University of Gondar (UOG)
Institute of Technology
EM Waves & Guide Structures
Chapter One
Review of Vectors and Maxwell’s Equations
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Scalar & Vector Fields
Scalar field
• A field is a region in which a particular function has a
value at each and every point in that region.
• The distribution of a scalar quantity with a definite
position in a space is called scalar field.
• For example, the temperature. It has a definite value
in the atmosphere but no need of direction to specify
it.
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Vector field
• If a quantity which is specified in a region to define a
field vector, then the corresponding field is called a
vector field.
• For example, the gravitational force on a mass in a space
is a vector field. This force has a value at various points in
a space and always has specific direction.
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• The other examples of vector fields are the velocity of
particles in moving fluid, wind velocity of atmosphere,
voltage gradient in a cable, displacement of a flying bird in
a space, magnetic field existing from North south field etc.
Line, Surface, & Volume Integrals
• By a line we mean the path along a curve in space. We
shall use terms such as line, curve, and contour
interchangeably.
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Given a vector field A and a curve L, we define the integral
• If the path of integration is a closed curve becomes a closed
contour integral.
which is called the circulation of A around L.
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Example:
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Figure
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• Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing the
smooth surface S, we define the surface integral or the flux of
A through S.
Path of integration of vector field A
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Fig. The flux of a vector field A through surface S.
• Here, at any point on S, is the unit normal to S. For a closed
surface (defining a volume)
which is referred to as the net outward flux of ‘A’ from S.
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• Notice, that a closed path defines an open surface whereas a
closed surface defines a volume, we define the integral.
is the volume integral of the scalar ρv over the volume v.
• The physical meaning of a line, surface, or volume integral
depends on the nature of the physical quantity represented by
A or ρv.
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Note that dL, dS, and dv are all as defined.
Rectangular:
• The differential displacement is:
• The differential normal area is:
• The differential volume is:
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Cylindrical:
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• The differential displacement is:
• The differential normal area is:
• The differential volume is:
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Consider the object as shown below, and calculate
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Figure
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Spherical:
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• The differential displacement is:
• The differential normal area is:
• The differential volume is:
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DEL OPERATOR
The del operator, written ∇, is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian
coordinates:
The operator is useful in defining
The gradient of a scalar V, written, as ∇V
The divergence of a vector A, written as ∇ • A
The curl of a vector A, written as ∇ X A
The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇2V
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To obtain in terms of p ,Φ and Z
Similarly, to obtain V in terms of r, 6, and
Hence,
From the above equations, we obtain in cylindrical coordinates
as:
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Similarly, to obtain in terms of r, Φ, and Z
To obtain,
From the above equations results in in spherical coordinates:
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Gradient of a Scalar:
For Cartesian coordinate:
For cylindrical coordinate
For spherical coordinate:
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Divergence & Curl of a Vector Field
The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per
unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
(a) Positive divergence, (b) negative divergence, (c) zero divergence.
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The divergence of A at point P (xo, yo, zo) in a Cartesian system
is given by a vector field:
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Divergence
Cylindrical Coordinate System
• Spherical Coordinate System The curl of a is an axial (or
rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of A per unit area as the area lends to zero and
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whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the
area is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum.
Curl: is related to the local rotation of the vector field:
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Cartesian Coordinates:
Cylindrical Coordinates:
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Spherical Coordinates:
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Stokes's theorem: states that the circulation of a vector field
A around a (closed) path L is equal to the surface integral of
the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L provided
that A and are continuous on S.
As k —> 0 and incorporating leads to:
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Laplacian: A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in
a given region if its Laplacian vanishes in that region.
∇2V=0
Laplacian of a vector: ∇2A is defined as the gradient of the
divergence of A minus the curl of the curl of A;
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Only for the cartesian coordinate system;
Helmholtz's theorem: states that any sufficiently smooth,
rapidly decaying vector field in three dimensions can be
resolved into the sum of
an irrotational (curl-free) vector field and
a solenoidal (divergence-free) vector field
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This is known as the Helmholtz decomposition or
Helmholtz representation.
• A vector field is said to be solenoidal (or divergenceless) if
•A=0
• A vector field is said to be irrotational (or potential) if
×A=0
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Maxwell’s Equation
• The static electric and magnetic fields are called time
invariant fields, in static electromagnetic fields, the electric
and magnetic fields are dependent other.
• Similarly, the time varying fields or the dynamic fields are
called time variant fields.
• In the dynamic electromagnetic fields (i.e. time varying
electromagnetic fields), the electric and magnetic fields are
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interdependent such time varying fields are produced due to
the time varying currents.
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Individual Assignment:
#1. Derive the four maxwell's equations and write what
we understand from each equation precisely and clearly
for time invariant & variant conditions.
Submission date: Monday
16,2024
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