CHAPTER 17 impulses identified as dots and dashes that

eventually became known as “Morse Code”.

HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
Charles de Coulumb – was the first person to
Thales - Greek mathematician who documented
measure the amount of electricity and
the concept of static electricity.
magnetism generated in a circuit.
- He recorded that after rubbing amber, a
Ohm – a German college teacher who
yellowish, translucent mineral, with a
formulated a law showing the relationship
piece of wool or fur, other light objects
between volts, amps, and resistance.
such as straw or feathers were attracted
to the amber. Henry & Ohm – demonstrated that in a long
electric line it was better to have relatively high
William Gilbert – coined the term electricity,
voltage and low current.
whish is derived from the Latin term electricus,
meaning to “produce from amber by friction”. Thomas Edison – developed incandescent lamp
in America.
Otto van Guericke – built the first electric
generating machine. Joseph Swan – developed incandescent lamp in
England.
Stephen Gray - an Englishman who
distinguished between materials that were Edison Electric Light Company – successfully
conductors and nonconductors in 1729. demonstrated the use of artificial lighting by
powering incandescent streetlights and lamps in
Ewal Georg von Kleist & Dutch Pieter van
London and New York City.
Musschenbroek – invented an electrical storage
devise called a Leyden jar, a glass jar coated Nikola Tesla – inventor of 3-phase power
inside and outside with tin foil. distribution, the alternating current motor,
wireless transmission.
Benjamin Franklin – suggested the existence of
an electrical fluid and surmised that an - Began experimenting on generators in
electricity was made up of two types of electric 1883, and discovered the rotating
forces; attractive forces and repulsive forces. magnetic field.

- Conducted his famous kite experiment George Westinghouse – bought the patent
in 1752. rights to Tesla’s alternating current system.

Luigi Galvani - observed that a discharge of L. Caulard and J.D. Gibbs – announces the first
static electricity made a dead frog’s leg twitch. transformer in 1883.

Alessandro Volta – on expanding Galvani’s THE PHENOMENON OF ELECTRICITY

findings, he built the voltaic pile; an early type
Electricity – a physical phenomenon tied to the
of electric cell or battery.
behavior of positively and negatively charged
H.C. Oersted – a Danish physicist who elementary particles of an atom.
discovered that a magnetic field surrounds a
Electrical Current – flow of electric charge
current-carrying wire by observing that
through a conductor.
electrical currents affected the needle on a
compass. Conductors – carries electrical current without
providing too much resistance to current flow.
Andre Marie Ampere – a French mathematician
who observed that a coil of wires acts like a Insulators – are materials that resist the flow of
magnet when electrical current is passed electricity.
through it.
- They have electrons that tend to retain
D.F. Arago – invented the electromagnet electrons on their original atoms,
making it difficult for electrons to move
Joseph Henry – demonstrated an
and conduct electricity.
electromagnetic device that was capable of
lifting over a thousand pounds. Semiconductors – are materials that are neither
good conductors nor good insulators.
Michael Faraday – developed a crude electric
motor in 1831. - They behave like good conductors at
high temperature and insulators at low
Samuel Morse – conceived the idea of sending
temperature.
coded messages over wires using the
electromagnetic telegraph and a code of electric Static Electricity – from friction
Thermoelectricity – electricity from heat RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAGNETISM AND
ELECTRICAL CURRENT
Piezoelectricity – electricity from pressure
Magnetism – is a force of attraction between
Electrochemistry – electricity from a chemical
ferromagnetic metals such as iron, nickel, and
reaction
cobalt and a force of repulsion between
Photoelectricity – electricity from light diamagnetic materials such as antimony and
bismuth.
Magnetoelectricity – electricity from
magnetism DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

