INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Section 1
In this section will discuss definition, aims, objects, strength and limitations of ICT

Definition
 ICTs are basically information handling tools - a varied set of goods, applications, and
services that are used to produce, store, process, distribute,and exchange information.
 ICT includes both old and new tools.

Old ICT tools mainly include radio, TV,and telephone

New ICT tools mainly include computers, satellite, wireless technology, and the
Internet.
 ICTs not only refer to the latest computer and the Internet-based technologies but also refer

simple audio–visual aids such as transparencies, slides, cassette and video recorders, radio,
television, and film.
 ICT, or information and communications technology (or technologies), is the
infrastructure and components that enable modern computing. Although there is no single,
universal definition of ICT, the term is generally accepted tomean all devices, networking
components, applications and systems that combined allow people and organizations (i.e.,
businesses, nonprofit agencies, governments and criminal enterprises) to interact in the
digital world.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF ICT

Main aims of ICT are listed below

1. To help students to become competent and confident users who can use the basic
knowledge and skills acquired to assist them in their dailylives.

2. To equip learners with the appropriate social skills required to cooperate with fellow
ICT learners for a more productive learning experience.

3. To help students become well-cultured citizens of the modern world.It achieves this as it
 facilitates the discovery and appreciation of various culturalheritages of different countries
around the world.

4. To assist students to grow personally by facilitating different methods of learning.

Distance-learning programs are now provided by most colleges anduniversities
5. To Improve the quality of teaching, especially across remote locations.

6. To Increas transparency and strengthening systems, processes, and compliancenorms in

higher education institutes.

7. To Measur the students’ learning participation and effectiveness by Analysing

students’ behaviour to maximize students’ involvement, optimizing retentions, and
improving placements.

STRENGTHS OF ICT
1. Individualization of learning: Individualization of learning means that people learn as
individuals and not as a homogenous group.

2. Interactivity: Through interactivity feature, the learner can relate to the content more
effectively, go forward and backward in the content, and start at any point,depending upon
prior knowledge and experience.

3. Uniform quality: If content is well produced and is of good quality, the same quality can
be delivered to the rich and the poor, the urban and the rural equally, and at the same low
cost. This way of using ICTs can be a great equalizer.

4. More economical, higher speed of delivery and wider reach: With increase in number
of learners.

5. Multiple teaching functions and diverse audiences: ICTs, especially the computer and
the Internet-based can be useful in drills and practices; to help
diagnose and solve problems, for accessing information and knowledge about various
related themes.
 LIMITATIONS OF ICT

 High infrastructure and start-up costs: It costs money to build ICT systems and to
maintain them. The cost of hardware and software can be very high.
 Little attention towards individual differences in order to achieve economies of
scale: The higher the quantity, the lower will be the cost. To keep the costlow, we make
the content common.
 Accessibility issue: Not everyone has equal access; therefore, not everyonebenefits

equally from the use of ICTs.

 Difficulty in performance evaluation: Learning from ICTs is usually
multidimensional in nature and with long-term perspective.
 ICT is basically a delivery system: A medium is different from the content; ICTs are

essentially meant only to deliver contents; they are not expected to majorattitudinal or
behavioral change.
 Section 2
Now we goanna to discuss components of computers which includes introduction,
different types, and historical evolution of computer, Hardware, software.

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

 A computer is an electronic device used for storing and processing data andcarrying out
sequence of operations. In short, it is a device which is invented to simplify the
complicated tasks.
 Word computer 1st used in a book named as “The Yong Man’s Gleanings” By Richard
Braithwaite.
 Father of computer Charles Babbage was considered to be the father of computing after
his invention and concept of the Analytical Engine in 1837.

FATHERS IN COMPUTER FIELD

• COMPUTER -Charles Babbage

• COMPUTER SCIENCE-Alan Turing
• INDIAN SUPER COMPUTER-Dr. Vijay Bhatkar
• PERSONAL COMPUTER-Henry Edward Ed Roberts
• MOBILE PHONES- Martin Cooper
• INFORMATION THEORY- Cloude Shannon
• IT IN INDIA- Rajiv Gandhi
• INTERNET- Vint Cerf
• ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE - John McCarthy
 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

ABACUS
 First counting device in China.

 Earliest calculating device, also called a counting frame.

 Name Abacus was obtained from Greek word Abax means slab.

PASCALINE
 first device with an ability to perform additions and subtractions on wholenumbers.
 contains numbers 0 to 9 on its circumference.

 Developed by Blaise Pascal.

TRANSISTORS
 In 1947, Transistors were introduced into the computers. With theintroduction

of transistors, computations were simpler and faster.

 Which uses discrete transistors instead of vacuum tubes

 Large amounts of heat can be reduced more easily

 1st computer programmer-Ada Lovelace

 Father of information theory-Claude Elwood

 First machine that could add, subtract, multiply and divide- FORTRAN

developed by IBM , In 1957

 Invention of 1st electronic digital computer-Jhon Vincent Atanasoff

 In 1960, Mainframe computer was designed which used IC for the first time.

 In 1970, Memory chip with 1KB storage capacity was developed by Intel.

 In 1975, First microcomputer was developed by H. Edward Roberts (now thefather of

microcomputer).

FUNDEMENTALS OF COMPUTER:
 Computer: A computer is a truly amazing machine that performs a specified sequence

of operations as per the set of instructions (known as programs) given on a set of data
(input) to generate desired information (output).
  A complete computer system consists of four parts:
1. Hardware: Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of thecomputer.

2. Software: Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex code

(Programs that make the computer perform tasks.)

3. User: The computer operators are known as users

4. Data: Consists of raw facts, which the computer stores and reads in the formof numbers.

GENERATION OF COMPUTER
Since its invention the computer technology has gone through regressive upgradation
process. Sometimes it even seems like the that this technological advancement in the field
of has not got any limits.

 The history of computer development is been divided into five generations.

Each one of the five generationsof computers is characterized by a major technological

development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate.
 First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1946-1959)
 They used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
 These computers were very expensive to operate and use huge amount ofelectricity,
 First generation computers relied on machine language.
 They could only solve one problem at a time.
 Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on
printouts
 The UNIVAC (First commercial computer 1951) and ENIAC computers areexamples
of first-generation computing devices.
 Advantages
• Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during thosedays.
• These computers could calculate data in millisecond.
 Disadvantages
• The computers were very large in size.
• They consumed a large amount of energy.
• They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes
Second Generation: Transistors (1959-1965)
• Transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers.
• Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy- efficient and
more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
• Second-generation computers relied on punched cards for input andprintouts for
output.
• moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages,
which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
• High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time,such
as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.
 Advantages
• Smaller in size as compared to the first-generation computers.
• Used less energy and were not heated.
  Disadvantages
• Cooling system was required.
• Constant maintenance was required.

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1965-1971)

• Use Integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency ofcomputers.
• Users interaction started through keyboards and monitors instead ofpunched cards
• Use of operating system allowed the device to run many differentapplications
at one time.
 Advantages
• Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.
• More reliable.
• Used less energy
 Disadvantages
• Air conditioning was required.
• Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971-1980s)

• Invention of microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, Now, thousands
of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled
an entire room could now fit in the palm ofthe hand.
• In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh.

• As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of theInternet.
• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouseand handheld
devices.
 Advantages
• More powerful and reliable than previous generations.
• Small in size
• Fast processing power with less power consumption
 Disadvantages
• The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors

Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)

• Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used
today.
• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality.
• The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
• Is based on the technique of Artificial Intelligence, Also known as ROBOTICS
• They will able to use more than one CPU for faster processing speed
• Aim to be able to solve highly complex problem including decision making logic
reasoning

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.
Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer.

controlled robot, or a software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent
humans think.
AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans learn,
decide, and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes ofthis
study as a basis of developing intelligent software and systems.
Goal of Artificial Intelligence:
• To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior,
learn, demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.
• To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that
understand, think, learn, and behave like human
 Types of Computers:
Computers can be classified on the basis of their functioning, their input process,their
output process, their size, their capabilities and their storage capacity. The different
types of computers are as follows:
• Analog Computers
• Digital Computers
• Hybrid Computers
• Super Computers

Analog computers
• Analog computers always take input in form of signals. Uses continuouslychangeable

aspects of physical phenomena such as voltage, pressure, temperature speed serves as a

solver of differential equations and other mathematically complex equations
• The input data is not a number infect a physical quantity like temp.,pressure, speed,

velocity.
• Signals are continuous of (0 to 10 V).

• Accuracy 1% Approximately. Example: Speedometer.

Digital Computers
• These computers take the input in the form of digits & alphabets &converted it into

binary format.
• Numbers 0,1

• Used in automobile to control flow of fuels.

• Serves as the controller and provides logical and numerical operations

• Digital computers are high speed, programmable electronic devices.

o Signals are two level of (0 for low/off 1 for high/on).

o Accuracy unlimited.
• Examples: Computer used for the purpose of business and education is alsoan example of
digital computers.
 Hybrid Computer
• The combination of features of an analog and digital computer is called a Hybrid
computer.
• The main examples are central national defense and passenger flight radarsystem.
• They are also used to control robots. Combine best features of both Analog& Digita
• Have the accuracy of analog and speed of digital computers eg : In hospitals
,defense.

Super Computer
• The biggest in size.
• Most Expensive
• It can process trillions of instructions in seconds.
• This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in acollege.
• Used by Govt. for different calculations and heavy jobs.
• Supercomputers are used for the heavy stuff like weather maps,construction of
atom bombs, earthquake prediction etc.

Mainframes
• It can also process millions of instructions per second.
• It can handle processing of many users at a time. Less expensive than
Supercomputer
• It is commonly used in Hospitals, Air Reservation Companies as it canretrieve data
on a huge basis.
• This is normally too expensive and out of reach from a salary-based person.
• It can cost up to thousands of Dollars.

Mini-Computer
• These computers are preferred mostly by small type of business personals,colleges etc.
• These computers are cheaper than above two.
• Its an intermediary between microcomputer and mainframe.
 Micro Computer/ Personal Computer
• It is mostly preferred by Home Users.
• Cost is less compared to above.
• Small in size.
• A microcomputer contains a central processing unit on a microchip in the form of read-
only memory and random access memory, and a housed in aunit that is usually called a
motherboard.

Notebook Computers
• Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are smallenough to fit
easily in a briefcase.
• The principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal
computer is the display screen.
• Many notebook display screens are limited to VGA resolution.
 Processing cycle in computer
• Input -Input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form will
depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic

computers are used, the input data could be recorded on any one of several types of
input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so on. Device can send data to another
device, but it cannot receive data from another device. Examples of an input device
include a computer keyboard,scanner, joystick and mouse

• Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. For
example, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards,or a summary of sales for the
month may be calculated from the sales orders.

• Output - The result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The particular form
of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-
checks for employees. Reproduces or displays the results of that processing, can receive
data from another device, but it cannot send data to another device. Examples of an
outputdevice include a computer monitor, projector and speakers

Input Devices are the units for making link between user and computer. The input
devices translate the information into the form understandable by the computer. Dueto ICT
revolution, we are day by day encountering different variety of Input devices around us.

These new generation of input devices are being created with the sole objective of
making Interaction between human a machine flawless.
• Keyboard: The most common and very popular input device which helpsin inputting data
to the computer.
• Mouse: Mouse is the most popular pointing device and cursor-controldevice having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base which enses the movement of a mouse
and sends corresponding signals toCPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
• Trackpad: Also known as a trackpad, a touchpad is a common substitutefor a computer
mouse. It is essentially a specialized surface that can detect the movement of a user's finger
and use that information to directa pointer and control a computer.
• Joy Stick: It is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computergames.
• Light pen: It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures onthe monitor
screen.
• Track Ball: Mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a
ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on theball, the pointer can be moved.
• Scanner: A scanner allows you to scan printed material and convert itinto a file format
that may be used within the Personal Computer.
• Graphic Tablet: Also known as digitizers, graphic tablets are input devices used for
converting hand-drawn artwork into digital images. It converts analog information into
digital form. The user draws with a stylus on a special flat surface as if they were drawing
on a piece of paper. The drawing appears on the computer screen and can be saved,
edited, or printed.
• Microphone: Microphone is an input device to input sound that is thenstored in digital
form.
• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): MICR input device is generally used
in banks because of a large number of a cheque to be processed every day.

