Hydraulic Structures I

BY AMDEMARIAM S. ,2022
1. Dam
1.1 General
1.1.1 Definitions
 A dam may be defined as an obstruction across a river. Through the obstruction,
storage is formed, which an be utilized for various uses.
The retained body of water is referred as a reservoir, and the retaining structure is
the dam.
The side on which water is stored is called the upstream side and the other side
of the barrier is called the downstream side

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 Concrete Gravity Dam

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Itapu Dam, Brazil, Uragay

 Concrete Gravity Dam

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 Single Arch Dam

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 Multiple Arch Dam

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 Buttress Dam

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Roselende Dam
 Embankment Dam

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Mica Dam, Canada

1.1.2 Purposes
Dams are very expensive structures:
 Grand Renisance Dam: Euro 4.8 bn
 Gilgel Gibe III: Euro 1.55 bn
The functions of dams and reservoirs include
Storage
 Water supply
Gefersa, Legedadi
 Irrigation water for agriculture
Ribb, Beles,Tendaho
 Hydropower
Gilgel Gibe, Tekeze,
 Flood control
Creating head
 Hydropower
Maintaining water level
Navigation
 Recreation
 Multipurpose

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1.1.3 Impacts of Dams

The presence of a dam interferes with natural systems. The main disadvantages
includes Three Gorges Dam in Yangetz
Resettlement and relocation river in China
 over 800,000 dams so far built  181 m high, 2.335 Km long
 40 to 80 million displaced Gravity dam
 Reservoir stores 39 Km3,
Destruction of fauna and flora surface area 1024 Km2
Change in groundwater level  Reservoir length 600 Km
 groundwater level rise sometimes up to 90m  Uses
 damage to infrastructure Produces 22,000 MW,
flood protection
 damage to farmland (water logging) Naviagtion
Influence on sediment balance Impacts
Influence of fish 1.24 million people
displaced
Over 6000 species of
plants

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1.1.4 Dam Structure and Reservoirs
1. Reservoir
2. Dam
3. Service Intake
4. Bottom outlet
5. Spill structure
6. Diversion structure
7. Service road
Storage Components
MWL
FRL 1. Active storage: Usable
2. Inactive storage: Unusable
3 Live storage: Non sediment
4 Dead storage: Sediment
5 Flood storage: (multipurpose dam)

MOL

[Link] capacity; gross capacity of reservoir; gross storage; storage capacity

7. Full reservoir level (FRL); Normal water level, top water level;
[Link] surcharge; surcharge
[Link] water level (MWL); Top of joint use (joint use means that part of the reservoir capacity
including both surcharge & empty part of the active storage, assigned to flood control or
conservation depending on the time of the year)
[Link] operating level (MOL); Top of inactive storage
[Link]
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 Bottom outlet

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This storage is divided into active and inactive storage.
Active storage: that portion of the storage capacity in which water will normally be
stored or withdrawn for beneficial uses (see Figure).
Inactive storage: that portion of the storage capacity from which water is not
normally withdrawn, in accordance with operating agreements or restrictions.
 Reservoirs
 Functions of reservoirs in hydraulic engineering
Balancing water demand and supply
 River flow varies seasonally
 Water demand vary seasonally
Storage of water
Classification of storage based on use
Water supply, irrigation, hydro power, flood control, low flow augmentation, etc
Classification based on storage or balancing period
Day, weak, month, year storage
Reservoir Parameters
The most important reservoir parameter are
 Reservoir volume (storage) =S (m3)
 Reservoir area – A (m2)
These parameters can be computed with the help of topographic map
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Dam at Site A
Dam of 50m high
Topo 10 m interval

` A

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 Volume (m3)

A5
Elevation (m)

h
A4
h
A3
h
A2
A1 h
h
Area (m2)

Area Capacity Curve

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1.2 Classification of Dams

Dams are numerous types and there are various ways of classification

1.2.1 Classification based on purpose

A. Storage dams: They are constructed to impound water in periods of surplus supply for
use in period of deficient supply
B. Diversion Dams: they are constructed to provide head for carrying water in to ditches
or other conveyance systems to the place of use
C. Detention Dams: They are constructed to retard flood runoff and minimize the effect
of floods.

