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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING CHAPTER 13:
Applications and Processing of Ceramics
(13.1 – 13.12)
Prepared to:
Engr. Sacurom
Prepared by:
Ferdie Bisco
Honey Bolor
Angela Agreda
Rommel Panganiban
April 17, 2024
CHAPTER 13:
Applications and Processing of Ceramics
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The preceding discussions of the properties of materials have demonstrated
that there is a significant disparity between the physical characteristics of metals and
ceramics. Consequently, these materials are used in totally different kinds of
applications and, in this regard, tend to complement each other and also the polymers.
Most ceramic materials fall into an application–classification scheme that includes the
following groups: glasses, structural clay products, whitewares, refractories, abrasives,
cements, and the newly developed advanced ceramics.
13.2 GLASSES
The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics; containers, lenses, and
fiberglass represent typical applications. As already mentioned, they are noncrystalline
silicates containing other oxides, notably CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3, which influence
the glass properties. A typical soda–lime glass consists of approximately 70 wt% SiO2,
the balance being mainly Na2O (soda) and CaO (lime). The compositions of several
common glass materials are contained in Table 13.1. Possibly the two prime assets of
these materials are their optical transparency and the relative ease with which they may
be fabricated.
13.3 GLASS-CERAMICS
Most inorganic glasses can be made to transform from a noncrystalline
state to one that is crystalline by the proper high-temperature heat treatment. This
process is called crystallization, and the product is a fine-grained polycrystalline material
that is often called a glass-ceramic. The formation of these small glass-ceramic grains
is, in a sense, a phase transformation, which involves nucleation and growth stages. As
a consequence, the kinetics (i.e., the rate) of crystallization may be described using the
same principles that were applied to phase transformations for metal systems.
13.4 CLAY PRODUCTS
One of the most widely used ceramic raw materials is clay. This
inexpensive ingredient, found naturally in great abundance, often is used as mined
without any upgrading of quality. Another reason for its popularity lies in the ease with
which clay products may be formed; when mixed in the proper proportions, clay and
water form a plastic mass that is very amenable to shaping. The formed piece is dried to
remove some of the moisture, after which it is fired at an elevated temperature to
improve its mechanical strength. Most of the clay-based products fall within two broad
classifications: the structural clay products and the whitewares. Structural clay products
include building bricks, tiles, and sewer pipes—applications in which structural integrity
is important. The whiteware ceramics become white after the high-temperature firing.
Included in this group are porcelain, pottery, tableware, china, and plumbing fixtures
(sanitary ware).
13.5 REFRACTORIES
Another important class of ceramics that are used in large tonnages is the
refractory ceramics. The salient properties of these materials include the capacity to
withstand high temperatures without melting or decomposing and the capacity to remain
unreactive and inert when exposed to severe environments. In addition, the ability to
provide thermal insulation is often an important consideration. Refractory materials are
marketed in a variety of forms, but bricks are the most common. Typical applications
include furnace linings for metal refining, glass manufacturing, metallurgical heat
treatment, and power generation.
Fireclay Refractories
The primary ingredients for the fireclay refractories are high-purity
fireclays, alumina and silica mixtures usually containing between 25 and 45 wt%
alumina. Fireclay bricks are used principally in furnace construction, to confine hot
atmospheres, and to thermally insulate structural members from excessive
temperatures. For fireclay brick, strength is not ordinarily an important consideration,
because support of structural loads is usually not required. Some control is normally
maintained over the dimensional accuracy and stability of the finished product.
Silica Refractories
The prime ingredient for silica refractories, sometimes termed acid
refractories, is silica. These materials, well known for their high-temperature load-
bearing capacity, are commonly used in the arched roofs of steel- and glass-making
furnaces; for these applications, temperatures as high as 1650 C (3000 F) may be
realized. Under these conditions some small portion of the brick will actually exist as a
liquid.
Basic Refractories
The refractories that are rich in periclase, or magnesia (MgO), are
termed basic; they may also contain calcium, chromium, and iron compounds. The
presence of silica is deleterious to their high-temperature performance. Basic
refractories are especially resistant to attack by slags containing high concentrations of
MgO and CaO and find extensive use in some steel-making open hearth furnaces.