• Optical character recognition (OCR): OCR converts a scanned imageinto text.

• Digital Camera: Digital cameras are also an input device as they areused to capture
photographs and videos independently. Later, these photo and video files can be
transferred to a computer.
• Webcams: They are necessary input devices for task like videoconferencing. Webcams
are different from digital cameras in two ways. Firstly, they cannot operate independently
 from a computer, and second, they have no inbuilt memory. Although webcams can
capture photographs and videos, they are more often used to live-stream videos or
facilitate video chats.
• Barcode reader: A barcode scanner or reader is a device used to readbarcodes printed
on packed products. Most businesses buy barcode scanners for use during the checkout
process.
• Gamepad: The wired or wireless gaming remotes used for playing xbox,playstation etc.
are also input devices.
• MIDI keyboard: A MIDI keyboard or controller keyboard is typically a piano-style
electronic musical keyboard, often with other buttons, wheels and sliders, used for sending
MIDI signals or commands over a USB or MIDI 5-pin cable to other musical devices or
computers connected and operating on the same MIDI protocol.

• Pen Input: Pen input refers to the way Windows lets you interact directlywith a computer
using a pen. A pen can be used for pointing and also forgestures, simple text entry, and
capturing free-form thoughts in digital ink.
• Electronic Whiteboard: An electronic whiteboard is a hardware device that is similar to
a whiteboard that is found in schools and businesses. It transmits any information written
it to a computer or multiple computers. They also allow live interaction with digital
objects on the screen.
• Punch card reader: It is a computer input device used to read computerprograms in either
source or executable form and data from punched cards.
• Optical mark recognition (OMR): the technology of electronically extracting intended
data from marked fields, such as checkboxes and fill- infields, on printed forms. OMR
technology scans a printed form and reads predefined positions and records where marks
are made on the form.
• Biometric scanner: Biometric input device measures a unique physical characteristic of
a person. The most common biometric devices are used to input a person's fingerprint into
a computer. More sophisticated devices use a camera to input a description of a person's
iris (the coloredpart of the eye).
 Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable byusers.
• Monitors: Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the main
output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are
arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number
of pixels. There are two kinds ofviewing screen used for monitors.
• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called
pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity,or resolution.

• Flat- Panel Display: The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have
reduced volume, weight and power requirement incomparison to the CRT.
• Printers: Printer is an output device, which is used to print informationon paper. Which
are two types mainly.
1) Impact Printers: The impact printers print the characters by strikingthem on the ribbon
which is then pressed on the paper.
2) Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon.
These printers print a complete page at a time so they arealso called as Page Printers.
Laser Printers, Inkjet Printers.
• Plotters: Plotters are generally used with engineering applications, for generating a hard
copy of a digitally created design. In addition, Plottersare also often used by graphic artists,
architects, constructions engineers,etc.
• Projector: Projectors are output devices used mainly by companies, schools, and
churches to show information to a large body of people atthe same time. They are also
used during meetings or classes for presentations.
• Computer Output Microfilm (COM): COM machines were used to take print-image
output from the computer either online or via tape or disk and create a film image of each
page.
• Speaker(s): Every variety of Speaker are considered as out devices as they provide
musical output.
• Head Phone/Earphone: The Headphones, and Earphone frequently usedby us are also
output device like a speaker, they difference is that they are manufactured for individual
use.

• Microfiche: Microfiche is a card made of transparent film used to store printed

information in miniaturized form. To read the card, one places it under the lens of a
microfiche reader machine, which magnifies it.
• Video Card: These are hardware devices that work in conjunction withthe monitor to
display visual output to the user. This hardware device helps the user return information
to the computer as well, thereby enhancing interaction.
• CD and DVD media: They standard output devices for a computer. The advantage of
these output devices is in storing data for a long period oftime. CD and DVD are writable,
users write information into a CD and DVD hardware device to share information.
• Actuator: An Actuator is an output device responsible for creating real- world movements
in a computer-controlled system. Also, an actuator is a type of motor often used in
companies that deal on robotics and in construction companies that are involved in gear
and metal movements.
• Braille Reader: It helps blind people to read the text. The computer sent the text to the
device in the Braille format. That makes the text readable.
 Both Input–Output Devices
• Touch Screen: A touch screen is a device which works as both an input and an output
device. You view the options available to you on the screen (output) and you then use
your finger to touch the option that you have chosen (input).
• Modems: A modem is a combination of two words, mod for modulation and dem for
demodulation. And so, it does act like an input and output device, as it sends and receives
information over the telephone lines.
• Network cards: Network card is a device for communication between computers. It
takes the input from one and transmit it to the other as output.
• Audio Cards / Sound Card: is an internal expansion card that provides input and output
of audio signals to and from a computer under controlof computer programs.
• Headsets: Headset consists of Speakers and Microphone hence it performs both input
and output task simultaneously. Speaker acts asOutput Device and Microphone act as
Input device
• Facsimile (FAX): It has scanner to scan the document and also haveprinter to Print
the document.
 What is software: Definition and meaning
Software is a collective term for:

• computer programs
• applications
• operating systems

Software is a set of programs containing data and instructions that perform operations and
tasks, basically telling a computer how to work. Computers, smartphones, and tablets use
software to perform or automate daily tasks. When software is integrated into a device or
appliance, such as in a calculator, television, car, or washing machine, it is called embedded
software. Some common software examples that many businesses use in daily operations
include Microsoft Office, Chrome, Safari, PowerPoints, and Excel.

What is the difference between hardware and software?

Hardware includes the physical components of a computer, such as a monitor, keyboard, or

mouse, as well as internal elements, such as the motherboard and hard disk. In contrast,
software is a digital portion that relies on hardware and is needed to run other programs, for
instance, a photo editor or an accounting program on a computer. Software typically
enables the hardware to perform specific assigned activities.

What are the different types of software?

There can be different types of business software applications that businesses can use for
varied operational purposes. Below are some common types of software available for use:

1. System software

System software manages a computer and its operating system. This software typically
manages the activities and controls the operations of computer hardware and enables an
environment for all other software to work efficiently. A good example of system software
is a computer's operating system, often called OS. Some common types of operating systems
include Microsoft Windows, Linux Mint, and Mac OS.

This OS typically communicates with the hardware and provides basic functionality for
devices such as your computer desktop, mobile phone, or tablet. OS also enables you to
manage files and folders and install programs.

2. Application software

Application software is typically a user-downloaded program installed on the computer.

This software can help users perform various tasks on a computer, tablet, or smartphone.
Application software can be further divided into personal, office, and business software.
Where personal software (such as shopping applications and games) is generally intended
for private use by consumers, office software consists of every office's essential programs,
such as word processing programs, calculation programs like Excel or Google Sheets, email
programs like Outlook, and presentation software like PowerPoint.

In addition, the third type, i.e. business software, typically includes programs companies
use to run their daily operations. Some examples of this type are project management
tools, customer relationship management CRM) programs, ERP, and accounting systems.

3. Programming software

Programming is another name for software development, and a software developer usually
performs this function. Programming software is mainly used by computer programmers to
write code. Such tools, for the most part, help developers to create, write, test and also debug
different software programs.

With that said, while developing software, a programming language is used. This is a
language in the form of code that can later be converted into a software program. Some
examples of programming languages include Python, C and C++, Java, and SQL.

4. Driver software

This software can be considered a sub-type of system software. Driver software generally
controls the hardware devices attached to the computer, helping them perform their assigned
tasks. With that said, each device connected to a computer might require a device driver to
function correctly. Some devices requiring drivers include card readers, keyboards, USB
devices, speakers and game controllers.
CPU
The full form of CPU is Central Processing Unit. It is a brain of the computer. All
types of data processing operations and all the important functions of a computer are
performed by the CPU. It helps input and output devices to communicate with each other and
perform their respective operations. It also stores data which is input, intermediate results in
between processing, and instructions.

What is a CPU?
A Central Processing Unit is the most important component of a computer system. A CPU is
a hardware that performs data input/output, processing and storage functions for a computer
system. A CPU can be installed into a CPU socket. These sockets are generally located on
the motherboard. CPU can perform various data processing operations. CPU can store data,
instructions, programs, and intermediate results.

History of CPU
Since 1823, when Baron Jons Jakob Berzelius discovered silicon, which is still the primary
component used in the manufacture of CPUs today, the history of the CPU has experienced
numerous significant turning points. The first transistor was created by John Bardeen, Walter
Brattain, and William Shockley in December 1947. In 1958, the first working integrated
circuit was built by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby.

The Intel 4004 was the company’s first microprocessor, which it unveiled in 1971. Ted
Hoff’s assistance was needed for this. When Intel released its 8008 CPU in 1972, Intel 8086
in 1976, and Intel 8088 in June 1979, it contributed to yet another win. The Motorola 68000,
a 16/32-bit processor, was also released in 1979. The Sun also unveiled the SPARC CPU in
1987. AMD unveiled the AM386 CPU series in March 1991.

In January 1999, Intel introduced the Celeron 366 MHZ and 400 MHz processors. AMD
back in April 2005 with it’s first dual-core processor. Intel also introduced the Core 2 Dual
processor in 2006. Intel released the first Core i5 desktop processor with four cores in
September 2009.

In January 2010, Intel released other processors like Core 2 Quad processor Q9500, the first
Core i3 and i5 mobile processors, first Core i3 and i5 desktop processors.

In June 2017, Intel released Core i9 desktop processor, and Intel introduced its first Core i9
mobile processor In April 2018.

Different Parts of CPU

Now, the CPU consists of 3 major units, which are:

1) Memory or Storage Unit

2) Control Unit
3) ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Let us now look at the block diagram of the computer:CPU
Here, in this diagram, the three major components are also shown. So, let us discuss these
major components:

Memory or Storage Unit

As the name suggests this unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. The
memory unit is responsible for transferring information to other units of the computer when
needed. It is also known as an internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary
storage or Random Access Memory (RAM) as all these are storage devices.

Its size affects speed, power, and performance. There are two types of memory in the
computer, which are primary memory and secondary memory. Some main functions of
memory units are listed below:

Data and instructions are stored in memory units which are required for processing.
It also stores the intermediate results of any calculation or task when they are in process.
The final results of processing are stored in the memory units before these results are
released to an output device for giving the output to the user.
All sorts of inputs and outputs are transmitted through the memory unit.
Control Unit
As the name suggests, a control unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but it
does not carry out any data processing operations. For executing already stored instructions,
It instructs the computer by using the electrical signals to instruct the computer system. It
takes instructions from the memory unit and then decodes the instructions after that it
executes those instructions. So, it controls the functioning of the computer. It’s main task is
to maintain the flow of information across the processor. Some main functions of the control
unit are listed below:

Controlling of data and transfer of data and instructions is done by the control unit among
other parts of the computer.
The control unit Is responsible for managing all the units of the computer.
The main task of the control unit is to obtain the instructions or data which is input from the
memory unit, interprets them, and then directs the operation of the computer according to
that.
The control unit Is responsible for communication with Input and output devices for the
transfer of data or results from memory.
The control unit Is not responsible for the processing of data or storing data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical functions
or operations. It consists of two subsections, which are:

Arithmetic Section
Logic Section

Now, let us know about these subsections:

Arithmetic Section: By arithmetic operations, we mean operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, and all these operation and functions are performed
by ALU. Also, all the complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the
mentioned operations by ALU.

Logic Section: By Logical operations, we mean operations or functions like selecting,

comparing, matching, and merging the data, and all these are performed by ALU.