1.2.2 Classification based on hydraulic design

A. Overflow dams: are those designed to carry discharge over their crests or through
spillway along their crests or through spillway along the crest
B. Non overflow dams: are those designed not to be overtopped
C. Composite dams:

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1.2.3 Classification according to materials of construction

Dams

Concrete Embankment

Gravity Arch Buttress Earth fill Rock fill

11% 4% 1% 82%

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[Link] Embankment dams
These are dams constructed of natural materials excavated or obtained near the dam
site. They are relatively soft and elastic structures. The foundation requirement is lower
compared to concrete gravity dams

I. Earth-fill embankment dams:

Dams constructed more than 50% compacted earth fill. An earth fill dam is
constructed primarily of engineering soils compacted uniformly and intensively in relatively
thin layers and at controlled moisture content.
They are designed to resist loads by gravity and by mechanisms of embankment
stability. They are strictly non overflow types

A. Homogeneous earth-fill dam

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B. Zoned earth-fill dams

C. Diaphragm earth-fill dams

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II. Rock fill embankment dams
 Dam consisting more than 50% compacted rock-fill.
The section includes a discrete impervious element of
 rolled clay core / compacted earth-fill (central core or upstream inclined)
 a central core slender concrete bituminous membrane
 decked: a thin upstream membrane of asphalt concrete, reinforced concrete or
other material are referred to as decked rock fill dams

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Embankment Dams

Advantages
Suitable to wide valley and steep gorges alike
Adaptable to wide range of foundation condition 100 m high dam
(load to the foundation)
Insensitive to settlement’
Emankment 1.8-2.1 Mpa
Can withstand earthquakes Gravity dam 3.2 – 4.0 Mpa
Simple construction, high mechanized process Buttress dam 5.5 – 7.5 Mpa
Use of natural materials, minimizing cost of transportation Arch dam 7.5-10.0 MPa
Increasing dam height is simple
Can be well integrated to the landscape.

Disadvantage
Sensitive to wave action
Overtopping is not allowed, higher free board
Erosion danger on the d/s unless berms are provided
Construction material and progress affected by weather
Huge mass 50m high 500 m crest length
Embankment dam: 3.4 million m3 soil
Gravity dam: 687,500 m3 concrete 20% of Embankment volume

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[Link] Concrete Dams
 Concrete dams are hard, non-yielding, rigid structure.
 Loads are transferred through dam body to the foundation and abutments.
Three main types
 Gravity
 Buttress
Arch

A. Gravity dams
These are dams that are designed to
maintain their stability by their own
mass.
Their profile is essentially triangular, to
ensure stability and to avoid overstressing
of the dam or its foundation.
 In plan, they might be straight or curved.
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[Link].1 Types of Concrete Gravity Dams
[Link].1.1 Conventional Concrete Dams (CC Dams)

 These are dams constructed with Mass concrete

Mass Concrete is any volume of concrete with dimensions large enough to require
that measures be taken to cope with generation of heat from hydration of the
cement and attendant volume change to minimizing cracking. (American Concrete
Institute ACI)

 Cement Hydration is a very exothermic process, leading to a rise in temperature at

the core of very large pours. Expected to reach the maximum with in 1 to 3 days after
placement.
 If the temperature rises to 70 oc High core temperature
Delayed Ettringite formation (DEF) or during hydration
 If the surface temperature is allowed to
deviate greatly from that of the core, i.e., Cooled surface and
temperature difference between the interior thremal cracking
and exterior reaches to 19 oc , thermal
cracking will develop.
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Cracks affects water tightness, durability, internal stresses.
 Several methods for controlling cracks due to thermal stresses exist
Block construction: 15m x 15m x 1.5m

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[Link].1.2 Roller Compacted Concrete Dams(RCC Dams)

 Roller-compacted concrete is simply concrete constructed with the use of earthfill

methods. It was introduced in late 1970s

The traditional method of placing, compacting, and consolidating mass concrete is a

slow process.

 Improvements in earth moving equipments made the construction of earth and rock fill
dams speedier and more cost efficient.

 According to ACI,
RCC is a concrete compacted by roller compaction. The concrete, in
its unhardened state, will support a roller while being compacted

RCC thus differs from conventional concrete in its consistency requirement (zero
slump):
 dry enough to support roller
 wet enough to permit adequate distribution of the binder mortar during mixing
and vibration
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Advantages of RCC dams include
 Reduced cost (25 % - 50% less than CC)
oLesser cement consumption, less thermal stresses
oLess formwork
o Transportation, placement, and compaction is easier.
Reduced construction time (1-2yrs)
o transportation, placement, and compaction is done in highly mechanized
way

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[Link].2 Classification of Loads

