Hong Kong Baptist University

International
Lecture 3
Relations after 1945
A Solution to Anarchy?
HIST 3306 Liberalism and Constructivism
Case Study: Cuba Missiles Crisis
 Question

Analyze the case study (Cuba Missile Crisis) and

explain it with the application of the IRs theories and
concepts studied so far
 Compulsory Readings
✓ J. Mearsheimer, ‘Structural Realism’ in T. Dunne, M.
Kurki, S. Smith International Relations Theories, fourth
ed. Oxford Press, 2016, p. 51 – 66
✓ Shiping Tang, The Security Dilemma: A conceptual
Analysis, Security Studies, 18:587–623, 2009
 John Mearsheimer: Structural Realism
▪ Why do states want power?
The international system leaves them little choice if they want to
survive
▪ defensive realists argue that structural factors limit how much power
states can gain
▪ offensive realists argue that system’s structure encourages states to
maximize their share of world power and pursue hegemony
International politics = Power politics
▪ How much power is enough?
▪ defensive: unwise to maximize power.
▪ Offensive: the ultimate end of power is surviving
▪ What causes great power war?
▪ Distribution of Power. Countries start wars to gain power, for J. Mearsheimer (1947 - )
economic reasons and ideology
 Question

What is an ideology? How would you define it?

What is an ideology:

- Ideology is a systematic, social scientific, study of ideas, explaining the

deep structural forces shaping society

- Ideologies are foundations of political thought made by unchangeable

values and principles

- Ideologies inspire group of people and mobilize them for socio-

political action
 8. Key concept: Liberalism

▪ Classical Liberalism Adam Smith (1723 -1790)

▪ Classic Liberals believe that natural condition of men is
‘harmony’
▪ The rise of individualism (Harm Principle) Immanuel Kant 1724 -1804

▪ Liberalism relates to the spread of democracy

▪ Democratic states are unlikely to wage war with other
democratic states

There is a possible solution to conflicts derived by

‘anarchy’
John S. Mill (1806 – 1873)
 Classical Liberalism: the Individual
▪ John Locke, Adam Smith, Immanuel Kant, J.S. Mill:
• Individualism
• Freedom
• Rule of Law
• No State Interference
▪ Individual and his mental and physical capacities
▪ Strong belief in human reason and abilities
▪ Individual is a social creature
Best way to deal with human condition is Freedom
(Harm Principle) Caspar David Friedrich (1818) Sea of Fog
Liberalism as a Theory of the International Order

▪ The centrality of state-society relations to world

politics. A world of states is the preferred order
▪ Liberalists promote cooperation among states, which
makes war less likely, but it does not disappear
▪ Democracies do not engage in war against each other
▪ Balance of Power is a spontaneous order of alliances
▪ The role of state in IO is to protect individual freedom
 Liberalism: Concept
In international relations, liberalism is an ideology that emphasizes the importance of
individual freedom, human rights, democracy, and cooperation among states. Liberalism in
international relations is based on the principles and values of classical liberalism, which
originated in the Enlightenment era. Key Features of Liberalism in International Relations are:
1. Individualism and Human Rights: Liberalism places a strong emphasis on the protection of
individual rights and freedoms.
2. Democracy and Governance: Liberalism promotes democratic governance and the belief
that governments should be accountable to their citizens
3. International Cooperation: Liberalism emphasizes the benefits of international cooperation
4. Free Trade and Globalization: Liberalism supports free trade and economic
interdependence.
5. Multilateralism and Diplomacy: Liberalism favors multilateral approaches to international
relations, where states work together through diplomacy and negotiation
Classical (philosophical) Liberalism
▪ Perpetual Peace (1795 / Immanuel Kant)
• Republican form of government for every state
• States band together in a confederation of states
• All citizens have a fundamental dignity as moral being
• Respect the rights of everyone and universal hospitality

▪ Liberal democracies do not go to war against each other

▪ States avoid conflicts forming international institutions
▪ Commercial interaction supports the effort
▪ Permanent status of peace overcome the ‘security
dilemma’