Note: CPU may contain more than one ALU and it can be used for maintaining timers that
help run the computer system.

What Does a CPU Do?

The main function of a computer processor is to execute instruction and produce an output.
CPU work are Fetch, Decode and Execute are the fundamental functions of the computer.

Fetch: the first CPU gets the instruction. That means binary numbers that are passed from
RAM to CPU.
Decode: When the instruction is entered into the CPU, it needs to decode the instructions.
With the help of ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit) the process of decode begins.
Execute: After decode step the instructions are ready to execute
Strore: After execute step the instructions are ready to store in the memory.

Types of CPU
We have three different types of CPU:

1) Single Core CPU: The oldest type of computer CPUs is single core CPU. These
CPUs were used in the 1970s. these CPUs only have a single core that preform
different operations. This means that the single core CPU can only process one
operation at a single time. Single core CPU CPU is not suitable for multitasking.
2) Dual-Core CPU: Dual-Core CPUs contain a single Integrated Circuit with two cores.
Each core has its cache and controller. These controllers and cache are work as a
single unit. Dual core CPUs can work faster than the single-core processors.
3) Quad-Core CPU: Quad-Core CPUs contain two dual-core processors present within a
single integrated circuit (IC) or chip. A quad-core processor contains a chip with four
independent cores. These cores read and execute various instructions provided by the
CPU. Quad Core CPU increases the overall speed for programs. Without even
boosting the overall clock speed it results in higher performance.
 Section 3

COMPUTER MEMORY
• Store all instructions for CPU
• We will understand the concept of memory first before going for further details. Computer
memory is a physical device, where we can store the information temporarily or
permanently, namely- RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM (Read-Only Memory),
CD, DVD, HDD, and Flash Memory. Operating systems, software use it, and hardware
also utilizes to integrate thecircuits.

Levels of memory:
Level 1 or Register –
It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are immediatelystored
in CPU. Most commonly used register is accumulator, Program counter, address
register etc.
Level 2 or Cache memory –
It is the fastest memory which has faster access time where data is temporarily storedfor
faster access.
Level 3 or Main Memory –
It is memory on which computer works currently. It is small in size and once power isoff
data no longer stays in this memory.
Level 4 or Secondary Memory –
It is external memory which is not as fast as main memory but data stayspermanently in
this memory.

Types of memory
There are two types of memory-
1) Primary Memory 2) Secondary Memory.
1) Primary Memory

It is the memory that is accessed by the CPU (Central Processing Unit) straightforwardly.
It permits a processor to get to running execution applications andadministrations that are
incidentally put away in a particular memory area.
 Primary memory is also known as primary storage or main memory. It is Volatile, and the
storage capacity is limited in Primary Memory.

It,s two types ROM& RAM

ROM:
• ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can onlyread but
cannot write on it.
• It is a non-volatile memory. The information is stored permanently in suchmemories
during manufacture.
• A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. Thisoperation is
referred to as bootstrap.
• ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.
Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

There are mainly four types of ROM available:

1) MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a
pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked
ROMs which are inexpensive.

2) PROM (Programmable Read-only Memory): PROM is read-only memory that can be

modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents
using a PROM program.

3) EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EPROM can beerased by
exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM
eraser achieves this function.

4) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): TheEEPROM

is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programmingtake about 4 to 10 ms (milli second).
 RAM:
• RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine
is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, datais erased.
• Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes thesame amount of time. Data in
the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
• RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computeror
if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System(UPS) is often
used with computers.
• RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the terms of storagecapacity.

1) Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)

• In the SRAM,data is stored in transistors and requires a constant power flow. Because of
the continuous power, SRAM doesn’t need to be refreshed to remember the data being
stored. SRAM is called static as no change or action
i.e. refreshing is needed to keep the data intact.
• It is used in cache memories.
o Advantage: Low power consumption and faster access speeds.
o Disadvantage: Less memory capacities and high costs of manufacturing.
2) Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) :
• Data is stored in capacitors. Capacitors that store data in DRAM graduallydischarge
energy, no energy means the data has been lost.
• The power has to be periodically refreshed in order to function. DRAM is called
dynamic as constant change or action i.e. refreshing is needed to keep the data intact. It is
used to implement main memory.
o Advantage: Low costs of manufacturing and greater memory capacities.
o Disadvantage: Slow access speed and high power consumption.

2) Secondary Memory
• Secondary memory is termed as external memory and refers to the multiple storage media
on which a PC can store information and projects. It can be fixed or removable. Hard Disk
 comes under the Fixed Storage Media, which isan Internal Storage Medium and set inside
the PC. It is versatile and can take outside the computer.

• Central Processing Unit (CPU) will not obtain the instant result to the Secondary
Memory. Alternatively, before sending it to the Processing Unit, theaccessed data will be
loaded first into the RAM (Random Access Memory).

Secondary Storage Media

Here, we are providing complete detail information, which comes under the
Secondary Storage Media.

Magnetic Storage Media

The devices that come under the magnetic storage media are- Hard Disks, Floppy Disks,
and Magnetic Tapes. There are the devices that are coated with the magnetic layer,
magnetized in anti-clockwise, and clockwise directions. The head reads the information
stored at a particular area in binary 1s and 0s at reading while disks move or rotate.

Floppy Disk- It is flexibly coated by the magnet, which is packaged inside the
protective plastic envelope. It is the oldest device with a memory of 1.44 MB now,and
there is no use of the Floppy Disk because of the less memory.
Hard Disk- It is consists of more than one circular device coated with magnetic material,
which is known as Platters. The inner surfaced of the Disk can store the dataexcept for the
bottom and the top. The data will record by rotating magnetic reads/ write heads of the
disks.
Components of the Hard Disk
1. There are several disk Platters mostly in the basic types of Hard Disk, which placed

around the spindle in a sealed chamber. The chamber has the motors and reads/writes
head.
2. Data will store in each Disk of concentric circles called Tracks

3. The tracks divided into further circles.

4. The internal hard drives are not very much portable comparatively from the external

one.
5. Data in the hard disk can store up to numerous terabytes.

Optical Storage Media

CD and DVDs come under the Optical Storage Media, which stored as a spiral pattern
of pits and ridges signifying binary 0 and 1. These are not magnet coated devices like a
floppy disk and hard disk. In these devices, the information is storedand read using a
laser beam.

Compact Disk (CD)- The Compact Device (CD) which uses optical rays, lasers, to read
and write data. It is a circular disk. It is a portable device as we can eject the drive and
remove it from the PC and carry it with us. The difference in the type of CDs mentioned
below-

CD-ROM
• Expanded Form of CD-ROM is Compact Disk-Read-Only Memory.
• In this Disk, once the data are written in the disk, it cannot be changed.
• These are usually used for text, audio, and video for games, encyclopedia, andapplication
software.

CD-R
• CD-R stands for Compact Disk- Recordable.
• In this Disk, the data can be recorded only once.
• Once the data can be written or recorded, it cannot be erased or modified.CD-

RW
• Full-Form of CD-RW is Compact Disk-Rewritable.
• It can be write and read multiple times.

Digital Video/Versatile Disk (DVD)

• The formation of the DVD is circular like the Compact Device and has similar
technology. It is a significant progression in portable storage technology.
• In DVD, we can hold 4.7 GB to 17 GB of data, which is 15 times more from thestorage
of CD. Usually, it is used to store rich multimedia portfolios that need high storage
capacity. DVDs also come in three categories- read-only, recordable and rewritable.
Blue Ray Disk (BD)
• It is used to store the High Definition (HD) videos or other multimedia files.The laser
wavelength is shorter than the CD/DVD as a comparison.
• Blue Ray Disk can store up to 128 GB data max, 27 GB data on a single layerdisk, and
54 GB and more data on a dual-layer disc.

Solid-State Memory
• It will be work based on the electronic circuits, not like the other devices like- a reel of
tape, magnet coating, or spinning disks, etc. The Solid-State Storages devices use a special
kind of memory to store data called Flash Memory. Examples of Flash Memory Devices
are- Digital Cameras, Pen Drives, or USB Flash Drives.

Pen Drives
• Pendrives are also known as Thumb Drives or Flash Drives, which are added asan emerged
portable storage media recently.
• The memory in the Pen drive accompanied by the USB connector, whichenables it
to connect with any device which has the USB portal.
• It has a capacity greater than the CD but smaller than the Hard Disk.
Advantages of Pen drive
1. Transfer File- When the Pen drive will connect to any of the USB port either in the

computer or any other device, we can use it to transfer the files, pictures, documents,
videos. Also, the selected data can be transferred between any workstation and a Pen
drive.
2. Portability- Pen drive is lightweight and portable to carry, which makes data
transportation easier and convenient.
3. Backup Storage- Nowadays, there is the feature of having password encryption,
 important information related to family, medical reports, pictures, videos, etc. can
bestrode as a backup.
4. Data Transportation- The advantage of transferring the data is more useful for the

Professionals/Students by easily transport large files, documents, video/audio lectures, etc.

on a Pen drive and gain access to them from
anywhere. The technicians who have the independent PC’s can store their work-related
useful tools, various programs, and files on a high speed 64 GBpen drive. The data can
quickly move from one site to another with all their valuable accommodations in a small
device.

CACHE
• Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and
synchronizing with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk
memory but economical than CPU registers. Cache memory isan extremely fast memory
type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data
and instructions so that they are immediately available to the CPU when needed.
• Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main memory.
The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copiesof the data from frequently
used main memory locations. There are various different independent caches in a CPU,
which store instructions and data.

Units of Memory

The storage capacity of the memory is expressed in various units of memory. These are
as follows:

Bit

A microprocessor uses binary digits 0 and 1 to decide the OFF and ON state respectively,
of various circuits.

Furthermore, a bit is the smallest unit of representation in the binary language.

Nibble

A nibble is a collection of 4 bits.

Byte

A byte is the representation of a group of 8 bits. Moreover, a byte is a unit that expresses
any word, symbol, or character in the computer language.

Besides, computer memory is always in terms of multiples of bytes.

Word

A computer word is similar to a byte, as it is also a group of bits. Moreover, a computer

word is fixed for each computer.

At the same time it varies from computer to computer. Besides, the length of a computer
word is the word-size or word length. Therefore, a computer stores information in the
form of computer word.

Other import memory units are;-

Kilobyte

It is the most common unit of memory which is the smallest of all. But, it is greater than
the byte.

The abbreviation for kilobytes is ‘KB’.

It contains 1000 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to kibibytes which contain 1024 (2^10)
bytes.

Kilobytes usually measure the size of large files. For example high-resolution images,
songs, storage of compact disks, etc.

Megabyte

The abbreviation for megabyte is ‘MB’.

It contains 1000,000 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to mebibytes which contains 1048576

(2^20) bytes.

Megabytes usually measures the size of text documents, graphics of websites, individual
files, etc.

Gigabyte

The abbreviation for the gigabyte is ‘GB’ or ‘gigs’.

It contains 1000,000,000 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to gibibytes which contain

1073741824 (2^30) bytes.

Gigabyte usually measure the capacity of storage devices.

Terabyte

The abbreviation for terabytes is ‘TB’.

It contains onetrillion bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to tebibytes which contains 2^40

bytes.
Terabytes usually measure the capacity of large storage devices, for example, HDDs
(Hard Disk Drives).

Petabyte

The abbreviation for petabyte is ‘PB’.

It contains 10^15 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to pebibytes which contains 2^50 bytes.

Petabytes usually measure the total data storage in large networks or server farms. For
example, the data in Google or Facebook data servers is around more than 10 PBs.

Exabyte

The abbreviation for exabyte is ‘EB’.

It contains 10^18 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to exbibytes which contains 2^60 bytes.

The exabyte unit is so large that it does not even measure the storage of large cloud
servers. Rather, it can be used to measure the amount of data transfer over the internet for
a certain time limit.