UNITS OF ELECTRICITY Direct Current – is current flow in one direction

in a n electrical circuit.
Volts (V) – driving force behind current flow.
Alternating Current – is a continuous reversal of
Ampere (I) – rate of current flow in a closed the direction of current flow such that at a point
electrical system. in time the current flow.
Resistance (R)- refers to the ability of a Cycle – the change from the direction to the
conductor to resist current flow and is next and back again.
measured in ohms.
Frequency – cycles per second (expressed in
Ohm (Ω) – the unit used to measure electrical hurtz).
resistance
- Higer frequency, mean lighter motors
Power – the rate at which work is accomplished; and transformers.
it is work or energy released divided by time. - Voltage is the driving force of current
SERIES CIRCUIT PRINCIPLES flow.
-
Components in a series circuit share the same
amperage, so the total amperage in a series
circuit is equal to the sum of the individual Waveform – a representation of how AC varies
amperages: with time.

I total=I 1+ I 2 + I 3 + … I n Single-Phase Alternating Current Power – refers

to a system in which all the voltages of the
Total voltage in a series circuit is equal supply vary in unison.
to the sum of the individual voltage drops:
Three-Phase Alternating Current Power –
V total =V 1 +V 2 +V 3 +… V n consist of three separate lines of single-phase
power with each line out of phase by 120° (1 ⁄3
Total resistance in a series circuit is
of a cycle).
equal to the sum of the individual resistances,
making it greater than any of the individual TRANSFORMING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
resistances:
Transformer – is an electrical device that
Rtotal =R 1+ R 2+ R 3+ … R n transfers an alternating current and voltage
from one circuit to another using the induction
PARALLEL CIRCUIT PRINCIPLES phenomenon.
Components in a parallel circuit share the same - Serve as an efficient way of converting
voltage, so the total voltage in a parallel circuit power at a primary voltage and
is equal to the sum of the individual voltages: amperage to the equivalent power at a
V total=V 1 =V 2=V 3=…V n different secondary voltage amperage.

Total amperage in a parallel circuit is The theoretical relationship between primary

equal to the sum of the individual branch (Ep) and secondary (Es) voltages is proportional
amperages: to the number of windings in the primary (Np)
and secondary (Ns) windings is expressed as:
I total=I 1+ I 2 + I 3 + … I n
E p Es
Total resistance in a parallel circuit is =
N p Ns
less than any of the individual resistances:
Primary voltage can be stepped up to a higher
1 1 1 1 secondary voltage or stepped down to a lower
Rtotal= + + +…+
1/ R1 1/ R2 1/ R3 1/ Rn
secondary voltage based on the ratio of number 2. Power companies typically impose low
of windings: power factor penal ties, so by correcting
the PF, this penalty can be avoided.
Ns
E s=E p ( ) 3. The electrical load on the power
Np company is reduced, which allows the
IMPEDANCE AND THE POWER FACTOR power company to supply the surplus
power to other consumers without
Inductors – is a coil of wire that creates an increasing its generation capacity.
electromagnetic field.
COST AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER
Capacitors – is composed of a metal plates
separated by air or a dielectric material such as
paper, ceramic, or mica.

- Store electrical energy in an

electrostatic field and release it later.

Impedance (Z) – a measure of resistance to

current flow on an AC circuit due to the
combined effect of resistance, inductance
and capacitance.

E=IZ
Real power – is the “working power” that
performs useful effort in a circuit.
Energy charge
- Expressed in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW)
Is simply the cost of electrical energy consumed
Reactive Power – is the power that generates
($energy). This may be computed by the following
the magnetic field required for inductive devices
equation, where the energy consumption (q) is
to operate.
expressed in kilowatt-hours and units cost of
- Expressed in volt-amps-reactive (VAR) electricity ($/kWh) is expressed in dollars per
or kilovolt-amperes-reactive (kVAR) kilowatt-hours:

Apparent Power – is the “power available to $energy = q . $/kWh

use”.
The energy is based on energy consumed by the
- Is the total power required by an customer during a billing period, say once a
inductive device that is a compositive month or every 30 days.
(vector sum) of the real power and
Example:
reactive power.
- Expressed in volt-amps-reactive (VAR) A 60 W lamp remains lighted for 24hr a day for
or kilovolt-amperes-reactive (kVAR) 30 days. Determine the electrical energy
consumed over this period. Calculate the energy
Power Factor – is a number between 0 and 1
charge for the billing period at a rate of
(frequently expressed as a percentage)
$0.1172/kWh.
By algebraic manipulation, PF = (real
q = Pt
power/apparent power) can be converted to:
= (60W)(24hr.day x 30days/billing period)
Real power = apparent power * PF
= 43 200 Wh
W =V ( A ) × PF
= 43 200Wh (1 kW/1000W)
PF Correction
= 43.2kWh
Main advantages of PF correction are as follows:
$energy = q . $/kWh
1. A high PF reduces the load currents,
resulting in a considerable saving in = 43.2kWh/ billing period $0.1172/kWh
hardware costs (i.e., conductors,
= $5.06/billing period
switchgear, substation transformers,
and so on).
POWER “DEMAND” CHANGE CHAPTER 18

Maximum demand Power generation and transmission

- Is the highest rate that energy is Power station

consumed in kilowatts (kw) over a small
- is an industrial facility that houses
time interval.
equipment to generate electrical
Demand charge energy.

- is the billing fee related to maximum Generator

demand.
- is a mechanical device that converts
DEMAND LIMITING AND LOAD SHEDDING mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
Demand limiting
Armature
- is accomplished by disconnecting loads
that are not needed during periods of - a shaft with conductor windings
high demand. wrapped around an iron core, through a
stationary magnetic field, to produce
Load shedding
current flow.
- is a method by which nonessential
Turbine
equipment and appliances are
deliberately switched off to maintain a - a rotary engine that is connected to the
uniform load and thus limit demand. generator and drives the rotation of the
armature shaft.
Load Shifting
Power substations
- moves nonessential loads to periods of
low demand. - are small facilities in fenced yards that
contain transformers, switches, and
Peak Shaving
other electrical equipment that reduce
- energy storage and alternate sources of transmission voltages to safer
energy can also be used to reduce distribution levels.
demand peaks
BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE EQUIPMENT
TIME-OF-USE RATES
Service entrance conductors
- rewards the user for reducing power
- carry power from the transformer
consumption during periods when
through a metering device to the
electrical demand is highest and a lower
building’s service disconnects.
rate for the remainder of the year.
Service drop
ADDITIONAL CHARGES
- refers to overhead wired extended from
Additional surcharges for service and fuel
a pole-mounted distribution
adjustment may also be assessed.
transformer to the building’s service
Service or billing charge entrance.

- covers the cost of metering and bill Service lateral

collecting activities such as meter
- underground service entrance
reading and preparing and mailing
conductors.
billing statements.
Service entrance
Fuel adjustment charge
- includes the components that connect
- reflects periodic changes in the cost of
the utility-supplied wiring to service
purchasing, delivering, handling, and
disconnect, excluding the utility’s
storing raw fuel that id used to produce
metering equipment.
electricity.
Service entrance equipment

- receives the service entrance

conductors.
Electric meter

- is an instrument that is used by the

utility company to measure and record
electrical energy consumed.

Service disconnect

- is a required part of the service

entrance equipment that allows
electrical service from the utility
company to be switched off so that
power is disconnected to the4 building
installation.

Switchboards

- is a large cabinet or assembly of metal

cabinets in which is connected
disconnecting switches, overcorrect
protection devices, other protective
devices, and instruments design to
divide large amounts of electrical
current into smaller amounts of current
used by electrical equipment.

Panelboards

- is one or more metal cabinets that serve

as a single unit, including buses,
automatic overcurrent protection
devices (fuses or circuit breakers).

Building transformers

- are used in transmitting and distributing

power from the power plant to a
substation.