Special Refractories
Yet other ceramic materials are used for rather specialized refractory
applications. Some of these are relatively high-purity oxide materials, many of which
may be produced with very little porosity. Included in this group are alumina, silica,
magnesia, beryllia (BeO), zirconia (ZrO2), and mullite (3Al2O3–2SiO2). Others include
carbide compounds, in addition to carbon and graphite. Silicon carbide (SiC) has been
used for electrical resistance heating elements, as a crucible material, and in internal
furnace components. Carbon and graphite are very refractory, but find limited
application because they are susceptible to oxidation at temperatures in excess of
about 800 C (1470 F). As would be expected, these specialized refractories are
relatively expensive.
13.6 ABRASIVES
Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material, which
necessarily is softer. Therefore, the prime requisite for this group of materials is
hardness or wear resistance; in addition, a high degree of toughness is essential to
ensure that the abrasive particles do not easily fracture. Furthermore, high temperatures
may be produced from abrasive frictional forces, so some refractoriness is also
desirable.
Coated abrasives are those in which an abrasive powder is coated on some
type of paper or cloth material; sandpaper is probably the most familiar example. Wood,
metals, ceramics, and plastics are all frequently ground and polished using this form of
abrasive. Grinding, lapping, and polishing wheels often employ loose abrasive grains
that are delivered in some type of oil- or water-based vehicle. Diamonds, corundum,
silicon carbide, and rouge (an iron oxide) are used in loose form over a variety of grain
size ranges.
13.7 CEMENTS
Several familiar ceramic materials are classified as inorganic cements:
cement, plaster of paris, and lime, which, as a group, are produced in extremely large
quantities. The characteristic feature of these materials is that when mixed with water,
they form a paste that subsequently sets and hardens. This trait is especially useful in
that solid and rigid structures having just about any shape may be expeditiously formed.
Also, some of these materials act as a bonding phase that chemically binds particulate
aggregates into a single cohesive structure. Under these circumstances, the role of the
cement is similar to that of the glassy bonding phase that forms when clay products and
some refractory bricks are fired. One important difference, however, is that the
cementitious bond develops at room temperature.
Portland cement is termed a hydraulic cement because its hardness
develops by chemical reactions with water. It is used primarily in mortar and concrete to
bind aggregates of inert particles (sand and/or gravel) into a cohesive mass; these are
considered to be composite materials. Other cement materials, such as lime, are
nonhydraulic; that is, compounds other than water (e.g., CO2) are involved in the
hardening reaction.
13.8 ADVANCED CERAMICS
Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) Microelectromechanical
systems (abbreviated MEMS) are miniature “smart” systems consisting of a multitude of
mechanical devices that are integrated with large numbers of electrical elements on a
substrate of silicon. The mechanical components are microsensors and microactuators.
Microsensors collect environmental information by measuring mechanical, thermal,
chemical, optical, and/or magnetic phenomena.
Optical Fibers
One new and advanced ceramic material that is a critical component
in our modern optical communications systems is the optical fiber. The optical fiber is
made of extremely high-purity silica, which must be free of even minute levels of
contaminants and other defects that absorb, scatter, and attenuate a light beam. Very
advanced and sophisticated processing techniques have been developed to produce
fibers that meet the rigid restrictions required for this application.
Ceramic Ball Bearings
Another new and interesting application of ceramic materials is in
bearings. A bearing consists of balls and races that are in contact with and rub against
one another when in use. In the past, both ball and race components traditionally have
been made of bearing steels that are very hard and extremely corrosion resistant and
may be polished to a very smooth surface finish. Over the past decade or so, silicon
nitride (Si3N4) balls have begun replacing steel balls in a number of applications,
because several properties of Si3N4 make it a more desirable material. In most
instances races are still made of steel, because its tensile strength is superior to that of
silicon nitride. This combination of ceramic balls and steel races is termed a hybrid
bearing.
13.9 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF GLASSES AND GLASS-
CERAMICS
Glass Properties
Before we discuss specific glass-forming techniques, some of the
temperature-sensitive properties of glass materials must be presented. Glassy, or
noncrystalline, materials do not solidify in the same sense as do those that are
crystalline. Upon cooling, a glass becomes more and more viscous in a continuous
manner with decreasing temperature; there is no definite temperature at which the liquid
transforms to a solid as with crystalline materials. In fact, one of the distinctions
between crystalline and noncrystalline materials lies in the dependence of specific
volume (or volume per unit mass, the reciprocal of density) on temperature.