Zettabyte

The abbreviation for zettabyte is ‘ZB’.

It contains 10^21 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to zebibytes which contains 2^70 bytes.

It can measure a huge amount of data. In fact, the whole data in the world is just a few
zettabytes.

Yottabyte

The abbreviation for yottabyte is ‘YB’.

It contains 10^24 zettabytes. Besides, it is synonyms to yobibytes which contains 2^80

bytes.

It is a tremendously huge unit of measurement. Therefore, it has no practical use.

 Section 5

Computer - Number System

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as
computers can understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional number
system where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent
different values depending on the position they occupy in the number.

The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −

• The digit
• The position of the digit in the number
• The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system)

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system.
Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number
system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens,
hundreds, thousands, and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds
position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its value can be written as

(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)

(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following

number systems which are frequently used in computers.

Sl.No. Number System and Description

1 Binary Number System
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1
2 Octal Number System
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7
3 Hexa Decimal Number System
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F
 Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −

• Uses two digits, 0 and 1

• Also called as base 2 number system
• Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
• Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example
2x where x represents the last position - 1.
• The bit 0 represents the “OFF” state, and the bit 1 represents the “ON” state.

Example

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent –

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number
Step 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
1
Step 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
2
Step 101012 2110
3

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Binary addition
The binary addition operation works similarly to the base 10 decimal system, except that it
is a base 2 system. The binary system consists of only two digits, 1 and 0.

You can see from the above table, x and y are the two binary numbers.
So when we give the input for x = 0 and y = 0, then the output is equal to 0.
When x = 0 or 1 and y = 1 or 0, then x+y = 1.
But when both x and y are equal to 1, then their addition equals to 0, but the carryover
number will equal to 1, which means basically 1 + 1 = 10 in binary addition, where 1 is
carry forwarded to the next digit.
Now, look at the example of the binary addition:101 + 101

Procedure for Binary Addition of Numbers:

101
(+) 101
Step 1: First consider the 1’s column, and add the one’s column,( 1+1 ) and it gives the
result 10 as per the condition of binary addition.
Step 2: Now, leave the 0 in the one’s column and carry the value 1 to the 10’s column.
1
101
(+) 101
0
Step 3: Now add 10’s place, 1+( 0 + 0 ) = 1. So, nothing carries to the 100’s place and
leave the value 1 in the 10’s place
1
101
(+) 101
10

Step 4: Now add the 100’s place ( 1 + 1 ) = 10. Leave the value 0 in the 100’s place and
carries 1 to the 1000’s place.
1
101
(+) 101
1010
So, the resultant of the addition operation is 1010.

Example 1: 10001 + 11101

Solution:

1 Reminder
10001
(+) 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 Answer

Example 2: 10111 + 110001

Solution:
111
10111
(+) 1 1 0 0 0 1
1001000
Binary Subtraction

Remember!
0–0=0
1–0=1
1–1=0
0 – 1 = 1 (Borrow 1)

when we subtract 1 from 0, we need to borrow 1 from the next higher order digit, to
reduce the digit by 1 and the remainder left here is also 1.

Let,s solve the question

0011010 – 001100

11 Borrow

0011010

(-) 0 0 1 1 0 0

0001110

AND

When we use the AND operator, we are effectively saying, if the first argument and the
second argument are true, then the result is true, or 1. Otherwise the result is false, or 0.

0 AND 0 = 0
1 AND 0 = 0
0 AND 1 = 0
1 AND 1 = 1

AND is represented by the ampersand – 1 & 1 = 1

OR
Now the OR operator is saying, if the first argument or the second argument are true, then
the result is true.
0 OR 0 = 0
1 OR 0 = 1
0 OR 1 = 1
1 OR 1 = 1

OR is represented by the vertical bar (pipe) – 1 | 1 = 1

 XOR

Lastly, the XOR (exclusive OR) operator is saying, if either input is true, then the result is
true, but if both inputs are true, then the result is false.

Another way to say it is, if one, but not both arguments are true, then the result is true.

Or, we could say, if the number of true inputs is odd, then the result will be true.

You choose.
0 XOR 0 = 0
1 XOR 0 = 1
0 XOR 1 = 1
1 XOR 1 = 0

XOR is represented by the upwards caret – 1 ^ 1 = 1

Before we finish let’s use the XOR operator on a set of eight digits, a byte.

01011000
XOR 10111001
 11100001

Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −

• Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

• Also called as base 8 number system
• Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
• Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example
8x where x represents the last position – 1

Example

Octal Number: 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent –

Step Octal Decimal Number

Number
Step 125708
((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10
1
Step 125708
(4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10
2
Step 125708
549610
3
Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −

• Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

• Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F =
15
• Also called as base 16 number system
• Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example, 160
• Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position - 1

Example

Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent –

Step Octal Decimal Number

Number
Step 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x
1 160))10
Step 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14
2 x 160))10
Step 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10
3
Step 19FDE16 10646210
4
Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.
Binary to other Number Systems

There are three conversions possible for binary number,

i.e., binary to decimal, binary to octal, and binary to hexadecimal.
The conversion process of a binary number to decimal differs from the remaining others.

Let's take a detailed discussion on Binary Number System conversion.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting binary to decimal is quite simple. The process starts from multiplying
the bits of binary number with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all
those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from binary to decimal.

Example 1: (10110.001)2

We multiplied each bit of (10110.001)2 with its respective positional weight, and last we add
the products of all the bits with its weight.

(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+ (0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+(0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10
Binary to Octal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and octal are 2 and 8, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of
three bits is equal to one octal digit. There are only two steps to convert a binary number
into an octal number which are as follows:

In the first step, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If
there will be one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of
zeros on extreme sides.
In the second step, we write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (111110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 110 101 011.001 1

On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a complete pair
of three bits, we added two zeros on the extreme side.

111 110 101 011.001 100

2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(111110101011.0011)2=(7653.14)8

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and hexadecimal are 2 and 16, respectively. In a binary number,
the pair of four bits is equal to one hexadecimal digit. There are also only two steps to
convert a binary number into a hexadecimal number which are as follows:

In the first step, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there
will be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of
zeros on extreme sides.
In the second step, we write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.
111 1010 1011.0011

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a complete pair of
four bits, add one zero on the extreme side.
0111 1010 1011.0011
2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.
(011110101011.0011)2=(7AB.3)16

Decimal to other Number System

The decimal number can be an integer or floating-point integer. When the decimal number is a
floating-point integer, then we convert both part (integer and fractional) of the decimal
number in the isolated form(individually). There are the following steps that are used to
convert the decimal number into a similar number of any base 'r'.

In the first step, we perform the division operation on integer and successive part with base 'r'.
We will list down all the remainders till the quotient is zero. Then we find out the remainders
in reverse order for getting the integer part of the equivalent number of base 'r'. In this, the
least and most significant digits are denoted by the first and the last remainders.
In the next step, the multiplication operation is done with base 'r' of the fractional and successive
fraction. The carries are noted until the result is zero or when the required number of the
equivalent digit is obtained. For getting the fractional part of the equivalent number of base
'r', the normal sequence of carrying is considered.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

For converting decimal to binary, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of binary(2).
Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
binary(2).
Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.
Operation Quotient Remainder
152/2 76 0 (LSB)
76/2 38 0
38/2 19 0
19/2 9 1
9/24 1
4/22 0
2/21 0
1/20 1(MSB)
(152)10=(10011000)2
Step 2:

Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive fraction with base 2.
Operation Resultcarry
0.25×20.50 0
0.50×20 1
(0.25)10=(.01)2

Decimal to Octal Conversion

For converting decimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of octal(8).
Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
octal(8).
Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/8 19 0
19/8 2 3
2/80 2
(152)10=(230)8

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 8.

Operation Resultcarry
0.25×80 2
(0.25)10=(2)8

So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2

Decimal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting decimal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:
In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of hexadecimal (16).
Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
hexadecimal (16).
Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:
Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.
Operation Quotient Remainder
152/16 9 8
9/16 0 9
(152)10=(98)16

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 16.

Operation Resultcarry
0.25×16 0 4
(0.25)10=(4)16

So, the hexadecimal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.4.

Octal to other Number System

Like binary and decimal, the octal number can also be converted into other number systems.
The process of converting octal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's start
understanding how conversion is done.

Octal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting octal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process starts
from multiplying the digits of octal numbers with its corresponding positional weights. And
lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from octal to decimal.

Example 1: (152.25)8
Step 1:
We multiply each digit of 152.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.
(152.25)8=(1×82)+(5×81)+(2×80)+(2×8-1)+(5×8-2)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+(2×1⁄8)+(5×1⁄64)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+0.25+0.078125
(152.25)8=106.328125

So, the decimal number of the octal number 152.25 is 106.328125

Octal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting octal to binary is the reverse process of binary to octal. We write the
three bits binary code of each octal number digit.

Example 1: (152.25)8
We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Octal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting octal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of number 25.
Next, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be
one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on
extreme sides and write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Step 2:

1. Now, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

0 0110 1010.0101 01

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has only one digit, and on the right side, the
last pair has only two-digit. To make them complete pairs of four bits, add zeros on extreme
sides.
0000 0110 1010.0101 0100

2. Now, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(0000 0110 1010.0101 0100)2=(6A.54)16

Hexa-decimal to other Number System

Like binary, decimal, and octal, hexadecimal numbers can also be converted into other number
systems. The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal differs from the remaining one.
Let's start understanding how conversion is done.
Hexa-decimal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process
starts from multiplying the digits of hexadecimal numbers with its corresponding positional
weights. And lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from hexadecimal to decimal.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152A.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.

(152A.25)16=(1×163)+(5×162)+(2×161)+(A×160)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=(1×4096)+(5×256)+(2×16)+(10×1)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=4096+1280+32+10+(2×1⁄16)+(5×1⁄256)
(152A.25)16=5418+0.125+0.125
(152A.25)16=5418.14453125

So, the decimal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 5418.14453125

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to binary is the reverse process of binary to

hexadecimal. We write the four bits binary code of each hexadecimal number digit.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, A, 2, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of the hexadecimal number 152.25 is (1010100101010.00100101)2

Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

For converting hexadecimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of the hexadecimal number.
Next, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be
one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on
extreme sides and write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, A, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of hexadecimal number 152A.25 is (0011010101010.010101)2

Step 2:

Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

001 010 100 101 010.001 001 010

Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.

(001010100101010.001001010)2 = (12452.112)8

So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112

 Section ₆
INTERNET & EMAIL

BASICS OF INTERNET
• Internet word is derived from the word internetworking which is a collection of
individual networks connected by intermediate networking device but they function
together as one large unit.
• Network is a collection of terminals, various computer servers and other components. It
ensures easy flow of data between the various nodes or participants. The Internet is a
such global interconnected computer networks using a common language called a
protocol, standard internet protocol. Theprotocol is TCP/IP.
• The ARPANET was launched by launched by the Department of defense of USA. While
first such inter-connected network was SPUTNIK by the Soviet Union in the year 1957.
ARPANET became the only official protocol after 1983.
• Any machine on the internet can communicate with other if it has following:
o An IP address, enable it to send IP Packets
o A medium to send and receive data in form of signals
o Rules to decide the transmission of data.
o An IP address is a 32 bits long address, consisting of four sets ofnumbers separated
by dots. It is called as dotted decimal representation.
• Example: 127.0.0.1 (loopback address)
• Each host on the network has an IP consisting of a ‘Net id’ and a ‘Host-id’. T
• The Physical address or the MAC address is assigned by the NetworkInformation
Centre (NIC).
• WHO GOVERN THE INTERNET?
o There is no single authority or a President governing it.

o The ultimate authority of the internet rest with Internet Society (ISOC), a voluntary
organization). Another authority is a group of invited volunteers called as Internet
Architecture Board (IAB).
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) discuss the technical and
operationalproblem.
 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE INTERNET
Introduction of Computer Networks
• Computer Network is a collection of computers those are able to communicatewith each
other through some medium, using hardware and software.
• Two computers are said to be connected, if they are able to exchange informationor able
to communicate.
• Network is connected by the set of nodes via communication links where a nodecan be
any device capable of sending &/or receiving data to &/or from other nodes in the
network.
• Data Source: Provides the data to transmit.
• Sender (Transmitter): Converts data to signals for transmission.
• Data Transmission System: Transmits the data i.e., converted in signals.
• Receiver: Converts received signals to data.
• Destination: Receives and uses incoming data.
• Node: A device with independent communication ability and unique networkaddress.
• Protocol: A formal description, comprising rules and conventions defines themethod
of communication between networking devices.
• Components of a Network:
There are five basic components of a network. Clients, Servers, Channels, Interface
devices, and Operating Systems.
• Methods of Message Delivery: A message can be delivered in the followingways
• Unicast: One device sends message to the other to its address.
• Broadcast: One device sends message to all other devices on the network. Themessage
is sent to an address reserved for this goal.
• Multicast: One device sends message to a certain group of devices on thenetwork.