I. Kant, Perpetual Peace published in 1795

…No one may force anyone to be happy according to his manner of
imagining the well-being of other men; instead, everyone may seek his
happiness in the way that seems good to him as long as he does not
infringe on the freedom of others to pursue a similar purpose, when
such freedom may co-exist with the freedom of every other man
according to a possible and general law…

I. Kant, Theory and Practice, 290,72

Classical (political) Liberalism

▪ On Liberty (1859 / J.S. Mill)

▪ The need to free the individual
▪ Struggle between individuals and governments
▪ Mankind progress justifies power to the people
▪ Individual rights vs. tyranny of governments
▪ The tyranny of the majority (Aristoteles, Tocqueville)
▪ List of basic liberties
▪ The importance of free markets and trade
▪ Constitutional checks / Rule of law

J. S. Mill, On Liberty, published in 1859

…The only purpose for which power can be rightly used over any
member of the civilised community against his will, is to prevent
harm to others…

J.S. Mill, On Liberty (edited by Edward Alexander, 1999, p.52)

Classical (economic) Liberalism

▪ The Wealth of Nations (1776 / A. Smith)

▪ Minimal interference of government in market
economy.
▪ Individual initiatives produce harmonious and equal
society
▪ Market knows its own interests (not the State) and
regulates itself.

▪ Foundation of the economic capitalism

A. Smith Wealth of Nations 1776

…The statesman who would attempt to direct individuals how to employ
their capitals would be responsible not only to care very redundant, but
assume an authority which could safely be entrusted to no council or
senate, and which would nowhere so dangerous in the hands of a man so
foolish and presumptuous enough to believe themselves capable of
exercising…

A. Smith, The Wealth of Nations, Book IV, Chapter II, para. 10.
1896 Ford Quadricycle Runabout, First Car by H. Ford Wilbur and Orville Wright First Flight 17 December 1903

The telegraph (1844)

Peter Cooper (1829) The Tom Thumb in USA

 Between Realpolitik and Liberal Harmony

Realism Liberalism
▪ Frequent Conflicts and lack of cooperation ▪ Cooperation among states
▪ Fragile alliances and fundamental Untrust ▪ The rise of Individualism
▪ Strong countries are in pursuit of own ▪ Democratic peace
interests and Power ▪ Trade and industrialization

Power vs. Harmony

 Questions

Are the foundations and values of Liberalism reasonable and practical?

Can Liberalism truly be a solution to the issue of anarchy in the IO?
Neo(Democratic)Liberalism

▪ The central role of Peace

▪ Leading ideology after the WWII
▪ Need for peace and prosperity
▪ International trade and interdependence
▪ International organizations
▪ Relations for mutual benefit
 Neo(Democratic) Liberalism (2)

▪ Interdependence (economic, political, environmental

etc.) means that states have mutual interests
▪ Mutual interests open the door to cooperation
▪ To enhance cooperation, states establish international
institutions
▪ Example: WTO is an international regime that
should facilitate negotiation of rules and adjudication
of disputes

The main actors of the neoliberal

order in the 1980s
 Critique of Neoliberalism
▪ Neoliberalism wanted to connect global capital and global
business, to prevent wars and solve the anarchic dilemma
▪ Instead, the system created more distance between capital and
people. The consequence are today’s extremism and
nationalism
▪ History docet : in 1929, from asset bubbles and speculation, the
socio-economic crisis gave birth to Fascism and Nazism
▪ Sub-prime crisis (2008), COVID pandemic and war in Ukraine
have finally exposed all the vulnerabilities of the system
▪ Outcome: A dramatic shift from globalization to
regionalization, main supply process and finance clearly shows
the effects of de-globalization
 Limitations and Contradictions of Modern Liberalism

▪ Cause of Great Inequalities

▪ Misconception of free trade in liberal theories
▪ Neoliberal controversy: rich liberal countries
spend more on defense and make the world
unsafe
▪ Fragility and political weakness in liberal
democratic system of governance