 The structural integrity of a dam must be maintained across the range of

circumstances or events likely to arises in service. The design is therefore determined
through considerations of corresponding spectrum of loading conditions.
 Dams are subjected to the following main loads / forces
1. Water pressure (water load) 5. Wave pressure
2. Dead load / Weight of the dam 6. Ice pressure
3. Uplift pressure 7. Wind load
4. Silt pressure P6 8. Earthquake load
P5

P8
Headwater P2
P8 P1
P4 P1
Tailwater
silt

P3 ECSU,2022 By Amdemariam S.
Loads can be classified in terms of applicability or relative importance as primary,
secondary, and exceptional loads
1. Primary loads: are identified as those of major importance to all dams irrespective of
type. e.g., Water load, self weight, and uplift

2. Secondary loads: are universally applicable although of a lesser magnitude or

alternatively are of major importance to certain types of dam. e.g. Silt load, wave
pressure, thermal pressure

3. Exceptional loads: are so designed on the basis of limited general applicability of

occurrence. e.g. Earthquake loads

 For convenience in analysis loads are

expressed per metre length of dam, i.e. they are
determined for a two dimensional transverse section
with unit width parallel to the dam axis.

 It is similarly convenient to account for some

loads in terms of resolved horizontal and vertical
components, identified by the use of appropriate
subscripts, Ph and Pv respectively.
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B. Buttress Dams
 Consists of a continuous upstream face supported at regular intervals by downstream
buttress.
Normally it needs up to 60% less concrete than gravity dams for the same height, but
needs more formwork and reinforcement.

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C. Arch Dams
 These are dams that resist loads mainly by arch action and transmitted through
abutments.
Arch dams usually solid and strong abutments. They are suitable in narrow gorges when
the length of the crest is not more than 5 times the height of the dam

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Advantage and disadvantages of concrete dams

Advantages
 Good for narrow valleys. Gravity and buttresses are suitable for wide valleys
 Small construction volume compared to embankment dams
 Construction can take place in any weather
 Overflow section can be integrated with the dam (less costly
 Outlet works and ancillary works can be provided with in the body of the dam

Disadvantages
 Sensitive to settlements, demanding sound rock foundation
Sensitivity to earthquake
Complex construction (technical personnel, machine, formwork)
Difficult to add height
Bad interference in to natural landscape
Unit costs are much higher than for embankments

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1.4 Selection of type of dam
 Two main questions during the early planning and design stages ,
 where to build? i.e., selection of the site and
 what type? selection of the type of dam should be carefully considered.

 Note
 It is only in exceptional circumstances that only one type of dam is suitable for
a given dam site.
Generally, preliminary designs and estimates for several types of dams and
appurtenant structures are required before one can be proved the most suitable
and economical.

 The selection of the type of dam requires cooperation among experts representing
several disciplines-including
hydrologists;
geotechnical, hydraulic, and structural engineers and
engineering geologists
to ensure economical and appropriate designs for the physical factors, such as
topography, geology and foundation conditions, available ECSU,2022
materials, hydrology, and
By Amdemariam S.
seismicity.
The selection of the best type of dam for a particular site calls for a thorough
considerations of each type of dam
 the physical features of the site (topography, geology, etc)
 economy, safety, and other pertinent limitations

 Some of the factors that are considered in selection of dam type are
 topography
 foundation condition
 availability of construction material
 spillway size and location
1.4.1 Topography
Topography consideration include :
 surface configuration of the dam site and reservoir area
 accessibility to the site and construction materials

 Topography, in large measure, dictates the first choice of type of dam

 a narrow stream flowing between high, rocky walls would suggest a concrete
dam
 a low, rolling plain would suggest an earth dam with a separate spillway
for intermediate conditions, other conditions takes on importance location of
ECSU,2022 By Amdemariam S. spillway
1.4.2 Geology and foundation conditions
Foundation condition of a site depends on:
 the geological characteristics of the strata which are to carry the weight of the dam
their inclination, permeability, existing faults and fissures

A. Solid rock foundation

Main feature
 high bearing capacity > 5MPa
 high shearing strength
 resistance to erosion and seepage

Suitable: all types of dam

B. Gravel foundation
Main features:
medium bearing capacity 200-600 Kpa
serious percolation / seepage problem thus require special precaution with cutoffs

Suitable: if well compacted, it is suitable for earth fill, rock fill, concrete gravity dam
Unsuitable: large concrete dams
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C. Silt and fine sand foundations
Main features
 low bearing capacity (100-300 kpa)
 Non uniform settlement / differential settlements
 Collapse up on saturation
 Piping
 Percolation losses