Types of network

PAN
o Personal Area Network
o Data transmission
o In Computer ,Telephone
• WLAN
o Wireless Local Area Network
o Link 2 or more devices
o Adopted in School , home

• CAN
o Campus Area Network
o Inter connection of local area
o multiple interconnected local area networks (LAN) in a limited geographical area.

• LAN (Local Area Network)

o LAN is privately owned network within a single building or campus.
o LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of
computers used by thousands of people (like in some IT office, etc.)
o Examples of LAN technology: Ethernet, Token Ring, and Fibber
Distributed Data Interconnect (FDDI).
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
o A MAN covers a city.
o An example of MAN is cable television network in city.
o It may be a single network such as cable TV network by means of connecting anumber
of LANs into a larger network.
o Resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device.
o A MAN can be owned by a private company or it may be a service provided by apublic
company such as local telephone company.
o Telephone companies provide a popular MAN service called (SMDS) SwitchedMulti-
megabit Data Services.
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
o A wide area network or WAN spans a large geographical area often a country.
o Internet It is also known as network of networks.
o The Internet is a system of linked networks that are world wide in scope andfacilitate
data communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail,
World Wide Web and newsgroups etc.
Email

Email Address Fields

When you send an email, you need to select the address that will receive it (that is what
‘recipient’ means). You can add them to one of three fields: To, Cc and Bcc. All three
fields can send an email to several recipients in one go, however, they work slightly
differently.

To: The "To" line is for the primary recipient. Put the email address here if the message
is for this recipient’s action and attention only. This line is visible to all other recipients
(Cc, and Bcc) by default.

CC: Stands for Carbon copy. Put email address(es) here if you plan to send a copy to
other recipients in addition to those listed in the ‘To’ field. This is used if you don’t
mind that recipients seeing who else is getting a copy, because the list of recipients is
included in the header message. By the way, if you want to send a copy to some or all
of your employees, it’s possible to address a group in the email (like
[email protected]). Instead of adding tons of email addresses to group
emails, you’ll only need to add one, and every employee gets it delivered to their
mailbox.

BCC: Similar to Cc, Blind Carbon Copy sends a copy of a message for the information
of a large number of people. It is used if you are sending someone a copy of an email,
and you don’t want the other recipients to see that it was also sent to this email address
because the message doesn’t include that information in its header fields. Bcc recipients
can see those listed in the To and Cc list. However, if the recipients (who were added
to the ‘To’ and ‘CC’ fields) reply, their emails won’t be seen by the ‘BCC’ recipient.

From: As you might have expected, the From header field contains the messages
author. The authors email address is always included in the From field. You can also
include a name to appear alongside your email address by updating the Personal
Information settings in your email client. Including your name will not only look more
professional to outsiders, it remove any ambiguity over who is sending the message.
Email Abuse and Spam

While the prevalence of email has increased enormously over the last few decades, it
has also become a perfect environment for abuse. Given the enormous use of emails sent
and received worldwide every day, they have become a target for abuse and spam. Think
about how cost-effective sending large amounts of email messages is to many recipients
online. For this reason, it’s never been more important to choose an email provider who
guarantees reliable spam protection and use filters that sort legitimate email from spammers.

Spam, also known as junk email is when unsolicited messages are sent by email. To be
classified as spam an email should have fraudulent or malicious content. These are often
sent in bulk (the act of spamming) by people you don’t know. Many spam emails contain
links to familiar websites but in fact lead to sites that are hosting malware of phishing sites.
Spam is delivered in various ways. These messages are orchestrated by a spammer. A
spammer is an individual or an entity (group of individuals or a company) that sends spam
emails.

There are several types of fraudulent spam practices that email users and email
administrators need to watch out for:

1) Email Phishing; where private data is captured. The user clicks on an email designed
to look the same as that of a trusted party, your bank for example. The website asks for
login and personal information. The most common phishing email involves a message
alerting you to a problem with a sensitive account. Users click the link, enter their login
and password details in the fraudulent site, and by doing so , hand them over to the
scammer.

2) Email Spoofing is when an email message is sent with a forged sender address. Most of
us know spam when we see it, but seeing a strange email from a friend or recognized
third-party can be quite disconcerting. Even if it looks like it’s come from a recognized
place (spammers go to huge lengths to use the appropriate email lingo to give their
message authenticity), it doesn't mean your friend, bank, etc. has been hacked. Spoofing
is commonly used in tandem with spam and phishing emails to mislead recipient over
the origin of the message.

3) Email Worms: An email worm is a nasty piece of work. It distributes copies of itself in
an email attachment. The infected emails are sent email addresses that the worm has
harvested from files on the infected computer. This can amount to thousands of infected
computers and many more compromised emails being sent.
• 1st Recorded cyber-crime was committed by Joseph Mary.
• Important sections (in hacking, identity theft, violations of privacy) in cybercrime
• Asian school of cyber law is situated in Pune.
• 1st cyber post office-Chennai
• 1st Cybercrime police station in Kerala-Pattom ,Thiruvananthapuram
• Indian computer emergency response team comes in 2004
• India 1st cyber security chief Gulshan rai
• India 1st cyber village Melli Dara Paiyong
• 1st cyber case reported in France
• 1st cyber court in India Delhi

FOUNDERS OF FAMOUS ONLINE PLATFORMS

• Facebook- Mark Zuckerberg

• Google - Larry Page & Serge Brin
• Apple - Stev jobs, Ronald Wayne & Steve Wozniak
• E Mail - Ray Tomlinson
• WhatsApp - Brian Acton & Jan Koum
• E-mail - Ray Tomlinson
• www - Tim Berners Lee
• Linux - Linus Torvalds
• Wikipedia - Jimmy Wales
• Yahoo - Jerry Yang & David Filo
• Google - Larry Page & Sergey Brin
• Twitter - Jack Dorsey, Biz Stone, Evan Williams, Noah Glass,
• Apple -Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Ronald Wayne
• Instagram –Kevin Systrom,Mike Kreiger.
 Other Important Terms

1.modem
• Also called as a Modulator and Demodulator. It converts computer data into
signals that can be transmitted over a telephone line. It is also capable of
converting a signal coming over a telephone line to be understood by the
computer.
2. HUB
• A hub is a place of convergence where data arrives from various directions
and is forwarded out to different directions and destinations. It is a common
point for connecting the devices on a LAN. It can connect various cables
likecoaxial and twisted pair at the same time.
• It is the most basic networking device that connects multiple computers or
other network devices together. Unlike a network switch or router, a
network hub has no routing tables or intelligence on where to send
information and broadcasts all network data across each connection.
3. BRIDGE
• A Bridge is a device that connects two or more networks, such a one LAN
withanother. It creates a single aggregate network from multiple networks
rather than being a connection to help them pass information from one part
to another like a router.
• A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content
byreading the MAC addresses of source and destination.

• It maintains a table of the MAC addresses of the devices connected to it.

Types of bridge:
o Transparent Bridges: these are the bridge in which the stations are
completely unaware of the existence of the bridge on the network.
o Source Routing Bridge: The routing operation is performed by source
 station and the frame specifies which route to follow. Route discovery
frames or packets are sent first to discover the desired route
4. REPEATERS

• It is an object or instrument that receives a signal and increases its signal

strength.
• A repeater mainly regenerates the signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the
signal can be transmitted over the same network.
• Repeaters do not amplify the signal strength; it simply copies the signal bit
bybit.
5. SWITCHES

• A switch is a device that connects multiple devices together. Switches are

smart devices as they manage the flow of data across a network by
transmitting a received network packet only to the one or more devices for
which the packet is intended.
• It operates at the Layer 2 i.e. Data Link layer of the TCP/IP model.
• Many ports are there in a switch that routes the traffic based on the various
routing protocols..
6. ROUTERS

• Routers are physical or virtual devices that determines the next network point
to which the data packet should be forwarded. They forward the data packets
as per their IP address. In OSI MODEL routers are found at the layer 3 i.e.
Network layer.
• A router forwards the packets seeing its destination IP address and matching
it with the IP address mentioned in the routing table with the router.

• It uses various protocols to forward the packets which gives the best possible
path also reduces the cost of the transmission. The various routing protocols
are OSPF, BGP, RIP etc.
 TERMINOLOGIES IN COMPUTER
1. Domain Name
It is the unique name that identifies an Internet site. Domain Names always
have twoor more parts, separated by dots. The part on the left is the most
specific, the part on the right is the most general.
.org- Organisation
.net -Network
.com- Commercial
.edu- Education
.gov -Government
.mil- Military
2. Computer Memory:
Blue ray disk : Blu-ray (not Blue-ray) also known as Blu-ray Disc (BD), is
the name of anew optical disc format which is jointly developed by the Blu-
ray Disc Association (BDA), The format offers more than 5 times the storage
capacity of older DVDs and can hold up to 25GB on a single-layer disc &
50GB on a dual layer disc.
3. Software terms:
• HTTP - Hyper Text Transmission Protocol
• IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol
• SSL - Secure Socket Layer
• TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
• FTP - File Transfer Protocol
• TFTP - Trivial File Transfer Protocol
• SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• SGML - Standard Generalized Mark-up
• Language HTML - Hyper Text mark-up language
• ASCII - American Standard Code for Information
• Interchange ACPI - Advanced Configuration Power Interface
• ANSI - American National Standard
• Institute CGA - Computer Graphic Application
• CSS - Cascading Style Sheets
• DOS - Disc Operating System

• IDE - Integrated Development

• Environment MIPS - Million instructions per second
• UPS - Uninterrupted Power supply.
• ASR - Assisted speech recognition
• BIOS - Basic Input output System
• NLP Natural Language processing
• OCR – Optical Character recognition
• CERN - Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (European
Nuclearresearch centre)
• WAP - Wireless application protocol
• VR - Virtual reality
• IoT - Internet of Things
• VLE - Virtual learning environment
4. COMPUTER SOFTWARE

