teaching practice school.
The college supervisor visits the cooperating schools to seek and obtain the consent of the
principals and to satisfy self about, the suitability of the schools for teaching practice.
S/he also discusses with the principal and cooperating teachers such matters as timetable,
teaching load for studentteachers, feeding, accommodation and other administrative
issues.
3.1.2 Orientation with the Student Teachers
The coordinator of the teaching practice shares his/her findings with the student-teachers
on return from the visits and announces the date of student-teachers first visit to schools.
The coordinator holds a few meetings to orientate the student teachers towards the
exercise. During his/her meetings; the skills, knowledge and understanding of the
teaching profession which the student teachers had already learnt in professional courses
and micro-teaching are revised. Student-teachers are also reminded of their
responsibilities in the cooperating schools to: the principal, cooperating teachers,
members of staff, pupils and the community. Student teachers also ask questions to
clarify areas of misconceptions.
3.1.3 Student Teachers’ Preparation
Before the teaching practice commences, the student-teacher visits his practice school
with letters of introduction to the principal and the cooperating teachers. Accompanying
the letters are the necessary documents, particularly the principal’s and
cooperating teacher’s assessment forms and report-forms that should be returned to
the college on completion of the teaching practice period. During the visit, the
studentteacher:
1. obtains the syllabus or scheme of work of the areas he is to cover;
2. 2. obtains information about the number of pupils enrolled in his
3. subject and the classes s/he will teach;
4. 3. meets his/her class for the first time, as well as other members of
5. staff;
6. 4. visits the laboratories and check the available instructional
7. materials;
8. 5. plans and prepares the activities to be performed during the first
9. week of the teaching practice. This includes lesson plans and notes
10. of the first week.
3.2 Planning Teaching Practice
3.2.1 Student Teacher’s First Day in the School
On his/her first day as a member of the teaching staff, the student-teacher is not expected
to teach immediately. Instead, he is given time to adjust self to the routines of class work:
observes the teaching procedure followed by the supervising teacher and taking note of
the general routine; familiarizes with available teaching materials; acquaints self with the
pupils; identifies areas in which plans can be made for immediate participation. meets
his/her class for the first time, as well as other members of staff; visits the laboratories
and check the available instructional materials; plans and prepares the activities to be
performed during the first week of the teaching practice. This includes lesson plans and
notes of the first week.
3.2.2 Student Teacher’s Planning
Planning is essential for successful teachings. The student-teacher should seek the
assistance of his cooperating teacher or coordinator in his/her planning. All work must be
planned well in advance. The student teacher will be expected to make unit plan and
lesson plan.
3.2.2.1 Unit Planning
The syllabus given to the student teacher usually contains the materials which the pupil is
expected to cover either for a period of one year or for an examination. The syllabus has
to be broken down into smaller units
3.2.2 Student-Teacher’s Planning
Planning is essential for successful teachings. The student-teacher should seek the
assistance of his cooperating teacher or coordinator in his/her planning. All work must be
planned well in advance. The student teacher will be expected to make unit plan and
lesson plan.
3.2.2.1 Unit Planning
The syllabus given to the student teacher usually contains the materials which the pupil is
expected to cover either for a period of one year or for an examination. The syllabus has
to be broken down into smaller units of related topics to help both the student teacher and
the pupil in the teaching learning process. Essential features of a unit plan are the:
1. Objectives
Unit objectives are specified in general form while lesson objectives are stated in specific
terms.
2. Content
This refers to the subject-matter to be included / covered in the lesson.
3. Methods and Procedures
Learning can take place through carefully planned and skillfully executed procedures
4. Materials needed
These are the resources needed which are based on the content and Procedures reference
to a subject matter.
5. Teaching Sequence Time relationship of the development of ideas.
3.2.2.2 Lesson Planning
A lesson plan is the outcome of activities the teacher will follow in order to create an
effective learning situation. To be more specific, a lesson plan is a plan for teaching a unit
which may take one or more periods to cover.
Lesson planning includes determining what to teach; how to teach it, when to teach it and
for how long it should be taught. For the content and benefits of lesson plan,
3.3 Implementation of Teaching Practice
Effective implementation of good lesson plans results in successful teaching. The student
teacher may need to adapt his plan according to the class learning speed and other
factors:
1. Read the plan thoroughly so that he is familiar with what is to be taught, although he
should avoid memorizing it.
2. Avoid holding the plan while teaching, but glance at it occasionally to make sure you
are following the procedure laid out.
3. Listen to the pupils, response and adapt your lesson accordingly without abandoning
your set goals.
4. Make full use of all visual and other teaching aids. (teaching aids must be real in most
cases).
5. Use every technique you can to motivate and stimulate interest.
6. Be fair, friendly and firm.
7. Use examples from the community as often as possible.
8. Enforce discipline but at the same time be friendly.
9. Keep to the time schedule.