The evidence shows that Democracy is

in retreat!
A healthy economy should be designed to thrive, not grow | Kate
Raworth (TED talk, Oxford economist, May 2018)
 Compulsory Reading
▪ Liberalism, Encyclopaedia of Political Science, Russell
Hardin New York University (Moodle)

Suggested Reading
▪ Francis Fukuyama, A Country of Their Own.
Liberalism Needs the Nation, in Foreign Affairs, June
2022 (Moodle)
▪ Robin Niblett, Liberalism in Retreat, in Foreign
Affairs, January 2017 (Moodle)
 9. Key concept: Constructivism

▪ The central role of Intersubjectivity

▪ Norms matter
▪ Actors’ preferences are socially constructed through
interactions, sharing ideas, rules, identities etc.
▪ States should create international institutions and
common rules to create cooperation for mutual gain

Alexander Wendt (1958 - )

Does the absence of centralized political authority force states to play competitive
power politics? Can international regimes overcome this logic, and under what
conditions? What in anarchy is given and immutable, and what is amenable to
change?...

I argue that self-help and power politics do not follow either logically or causally
from anarchy and that if today we find ourselves in a self-help world, this is due
to process, not structure…Anarchy is what states make of it…

A. Wendt, Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power
Politics, International Organization , Spring, 1992, 46 (2)
 The rise of Constructivism
▪ The dominant theories failed to predict the end of
Cold War
▪ Promote a system constructed by intersubjectivity
▪ Anarchy is a construction of States unwilling to
cooperate
▪ States have multiple identities, interests and
expectations
▪ Institutions brings mediation and stability
(cooperation among egoists)
 …Competitive systems of interaction are prone to security "dilemmas," in which the
efforts of actors to enhance their security unilaterally threatens the security of the others,
perpetuating distrust and alienation…
A. Wendt, Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics, International
Organization , Spring, 1992, 46 (2), p. 407

… The principle of sovereignty transforms this situation by providing a social basis for
the individuality and security of states. Sovereignty is an institution, and so it exists only
in virtue of certain intersubjective understandings and expectations; there is no sovereignty
without another…
A. Wendt, Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics, International
Organization , Spring, 1992, 46 (2), p. 412
 Constructivism and IL
▪ Constructivism allows greater role for IL
▪ IL central component of the normative
structure that constitutes international politics
▪ States internalize norms and behavior in
compliance with international law
▪ IL become the accepted reference to define
legitimate/illegitimate actions
 Constructivism
Constructivism asserts that belief, ideas and norms shape the behavior of states.
Constructivism argues that individuals and states’ actions and interactions are socially
constructed
Key features of Constructivism are:
a. Constructivism highlights the role of norms and institutions in shaping countries’ actions
b. States learn from one another through interaction and influence each other in matters of
international affairs
c. Constructivism argues that countries’ cooperative interaction can change the dynamics of the
IO
d. International organizations and non-state actors play an influential role in countries’
behaviour

For Constructivism, alliances, human rights norms and form of international cooperation can
finally lead to a conflict resolution and solve the issues of an anarchic order
 Questions

Does Constructivism represent the future in IRs?

What are the limitations of the theory?
 Compulsory Reading
▪ Alexander Wendt, Anarchy is what States Make of it:
The Social Construction of Power Politics,
International Organization , Spring, 1992, Vol. 46, No. 2
(Spring, 1992), pp. 391- 425

Suggested Reading
▪ Susan Park, Constructivism in Weiss, T. G., &
Wilkinson, R. (eds.) International organization and global
governance, 2018, Taylor & Francis Group
 ❑Liberalism as an Ideology
Summary ❑Kant, Mill and Smith

❑Neo-Liberalism

❑Constructivism: A. Wendt
 Compulsory Readings
▪ Liberalism, Encyclopaedia of Political Science, Russell
Hardin New York University (Moodle)

▪ Alexander Wendt, Anarchy is what States Make of it:

The Social Construction of Power Politics, International
Organization , Spring, 1992, Vol. 46, No. 2 (Spring,
1992), pp. 391- 425) Moodle