• Operating System: Operating System is a program that acts as an

intermediary between a computer user & computer hardware. The operating
system is an important component of the system software in a computer
system. Application programs generally requires an operating system to
perform.
• Stand- Alone Operating System: A standalone operating system is a
complete operating system that works on a desktop computer, or notebook
computer. Client operating systems can work with/without a network.
• An embedded system: It is a computer that is part of a dedicated kind
of machine. Embedded systems examples include computers in cars,
traffic lights, digital televisions, ATMs, airplane controls etc.
• Mobile Operating System: A mobile operating system, also known as
mobile OS, is an operating system that is dedicatedly designed to run on
mobile phones, smartphones, PDAs, tablet computers etc.
• Buffering : It is the pre-loading of data into a reserved area of memory,
whichis also called as buffer. With respect to streaming audio or video from
the Internet, buffering refers to downloading some amount of data before
starting to play the music, movie etc.
• Spooling : Spooling is the overlapping of low speed operations with normal
processing. Spooling originated with mainframes in order to optimize slow
operations.
5. NETWORK TERMINOLOGIES
• TCP: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a standard that defines how to
establish and maintain a network conversation via which application
programs can exchange data. TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP),
which defines how computers send packets of data to each other.
• IP Address: Sometimes called a “dotted quad”. A unique number consists
of four parts separated by the dots, e.g. 202.54.1.1 is an IP number of one of
theservers. Every machine that is on the Internet has a unique IP number - if
a machine does not have an IP number, it is not really on the Internet.
• MAC Address: This is the address of the device on physical layer, called
as media access control. It is usually stored on the network adapter card
and isunique.
• VoIP: A Voice over IP call, or VoIP call, utilizes packet-switched Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP)/Internet telephony as different to the circuit-
switchedtelephony used by the earlier Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN).
• Cloud computing: It is used to describe different services over a network by
a collection of servers. These computers enable the visiting users to have
 access to much faster computers or servers, which are able to access
programs/services from anywhere with Internet access often without having
toinstall other software
• NIC: Network Interface card, also known as an Ethernet card and network
adapter and is an expansion card that enables a computer to connect to a
network such as a home network or the Internet using an Ethernet cable with
a RJ-45 connector.
• Proxy server-: A proxy is a computer server/software program that is part
of the gateway server which separates a local network from outside
networks.
• Web page-: A web page or webpage is a document mostly written in Hyper
Text Mark-up Language (HTML) is accessible through the Internet/other
network using a web browser.
• Firewall-: A firewall is a software utility or hardware device that limits
outside network access to a computer/local network by blocking the different
network ports. Firewalls are a great step for helping prevent un-authorized
access to a company or home network.
• Gateway: A gateway is an interconnecting device which joins two
differentnetwork together they are also known as protocol converters.
• Network Router: It is a network device with interfaces in multiple
networkswhose task is to copy packets from one network to another.
• Network Switch: Network Switch is a small hardware device that joins
multiple computers together within one local area network (LAN).
• Network Hub: A hub is a small Network Device. A hub joins multiple
computers (or other network devices) together to form a single network
segment. On this network segment, all computers can communicate directly
with each other.
• Network Repeater: Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical,
 wireless or optical signals. With physical media like Ethernet, data
transmissions can only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal
degrades.

Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend the distance over
which data/information can travel safely.
• Channel Capacity: It is the speed of transmission of information. Often refer
asdata rate in digital terminology.
• Bandwidth: The physical limitation of underlying media.
• Error-rate: Incorrect reception of information due of noise.
• Encoding: The number of levels used for signalling.
• Meta Search Engines: They automatically enters search queries into a
numberof other search engines and return the results
Section 8

CYBERSPACE:
A global domain within the information environment consisting of the
interdependent network of information technology infrastructures,
including theInternet, telecommunications networks, computer systems,
and embedded
processors and controllers.“

Evolution of Cyber attacks in India

Union Bank of India Heist (July 2016)
Through a phishing email sent to an employee, hackers accessed the
credentials to execute a fund transfer, swindling Union Bank of India of $171
million, Prompt actionhelped the bank recover almost the entire money.
WANNACRY RANSOMWARE (May 2017)
The global ransomware attack took its toll in India with several thousand
computersgetting locked down by ransom-seeking hackers. The attack also
impacted systems belonging to the Andhra Pradesh police and state utilities
of West Bengal
DATA THEFT AT ZOMATO(May 2017)
The food tech company discovered that data, including names, email IDs and
hashedpasswords, of 17 million users was stolen by an ‘ethical’ hacker-who
demanded the company must acknowledge its security vulnerabilities-and put
up for sale on the Dark Web.

PETYA RANSOMWARE(June 2017)

The ransomware attack made its impact felt across the world, including
India, where container handling functions at a terminal operated by the
Danish firm AP Moller- Maersk at Mumbai’s Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust
got affected.
 Cyber Attacks Terminologies
Cyber attack
• A cyberattack is deliberate exploitation of computer systems, technology-
dependent enterprises and networks. Cyberattacks use malicious code to alter
computer code, logic or data, resulting in disruptive consequences that can
compromise data and lead to cybercrimes, such as information and identity
theft.
• Cyberattack is also known as a computer network
attack (CNA).
• COMMON TYPES OF CYBER ATTACK
1. Malware
Malware is a term used to describe malicious software, including spyware,
ransomware, viruses, and worms. Malware breaches a network through a
vulnerability, typically when a user clicks a dangerous link or email
attachment that then installs risky software. Once inside the system,
malware can do the following:
• Blocks access to key components of the network (ransomware)
• Installs malware or additional harmful software
• Covertly obtains information by transmitting data from the hard drive
(spyware)
• Disrupts certain components and renders the system inoperable
2. Phishing
Phishing is the practice of sending fraudulent communications that appear to
come from a reputable source, usually through email. The goal is to steal
sensitive data likecredit card and login information or to install malware on
the victim’s machine.
Phishing is an increasingly common cyberthreat.
3. Man-in-the-middle attack
Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks, also known as eavesdropping attacks,
occur whenattackers insert themselves into a two-party transaction. Once the
attackers interrupt the traffic, they can filter and steal data. Two common
points of entry for MitM attacks:
• On unsecure public Wi-Fi, attackers can insert themselves between a
visitor’s device and the network. Without knowing, the visitor passes all
information through the attacker.
• Once malware has breached a device, an attacker can install software to
process all of the victim’s information.
4. Denial-of-service attack
A denial-of-service attack floods systems, servers, or networks with traffic
to exhaustresources and bandwidth. As a result, the system is unable to fulfill
legitimate requests. Attackers can also use multiple compromised devices to
launch this attack. This is known as a distributed-denial- of-service (DDoS)
attack.
5. SQL injection
A Structured Query Language (SQL) injection occurs when an attacker inserts
malicious code into a server that uses SQL and forces the server to reveal
informationit normally would not.
An attacker could carry out a SQL injection simply by submitting malicious
code intoa vulnerable website search box.
6. Zero-day exploit
A zero-day exploit hits after a network vulnerability is announced but before
a patch or solution is implemented. Attackers target the disclosed vulnerability
during this window of time. Zero- day vulnerability threat detection requires
constant awareness.
7. DNS Tunneling
DNS tunneling utilizes the DNS protocol to communicate non-DNS traffic
over port
53. It sends HTTP and other protocol traffic over DNS. There are various,
legitimate reasons to utilize DNS tunneling. However, there are also
malicious reasons to use DNS Tunneling VPN services. They can be used to
disguise outbound traffic as DNS,

concealing data that is typically shared through an internet connection. For

malicious use, DNS requests are manipulated to exfiltrate data from a
compromised system to the attacker’s infrastructure. It can also be used for
command and control callbacks
from the attacker’s infrastructure to acompromised system.
 Section 9

DIGITAL INITIATIVES BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA IN HIGHER

EDUCATION

There are many digital initiatives by the government of India. Some of them are

listed below ;

1) USB Pratirodh” was launched by the government which, Union IT and

Electronics Minister Ravi Shankar Prasad states, is aimed at controlling the

unauthorized usage of removable USB storage media devices like pen drives,

external hard drives and USB supported mass storage devices.

2 ) “Samvid” was also introduced. It is a desktop-based Application

Whitelisting solution for Windows operating system. It allows only preapproved

set of executable files for execution and protects desktops from suspicious

applications from running.

3 ) M-Kavach, a device for security of Android mobile devices has also been

developed. It provides protection against issues related to malware that steal

personal data & credentials, misuse Wi-Fi and Bluetooth resources, lost or stolen

mobile device, spam SMSs, premium-rate SMS and unwanted / unsolicited

incoming calls.

4 )Browser JSGuard, is a tool which serves as a browser extension which

detects and defends malicious HTML & JavaScript attacks made through the web

browser based on Heuristics. It alerts the user when he visits malicious web pages

and provides a detailed analysis threat report of the web page.

 DIGITAL INITIATIVES IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds (SWAYAM).

 It is an indigenous IT Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) Platform for

providing best quality education that can be accessed by anyone, anytime and

anywhere using the IT system.

 The Concept of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) involves online

delivery of interactive learning content to large number of people

simultaneously.

 It allows sharing of best quality education with everyone, thereby bringing in

equity as far as the quality of education is concerned.

 SWAYAM platform is developed by Ministry of Human Resource Development

(MHRD) and All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) with the help of

Microsoft.

 It’s ultimately capable of hosting 2000 courses and 80000 hours of learning:

covering school, under-graduate, post-graduate, engineering, law and other

professional courses.

 All the courses on this platform are interactive, prepared by the best teachers in
the country and are available, free of cost to the students in India.

 More than 1,000 specially chosen faculty and teachers from across the

Country have participated in preparing these courses.

 Courses under SWAYAM would be available in the different levels.

 For each level, there is a National Coordinator, who would be responsible for the

quality of content:

1. Out of school Children: for classes 9th to 12th (National Coordinator: National

Open School Society)

2. School children in classes 9th to 12th (National Coordinator: NCERT)

3. Undergraduate (non-engineering) courses (National Coordinator. CEC)

4. Post graduate (non-engineering) courses (National Coordinator. UGC)

5. Engineering Courses (National Coordinator: IIT Madras)

6. Management Courses (National Coordinator: IIM Bangalore)

7. Out of college students (National Coordinator: IGNOU)

8. Teaching the teachers (National Coordinator: NITTER Chennai)

Four quadrants in the MOOC pedagogy

Video tutorials E-content

Self- Assessment Discussion forum

Four quadrants in the MOOC pedagogy

1) Video tutorials: Video tutorials covering a whole course — normally having about

20 hours of instruction in series of lectures, each lecture not exceeding 30 minutes.

2) E-Content: reading material that could add to the learning imparted through the

video tutorials.

3) Self-Assessment: Quizzes/assignments that intersperse the course.

4) Discussion forum is for posting queries.

All the courses delivered through SWAYAM are available free of cost to the learners,

however students wanting certifications shall be registered, shall be offered a

certificate on successful completion of the course, with a little fee.

e- Granthalaya

• A Digital Agenda for Library Automation and Networking

• It is a Library Management Software for computerization of Indian libraries.

• The software provides Web based Data Entry solution to the libraries.

• The software generates e-Catalogs of library documents and provides various

kinds of online services to the library members.

• The Application is available at NIC

 National Digital Library (NDL)

• Project by Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) under its

National Mission on Education through Information and Communication

Technology (NMEICT)

• NDL is the Single Window Platform that collects and collates metadata from

premier learning institutions in India and abroad, as well as other relevant

sources that is a digital repository containing textbooks, articles, videos, audio

books, lectures, simulations, fiction and all other kinds of learning media.

• NDL India is designed to hold content of any language and provides interface

support for leading Indian languages. It is being arranged to provide support for

all academic levels including researchers and life-long learners, all disciplines, all

popular form of access devices and differently-abled learners.

• National Digital Library in India aims to collect, preserve and disseminate entire

intellectual output of our country and provide online access from school level to

post graduate level, including technical education.

The project aims to develop;

1 Overall framework to collate large number of e-contents for school, college and

higher education, e-content, virtual library, covering needs of learners with

differing abilities.

2 Design & development of OAI-PMH Server for Metadata Harvesting,

Indexed etc.

3 Serve as a pan-India virtual teaching-learning-evaluation-knowledge

platform and for key national assets.

4 Collect resources from other Ministries such as Ministry of Culture, Health, Rural

Development & Department of Science & Technology on this portal.

e- Shodh Sindhu

• Based on the recommendation of an Expert Committee, the MHRD has formed

 e-Shodh Sindhu merging three consortia initiatives, namely UGC- INFONET

Digital Library Consortium, NLIST and INDEST-AICTE Consortium.

• More than 15,000 international electronic journals and e-books are made available

to all the higher educational institutions through the e-shodh Sindhu initiative.