Suitable: if properly designed, they are suitable for earth fill and small concrete gravity
dams
Unsuitable: rock fill and large concrete dams

D. Clay foundation
Main features
Low bearing capacity (75 -300 kpa)
Excessive settlements of unconsolidated and high mositure content
 Low foundation shearing strength
Suitable: earthfill dams after special treatment

E. Non uniform foundation

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1.4.3 Availability of Materials

 Materials for dams of various types which may sometimes be available at or near a dam
site include
Soil for embankments
Rock for embankments and rip rap
Concrete aggregates (sand, gravel, crushed stone)

 Elimination or reduction of transportation expenses for construction materials,

particularly those which are used in great quantity, will effect a considerable reduction in
the total cost of the project.

Availability of sand and gravel for concrete at a reasonable cost locally -> Concrete
Dam
Availability of suitable soils for an earth fill in nearby borrow pits -> Earth fill dams

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1.4.4 Spillway size and location

 Spillways, as a safety structure, are an important components of dams.

The size, type and natural restriction in locations will be a controlling factor in the choice
of the type of dam

Spillways requirements are dictated primarily by the hydrology of the area, i.e., runoff
and stream flow characteristics

The selection of a specific spillway type will be influenced by the magnitude of the
floods to be passed.
Thus in streams with large floods, the spillway will become the dominant
structure and the selection of the dam type will become secondary.
The cost of the spillway will become a considerable portion of the total cost of the
dam project. In such cases combining the spillway with the dam as in the case of
concrete overflow dams will become advantageous.

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1.5 Selection of Dam Sites
1.5.1 General
 Two requirements,
 Functional
 balance between sites natural physical characterstics and the purpose of
the reservoir
catchment hydrology
available head and storage volume
 Technical
 Satisfactory sites for a dam (foundation)
 Availability of materials for dam construction
 Integrity of the reservoir basin with respect to leakage
Hydrological and geological or geotechnical characterstics of the site and
catchment
 Environmental

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1.5.2 Dam site investigation and selection
[Link] Project Cycle for a Dam Project
 Three project phases

Project
Project Planning Project Implementation
Operation

Design Review &

Detail Study Modifications

Feasibility Study Contract Management and Construction

Supervision Works

Reconnaissance Procurement Construction Commissioni Full

Study ng Operation

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Project Planning Phase
 Three stages

One/two
2
Detail Study Stage Alternatives

Feasibility Study 2 Few

5
Stage Alternatives

Reconnaissance Several
1 2 3 4 5
Study Stage Alternatives

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[Link] Reconnaissance Survey
Principal objective
 to collect extensive topographical, geological and hydrological data in order to
 Make initial recommendation with respect to the technical and economic
viability of the reservoir,
 Prepare alternative options with respect to
 location
 height,
 type of dam
 Make comparision interms of
Estimated costs and
Construction programme
 Plan detailed investigation required
 Data required
1. Topographic Data
 Selection of dam and reservoir site require presence of a suitable topography.
Information may be obtained from
Large scale topo maps > 1:5000
Aerial photography
Field visits
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  The criteria for the choice of the site include investigation of
 valley form
• V shape
• U shaped
• Wide valley
• The valley width at the dam site is required to be narrow and wide in
the storage part
 slope

2. Geologic Data
 A geological map of the entire catchment is essential
 at the hands of experienced engineering geologist, aerial photgraphs provide
valuable information on geology, possible dam sites, availability of construction
materials.

3. Water resources data

 Catchment area
Maximum floods
Meterological data
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[Link] Feasibility study
Principal objective is to
 Collect additional data and carry detailed investigation in order to
Ascertain the integrity of the reservoir basin
To arrive at a prefered options
dam location
dam type
dam height
To prepare preliminary engineering cost estimate
To assesses potential environmental impact
 Data required
1. Topographic data
 Detailed topo map of the
the reservoir
 the dam and spillway site (< 1:5000)
2. Geological and geotechnical
Competence of the foundation to carry the dam
 Stability
 Load carrying capacity
 Deformability
 Effective impermeability ECSU,2022 By Amdemariam S.
 determination of seepage
confirming the integrity of the reservoir w.r.t water retention
identification of construction material
 location and extent of potential sources of construction materials
Large scale geological and hydrogeological map are required
Field exploration & investigation are carried out
exploration by test pits, trenches, core drilling
geophysical methods

3. Water Resources Data

Detailed hydrological analysis
Analysis of reservoir yield
Further analysis of sedimentation
Further analysis of the environmental impact

ECSU,2022 By Amdemariam S.