However, for glassy materials, volume decreases continuously with
temperature reduction; a slight decrease in slope of the curve occurs at what is called
the glass transition temperature, or fictive temperature, Tg. Below this temperature,
the material is considered to be a glass; above, it is first a supercooled liquid, and finally
a liquid
On the viscosity scale, several specific points that are important in the
fabrication and processing of glasses are labeled:
Glass Forming
Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature
above which melting occurs. Most commercial glasses are of the silica–soda–lime
variety; the silica is usually supplied as common quartz sand, whereas Na2O and CaO
are added as soda ash (Na2CO3) and limestone (CaCO3).
13.10 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF CLAY PRODUCTS
The Characteristics of Clay
The clay minerals play two very important roles in ceramic bodies. First, when
water is added, they become very plastic, a condition termed hydroplasticity. This
property is very important in forming operations, as discussed shortly. In addition, clay
fuses or melts over a range of temperatures; thus, a dense and strong ceramic piece
may be produced during firing without complete melting such that the desired shape is
maintained. This fusion temperature range, of course, depends on the composition of
the clay.
Hydroplastic Forming
As mentioned previously, clay minerals, when mixed with water, become
highly plastic and pliable and may be molded without cracking; however, they have
extremely low yield [Link] consistency (water–clay ratio) of the hydroplastic
mass must give a yield strength sufficient to permit a formed ware to maintain its shape
during handling and drying.
Drying
As a clay-based ceramic body dries, it also experiences some shrinkage. In
the early stages of drying, the clay particles are virtually surrounded by and separated
from one another by a thin film of water. As drying progresses and water is removed,
the interparticle separation decreases.
Firing
After drying, a body is usually fired at a temperature between 900 and
1400 C (1650 and 2550 F); the firing temperature depends on the composition and
desired properties of the finished piece. During the firing operation, the density is further
increased (with an attendant decrease in porosity) and the mechanical strength is
enhanced.
13.11 POWDER PRESSING
Several ceramic-forming techniques have already been discussed
relative to the fabrication of glass and clay products. Another important and commonly
used method that warrants a brief treatment is powder pressing. Powder pressing, the
ceramic analogue to powder metallurgy, is used to fabricate both clay and nonclay
compositions, including electronic and magnetic ceramics as well as some refractory
brick products.
In essence, a powdered mass, usually containing a small amount of
water or other binder, is compacted into the desired shape by pressure. The degree of
compaction is maximized and the fraction of void space is minimized by using coarse
and fine particles mixed in appropriate proportions. There is no plastic deformation of
the particles during compaction, as there may be with metal powders. One function of
the binder is to lubricate the powder particles as they move past one another in the
compaction process.
13.12 TAPE CASTING
An important ceramic fabrication technique, tape casting. As the name
implies, thin sheets of a flexible tape are produced by means of a casting process.
These sheets are prepared from slips, in many respects similar to those that are
employed for slip casting. This type of slip consists of a suspension of ceramic particles
in an organic liquid that also contains binders and plasticizers that are incorporated to
impart strength and flexibility to the cast tape.
Cementation is also considered a ceramic fabrication process. The
cement material, when mixed with water, forms a paste that, after being fashioned into a
desired shape, subsequently hardens as a result of complex chemical reactions.
CONTRIBUTIONS:
NAME CONTRIBUTION
Angela Agreda Report Research, PPT, Reporting
Ferdie Bisco Report Research, PPT, Reporting
Honey Bolor Report Research, PPT, Reporting
Rommel Panganiban Report Research, PPT, Reporting
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Concrete,
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D. R. Uhlmann,
Introduction to Ceramics, 2nd edition, Wiley, New York, 1976. Chapters 1, 10, 11, and 16.
Reed, J. S., Principles of Ceramic Processing, 2nd edition, Wiley, New York, 1995.
Richerson, D.W.,Modern Ceramic Engineering, 3rd edition,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2006. Schact, C. A. (Editor), Refractories Handbook,
Marcel Dekker, New York, 2004. Shelby, J. E., Introduction to Glass Science and Technology,
Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 2005. Varshneya, A. K.,
Fundamentals of Inorganic Glasses, Elsevier, 1994