• This allows access to be best education resources in the world using digital

mode.

e- Yantra

• An MHRD initiative under NMEICT Program, named e-Yantra is implemented to

incorporate Robotics into engineering education with the objective of engaging

students through exciting hands-on application of mathematics, computer

science, and engineering principles.

• Creation of robotic platforms has been very successfully demonstrated during

Phase-I of the project.

• Presently, e-Yantra has been implemented in 100 colleges.

• E Yantra is creating skills by setting up lab infrastructure for project based

learning and training teachers in these 100 engineering colleges.

• Group of 40 DTH channels devoted to telecasting of high-quality educational

programs on 24X7 basis using the GSAT-15 satellite. Every day, there will be new

content for at least (4) hours which would be repeated 5 more times in a day,

allowing the students to choose the time of their convenience.

• The contents are provided by NPTEL, IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU, NCERT and NIOS. The

INFLIBNET Centre maintains the web portal.

The DTH Channels cover: —

• Curriculum based course contents covering diverse disciplines such as arts,

science, commerce, performing arts, social sciences and humanities subjects,

engineering, technology, law, medicine, agriculture etc. in higher education

domain (all courses would be certification-ready in their detailed offering).

• School education (9-12 levels) modules; for teacher training as well as teaching

and learning aids to children of India to help them understand the subjects

better and also help them in better preparedness for competitive examinations

for admissions to professional degree programs.

• Curricula and courses that can meet the needs of life-long learners or Indian

citizens in India and abroad.

• IIT-PAL — to assist the students in the Classes 11 and 12 aspiring to join IITs by

encouraging scientific thinking and conceptual understanding critical to answer

the 'tough' questions of JEE Advanced, so that good quality students enter the

portals of IITs. The four channels under this would be on Mathematics, Physics,

chemistry and biology.

Let,s check the ten channels by CEC-UGC which are show in the table below;-

CHANNEL NAME SUBJECTS

CH 01 VAGEESH Language and Literature
CH 02 SANSKRITI History, Culture & Philosophy
CH 03 PRABODH Social & Behavioural Sciences
CH 04 SAARASWAT Education and Home Science
CH 05 PRABANDHAN Information, Communication and
Management Studies
CH 06 VIDHIK Law and Legal Studies
CH 07 KAUTILYA Economics and Commerce
CH 08 ARYABHATT Physical and Earth Sciences
CH 09 SPANDAN Life Sciences
CH 10 DAKSH Applied Sciences
 Talk to a Teacher

• Talk to a Teacher developed by IIT Bombay, is an initiative of the National Mission

on Education through ICT, funded by MHRD to provide free access to a few

selected graduate and postgraduate courses, taught at IIT Bombay by

distinguished faculty members and scholars at large.

• It uses a View collaboration tool developed by Amrita University for providing

virtual classrooms to the faculty across the country. These courses can be viewed

absolutely free of charge at lower bandwidths on a personal computer/laptop

having a headphone and Internet connection.

• Registration is not required as it does not have any evaluation/certification

process. The courses are recorded live in the classrooms of IIT Bombay and may

not reflect entire content of the course.

• Apart from the core courses in engineering and computer science disciplines, the

program also covers Humanities & Social Sciences discipline. More than 80,000

teachers have been trained, so far, under this project, involving synchronous

delivery of courses from IIT Mumbai & IIT Kharagpur.

Ask a Question
• Ask a Question is a unique platform through which students from science and

engineering colleges all over India can ask questions and faculty from IIT Bombay

answers them.

• Students can ask questions either through an online forum or during an

interactive live session. Interactive live sessions are held on every Thursday from

4:00 PM to 5:00 PM in the field of Electrical Engineering and every Friday from

4:00 PM to 5:00 P.M in the field of Physics.

e-Acharya

e-Acharya also called Integrated e-Content Portal of NMEICT, is the official

 repository of NMEICT e-content and all content produced under NMEICT is being

put at this Repository platform at INFILIBNET Centre Gandhi nagar, so to apply basic

tenets of preservation for digital content, implement standard Metadata schema of

different types for the digital content and ensure their long-term availability.

• All the Project Investigators awarded development of e-Content under

NMEICT have been requested to ensure the deliverables are placed, at the

earliest, in the Integrated Portal/e-Acharya of MHRD.

• Further the NCERT shall provide e-content Links to e-Acharya and the NOIS shall

providing the content on HDD to the e-Acharya repository and both shall ensure

that all the content including e-Books are made available on e- Acharya.

• The eAcharya besides a repository of content shall also have the Metadata of all

these contents and it shall form a vertical of 'National Digital Library (NDL), being

implemented by the IIT Kharagpur.

• The e-Acharya shall be backed by a robust 24X7 Data Centre, which shall be

integrated with NMEICT, Cloud network, set up at MC / NKN Data Centre by the

IIT-Delhi and called baadal". The MOOCs being produced under NMEICT shall

also be uploaded on e-Acharya.

Campus Connectivity

• The National Mission on Education through Information and Communication

Technology (NMEICT) aims to leverage the potential of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) in teaching and learning process.

• The Mission also aims to provide 20 Broadband connections of 512 Kbps speed

to over 25,000 colleges and 2000 polytechnics and optical fiber connectivity

one Gbps to 419 universities/ university level institutions in the country which

includes internet facility.

• On the lines of 'Digital India' initiative of the PMO, the MHRD has now decided

that the campuses of universities, (having 1 Gbps bandwidth) shall be made WiFi

enabled campus. Already all the IITs, IIMs, and NITs have established WiFi
 campuses.

• The process of laying the optical fiber and provision of the Wi-Fi in Central

Universities is currently underway.

National Academic Depository

• National Academic Depository (NAD) is an initiative of Ministry of Human

Resources Development, Govt. of India (MHRD) to facilitate digital issuance,

storage, access and verification of Academic Awards issued by Academic

Institutions.

• NAD is a Unique, Innovative and Progressive initiative under 'Digital India' theme

towards achieving Digital enablement of the Education Records. NAD aspires to

make the vision of Digital Academic Certificates for every Indian a reality.

• This touches the lives of Indian youth and empowers them with Digital, Online,

Trusted, Verifiable Certificates which are accessible in a secure manner at all times.

• NAD promises to do away with difficulties / inefficiencies of collecting,

maintaining, and presenting physical paper certificates.

Virtual labs
• Web enabled experiments can be designed for remote operation and viewing so

as to enthuse the curiosity and innovation into students.

• This would help in learning basic and advanced concepts through remote

experimentation.

• Today most equipment has computer interface for control and data storage. It is

possible to design good experiments around some of these equipment, which

would enhance the learning of a student.

• Internet-based experimentation further permits use of resources - knowledge,

software, and data available on the web, apart from encouraging skillful

experiments being simultaneously performed at points separated in space (and

 possibly, time).

• Virtual Lab does not require any additional infrastructural setup for

conducting experiments at user premises. One computer terminal with

broadband Internet connectivity is all that is needed to perform the

experiments remotely.

• Over 205 virtual labs in 9 Engineering & Science disciplines, comprising about

1515 experiments are operational and currently being accessed by more than 6

lakh students.

The Free and Open-Source Software for Education (FOSSEE)

• FOSSEE project sanctioned to IIT Bombay has been promoting use of open-

source software in educational institutions

• It does through instructional material, such as spoken tutorials, documentation,

such as textbook companions, awareness programmes, such as conferences,

training workshops, and Internships. Textbook Companion (TBC) is a collection

of code for solved examples of standard textbooks.

• About 2,000 college students and teachers have participated in this activity &

close to 1,000 TBCs have been created in Scilab and Python alone.

VIDWAN

The 'Information and Library Network' (INFLIBNET) Centre took the initiative called

"Vidwan: Expert Database and National Researchers Network" with the financial

support from NMEICT. The objectives of VIDWAN is to

• Collect academic and research profiles of scientists, faculty and research

scientists working in leading academic and R&D organizations in India and

abroad;

• Quickly and conveniently provide information about experts to peers,

 prospective collaborators, funding agencies, policy makers and research

scholars in the country;

• Establish communication directly with the experts who possess the expertise

needed by research scholars as identify peer reviewers for review of articles and

research proposals; and create information exchanges and networking

opportunities among scientist.

• The database can be used for selection of panels of experts for various

committees and taskforces established by the Ministries / Govt.

establishments for monitoring and evaluation purposes.

Spoken Tutorial

• Spoken Tutorial is a multi-award-winning educational content portal.

• Here one can learn various Free and Open-Source Software all by oneself.

• Our self-paced, multi-lingual courses ensure that anybody with a computer and

a desire for learning, can learn from any place, at any time and in a language

of their choice

• The Spoken Tutorial project is the initiative of the 'Talk to a Teacher' activity of the

National Mission on Education through Information and Communication

Technology (ICT), launched by the Ministry of Human Resources and Development

Government of India.

• Spoken Tutorial Forums is a friendly online discussion forum. You can join

existing discussions or start new topics, and get lots of replies from the Spoken
Tutorial community. Registration to Forums is completely free and takes only one

minute

• Forums are very easy to use, even for computer newbies. It's very easy to format

forum posts with fonts, colors, and many other options. You can attach files to your

posts directly from your computer.

 E-Kalpa

Another MHRD/ NMEICT initiative named "e-Kalpa" creating Digital-Learning

Environment for Design in India has successfully demonstrated the achievement

of the following project objectives, on completion of its phase-I:

1. Digital online content for learning design with e-Learning programs on design

2. Digital design resource database including the craft sector

3. Social networking for higher learning with collaborative learning space for

design.

4. Design inputs for products of National Mission in Education through ICT.

 Section 10

ICT AND GOVERNANCE

Definitions:

World Bank: - It is the use of ICT to improve the efficiency, effectiveness,

transparency, and accountability of government.

Wikipedia: - The use of information and communications technologies by

governments to enhance the range and quality of information and services

provided to citizens, businesses, civil society organizations, and other government

agencies.

“It is the electronic delivery of Govt. services”

Why e-governance?
 Emergence of E-Governance in India

• The Government of India established the Department of Electronics in 1970.

• National Informatics center (NIC) in 1977 was the first major step towards e-

Governance in India followed by launching of NICNET in 1987.

• AKSHAYA was the first venture of e-Governance in India which started in

Kerala.
Setting up of E-Governance

1. Awareness among Decision makers

2. Identifying the Govt. space

3. Priority areas
4. Studying existing status

5. Formulating policy

6. Infrastructure creation

7. Standardization

8. Application and Integration

9. Sustenance and maintenance

4 Models of E-Governance

G2B: Government to business: Refers to the conduction through the internet

between government agencies and business companies.

• MCA- All Business relates needs and requirements for company

• e-tender

• GST

• e-Biz Mission Mode Project

• E- Gem (Government e Marketplace)

• Government Online Procurement Portal

G2C: Government to Citizen

The goal of G2C (Government-to-customer) e-governance is to offer a variety of ICT

services to citizens in an efficient and economical manner, and to strengthen the

relationship between government and citizens using technology.

• CSC – scheme to deliver various services to citizens of India.

• Bharath Bill pay (one stop bill payment system)

• Passport Seva Kendra

• PAN (NSDL & UTI services)

• E-District (Various certificates/license, social welfare scheme, RTI, land

registration etc.)

• EPIC (Election Commission Services)

• IRCTC

• e- Panchayat

• e-Court Mission Mode Project (MMP)

• NTA- National Testing Agency

• National Agriculture Market (eNAM)

G2E: Government to Employee

Government to employee solution is about empowering their own employees to

assist citizens in the fastest and most appropriate way, speed-up administrative

processes, and optimize governmental solutions.

• Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Yojana

• The EPF- EPS model- EPFO & provident funds

 G2G: Government to Government

G2G is aimed at efficient file routing, quick search and retrieval of files and office

orders, digital signatures for authentication, forms and reporting components etc.

• E-office project of central government for file movement across the

departments.
Models of E-Governance

1. National Level

2. State Level

Initiative at National Level

• Customs and Excise (Government of India)

• Indian Railways (Government of India)

• Postal Department (Government of India)

• Passport / Visa (Government of India)

• CARD – Registration Project (State Government of Andhra Pradesh)

• LOKMITRA (State Government of Himachal Pradesh)

COMMON SERVICE CENTERS

• An ambitious project of Indian government based on PPP framework to boost E-

Governance in rural India.

• Developing e-Governance in rural India is the biggest challenge for the Indian

government.

• Services from different departments brought under one umbrella.

• Utilizing backend computerization to provide prompt and effective services to the

public.
SMART GOVERNANCE
Simple
Moral
Accountable
Responsive
Transparent

E Government Portals
Digital India

To ensure the Government's services are made available to citizens electronically

by improved online infrastructure and by increasing Internet connectivity or by

making the country digitally empowered in the field of technology. The initiative

includes plans to connect rural areas with high-speed internet networks.

Digital India consists of three core components:

• The development of secure and stable digital infrastructure,

• Delivering government services digitally,

• Universal digital literacy.

Broadband Highways
• This covers three sub components, namely broadband for all rural, broadband for

all urban and national information infrastructure.

• The aim of broadband for all rural is that 250 thousand village panchayats should

be covered by December, 2016. dot will be the nodal department and the project

cost is estimated to be approximately Rs. 32,000 cr.

• Under broadband for all urban, virtual network operators would be leveraged for

service delivery and communication infrastructure in new urban development

and buildings would be mandated.

• National Information Infrastructure Would integrates the networks like SWAN,

NKN and NOFN along with cloud enabled national and state data centers. It will

also have provision for horizontal connectivity to 100, 50, 20 and 5 government

offices/ service outlets at state, district, and block and panchayat levels

respectively. Deity will be the nodal department and the project is estimated to

cost around Rs. 15,686 Cr for implementation in 2 years and maintenance &

support for 5 years.

Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity

The initiative is to focus on network penetration and fill the gaps in connectivity

in the country, and make sure that there is better network coverage in the country.

All together 42,300 uncovered villages will be covered for providing universal

mobile connectivity in the country.

Dot will be the nodal department and project is estimated to cost Rs. 16,000 Cr

during 2014-18.

Public Internet Access Program

The two main sub components of public internet access program are common

service centers and post offices as multi-service centers.

Increase the number of common services from approximately 135,000 operational

 at present to 250,000 i.e., one CSC in each gram panchayat. CSCs would be made

viable, multi-functional end-points for delivery of government and business

services. Deity would be the nodal department to implement the scheme.

A total of 150,000 post offices are proposed to be converted into multi service

centers. Department of posts would be the nodal department to implement this

scheme.
E-governance: reforming government through technology

• The Guiding Principles for Reforming Government Through Technology Are:

Form Simplification and Field Reduction – forms should be made simple and easy

to read and only minimum and necessary information should be collected.

• Online applications, tracking of their status and interface between

departments should be provided.

• Use of online repositories like school certificates, voter id cards, etc. should be

made mandatory, so that citizens don’t have to submit these documents in

physical form.

• Integration of services and platforms, e.g. uidai, payment gateway, mobile

platform, electronic data interchange (edi) etc. should be mandated to

facilitate integrated and interoperable service delivery to citizens and

businesses.

• Electronic Databases – All databases and information should be electronic and not

manual.

• Workflow Automation Inside Government – the workflow inside government

departments and agencies should be automated to enable efficient government

processes and also to allow visibility of these processes to the citizens.

E-Kranti – Electronic Delivery of Services

There are 31 mission mode projects under different stages of e-governance project

lifecycle. Further, 10 new mmps have been added to e-kranti by the apex
committee on national e-governance plan (negp) headed by the cabinet secretary

in its meeting held on 18th march 2014. Some of the important modes are: –

Technology for Education – E-Education

Technology for Health – E-Healthcare

Technology for Security

Technology for Financial

Inclusion Technology for

Justice

Technology for Planning

Technology for Cyber Security

Information for All

The focus will be on online internet website hosting service of data and realistic

participation through social media and web-based systems like MyGov. The aim

of this program is to provide easy access of information for citizens. Government

shall pro-actively engage through social media and web-based platforms to

inform citizens. MyGov. In has already been launched as a medium to exchange

ideas/ suggestions with government. It will make it easier for people to

communicate with the government officials by launching a 2-way communication

between citizens and government. Online messaging to citizens on special

occasions/programs would be facilitated through Emails and SMS.

Electronics Manufacturing

This focuses on VSAT, Mobile, Consumer Electronics, Technology, Medical Electronic

Devices, Intelligent Energy Meters, Smart Cards and Micro ATMs. For this the

government is coordinating on many fronts be it taxes, rewards, financial systems of

range and offering cost benefits to local producers.

IT for Jobs

The Government is planning on training one crore learners from small towns

and villages for it industry. Plans are also to exercise 300,000 assistance

distribution providers in 2 years to run practical companies offering it services

and telecoms companies to train 500,000 rural workers in 5 years. BPOS would

be set up in every north-eastern state to facilitate ICT enabled growth in these

states. Deity would be the nodal department for this scheme. Digital marketing

analytics, SEO are top in demand.

Early Harvest

The Government is planning to set up Aadhaar allowed fingerprint presence

program in All Central Government Workplaces Situated at Delhi. A Web-Based

application software system will allow online documenting of attendance and it’s

watching by the involved stakeholders. a program of properly secured email is

being recognized, to improve its utilization within government program for 50 lakh

workers by march, 2015. All guides will be E-Books and SMS based climate

information and disaster alerts.

Impact of e-Governance Portals
Transparency
Citizen Engagement
Accountability
Better Governance
Cooperation
Innovation
Better Decision making
National Portal of India

India.gov.in is the Official Portal of the Government of India, designed, developed

and hosted by the National Informatics Centre (NIC), a premier ICT organization

of the Government of India under the support of the Department of Electronics

and Information Technology (DeitY), the Ministry of Communications and

Information Technology.

The Portal has been developed as a Mission Mode Project (MMP) under the

National E-Governance Plan (NEGP) of the Government. The objective behind the

Portal is to provide a single window access to the information and services being

provided by the Indian Government for citizens and other stakeholders.

India.gov.in has sections for people living abroad, business persons, government

employees, senior citizens and children.

Open Government Platform - OGPL to Promote Transparency and Citizen

Engagement

OGPL is a joint product from India and United States to promote transparency and

greater citizen engagement by making more government data, documents, tools

and processes publicly available. OGPL is available, as an open source platform. By

making this available in useful machine-readable formats it allows developers,

analysts, media & academia to develop new applications and insights that will help

give citizens more information for better decisions.

The site was launched in October 2012 and is a part of the Open Government

Initiative

.
 Challenges in E-Governance

1. Technical Issues

2. Organizational issues

3. Economic issues

4. Management Issues

5. Legal Issues

6. Technical Challenges
• Interoperability

• Privacy

• Security

• Multiservice

• Interaction
7. Organizational Challenges

• Lack of Integrated Services

• Lack of Key Persons

• Population

• Different Languages

8. Economic Challenges

• Cost

• Maintainability

• Reusability

• Portability
 Section 11

Important Abbreviations in ICT

1. Al – Artificial intelligence

2. ALGOL – Algorithmic Language

3. ARP – Address resolution Protocol

4. ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange

5. BINAC - Binary Automatic Computer

6. BCC – Blind Carbon Copy

7. BASIC - Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

8. BIOS – Basic Input Output System

9. Bit – Binary Digit

10. CC – Carbon Copy

11. CAD – Computer Aided Design

12. COBOL – Common Business Oriented Language

13. CD – Compact Disc

14. CRT – Cathode Ray Tube

15. CDR – Compact Disc Recordable

16. CDROM – Compact Disc Read Only Memory

17. CDRW – Compact Disc Rewritable

18. CDR/W – Compact Disk Read/Write

19. DBA – Data Base Administrator

20. DBMS – Data Base Management System

21. DNS – Domain Name System

22. DPI – Dots Per Inch

23. DRAM – Dynamic Random-Access Memory

24. DVD – Digital Video Disc/Digital Versatile Disc

25. DVDR – DVD Recordable

26. DVDROM – DVD Read Only Memory

27. DVDRW – DVD Rewritable

28. DVR – Digital Video Recorder

29. DOS – Disk Operating System

30. EBCDIC – Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

31. EDP – Electronic Data Processing

32. EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

33. ELM/e-Mail – Electronic Mail

34. ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

35. EOF - End Of File

36. EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

37. EXE – Executable

38. FAX - Far Away Xerox/ facsimile

39. FDC - Floppy Disk Controller

40. FDD - Floppy Disk Drive

41. FORTRAN - Formula Translation

42. FS - File System

43. FTP - File Transfer Protocol

44. Gb – Gigabit

45. GB – Gigabyte

46. GIF - Graphics Interchange Format

47. GSM - Global System for Mobile Communication

48. HDD - Hard Disk Drive

49. HP - Hewlett Packard

50. HTML - Hyper Text Markup Language

51. HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

52. IBM - International Business Machine

53. IM - Instant Message

54. IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol

55. ISP - Internet Service Provider

56. JPEG - Joint Photographic Experts Group

57. Kb – Kilobit

58. KB – Kilobyte

59. KHz – Kilohertz

60. Kbps - Kilobit Per Second

61. LCD – Liquid Crystal Display

62. LED – Light Emitting Diode

63. LPI – Lines Per Inch

64. LIS – Location Information Server

65. LSI – Large Scale Integration

66. Mb – Megabit

67. MB – Megabyte

68. MPEG – Moving Picture Experts Group

69. MMS – Multimedia Message Service

70. MICR – Magnetic Ink Character reader

71. MIPS – Million Instructions Per Second

72. NIC – Network Interface Card

73. NOS – Network Operating System

74. OCR - Optical Character Readers

75. OMR – Optical Mark Reader

76. OOP – Object Oriented Programming

77. OSS – Open Source Software

78. PAN – Personal Area Network

79. PC – Personal Computer

80. PDA - Personal Digital Assistant

81. PDF – Portable Document Format

82. POS – Point Of Sale

83. PNG - Portable Network Graphics

84. PPM – Pages Per Minute

85. PPP – Point-to-Point Protocol

86. PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory

87. PSTN – Public Switched Telephone Network

88. POST – Power On Self Test

89. PING – Packet Internet Gopher

90. RAM – Random Access Memory

91. RDBMS – Relational Data Base Management System

92. RIP – Routing Information Protocol

93. RTF – Rich Text Format

94. SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

95. SQL – Structured Query Language

96. SRAM – Static Random-Access Memory

97. SNMP – Simple Network Management Protocol

98. SIM – Subscriber Identification Module
99. SD RAM - Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access
Memory
100.SDD - Software Design Description
101.SDK - Software Development Kit
102.SDL - Storage Definition Language
103.TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
104.TB – Tera Bytes
105.UPS – Uninterrupted Power Supply
106.URI – Uniform Resource Identifier
107.URL – Uniform Resource Locator
108.USB - Universal Serial Bus
109.ULSI - Ultra Large Scale Integration
110.UNIVAC - Universal Automatic Computer
 111.VAR – Variable
112. VGA – Video Graphics Array
113. VSNL – Videsh Sanchar Nigam
Limited114.VDU – Visual Display Unit
115.VPN - Virtual Private Network
116.VRAM - Video Random Access Memory

117.VRML - Virtual Reality Modelling Language

118.Wi-Fi – Wireless Fidelity

119.WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network
120.WPA – Wi-Fi Protected Access
121.WWW – World Wide Web
122.WORM – Write Once Read Many
123.W3C - World Wide Web Consortium
124.WAIS - Wide Area Information Servers
125.WAN - Wide Area Network
126.XHTML – eXtensible Hyper text Markup Language
127.XML - eXtensible Markup language
128.ZB – Zeta Byte