UNIT–IV : Introduction To

Equalization
 Basic Digital Communication System

HT(f) X(t) Hc(f)

Information Pulse Trans Wireless
source generator filter channel

+
Channel noise
n(t) +
Y(t) Receiver
Digital A/D filter
Processing
HR(f)
 Basic Communication System

HT(f) Hc(f) HR(f)

Trans Y(t) Receiver
Ak channel Y(tm)
filter filter

Y (t ) = ∑
k
A k h c ( t − t d − kT b ) + n 0 ( t )
The received Signal is the transmitted signal, convolved with the channel
and added with AWGN

Y (t ) = A
m m
+ ∑ [
A k h c (m − k )T b
]+ n (t )
0 m
K ≠m

ISI - Inter Symbol

Interference

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)

5
 Reasons for ISI

Channel is band limited in nature

limited frequency response

unlimited time response

Channel has multi-path Reflections

Tx filter might add ISI when channel
spacing is crucial.
 Example for Measured Channels

The Variation of the Amplitude of the Channel Taps is Random

(changing Multipath) and usually modeled as Rayleigh distribution in
Typical Urban Areas
Equalizer: equalizes the channel – the received signal would
seen like it passed a delta response.

1
| G E ( f ) |= ⇒ | G E ( f ) | ⋅ | G C ( f ) |= 1 ⇒ htotal (t ) = δ (t )
| GC ( f ) |
arg( G E ( f )) = − arg( G C ( f ))
 Introduction

Equalization compensates for ISI created by multipath with time

dispersive channels (W > BC)

Linear equalization and nonlinear equalization

Diversity also compensates for fading channel impairments, and is
usually implemented by using two or more receiving antennas

Spatial diversity, antenna polarization diversity, frequency diversity,
time diversity

The former counters the effects of time dispersion (ISI), while the
latter reduces the depth and duration of the fades experienced by a
receiver in a flat fading (narrowband) channel
 Equalization Techniques

The term equalization can be used to describe any signal processing
operation that minimizes ISI.

Two operation modes for an adaptive equalizer:
1. Training and [Link]

Three factors affect the time spanning over which an equalizer
converges: equalizer algorithm, equalizer structure and time rate of
change of the multipath radio channel

TDMA wireless systems are particularly well suited for equalizers.
Equalization Techniques
 Equalization Techniques

Equalizer is usually implemented at baseband or at IF in a receiver

y(t )= x(t ) ∗ f ∗(t ) + n (t )

b

f*(t): complex conjugate of f(t)

nb(t): baseband noise at the input of the equalizer

heq(t): impulse response of the equalizer
 Equalization Technologies
dˆ (t ) = y (t ) ∗ h eq (t )
= x (t ) ∗ f ∗
(t ) ∗ h eq (t ) + m b (t ) ∗ h eq (t )

= δ (t )
∴ F ∗ (− f ) ∗ H eq ( f ) = 1

Inverse filter: If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer

enhances the frequency components with small amplitudes and
attenuates the strong frequencies in the received frequency response.

Provides flat and linear phase response.

For a time-varying channel, an adaptive equalizer is needed to track
the channel variations
 Basic Structure of Adaptive Equalizer

Transversal filter with N delay elements, N+1 taps, and N+1 tunable complex weights

These weights are updated continuously by an adaptive algorithm

The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek
 Equalization Techniques

Classical equalization theory : using training sequence to minimize

the cost function
E[e(k) e*(k)]

Recent techniques for adaptive algorithm :
1. Blind algorithms (No training sequence)
2. Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA, used for constant
envelope modulation – maintains on the received signal)
3. Spectral Coherence Restoral Algorithm (SCORE, exploits
spectral redundancy or cyclostationarity in the Tx signal)
 Solutions for Optimum Weights
•Error signal e k = x k − y kT ω k = x k − ω kT y k
where y k = [ y k y k −1 y k − 2 .... y k − N ]T

ω k = [ωk ωk − 1 ωk − 2 .... ωk − N ]T

= x k2 + ω y k y kT ω − 2 x k y kT ω
2 T
•Mean square error ek k k k

•Expected MSE ξ = E ek [ ] = E [x ] + ω
2 2
k
T
R ω − 2pTω
where
 y k2 y k y k −1 yk yk −2 .... y k y k − N 
 
[ ] y y
R = E yk y*k = E k −1 k
 ....
y k2−1 y k −1 y k − 2 .... y k −1 y k − N 
.... .... .... .... 
 2 
 yk − N yk y k − N y k −1 yk − N yk −2 .... y k − N 

p = E[x k y k ] = E[x k y k xk y k − N ]
T
x k y k −1 xk y k −2 ....
 Solutions for Optimum Weights

Optimum weight vector : Diff. with weight.

ωˆ = R −1p

Minimum mean square error (MMSE)
= E [χ κ ] −
T −1
ξ min
2 p R p

= E[χκ ] − ω̂
Τ
2
p

Minimizing the MSE tends to reduce the bit error rate
 Equalization Techniques

Two general categories - linear and nonlinear equalization

1. If d(t) is not the feedback path to adapt the equalizer, the
equalization is linear
2. If d(t) is fed back to change the subsequent outputs of the equalizer,
the equalization is nonlinear
Equalization Techniques
 Equalizer Techniques

Linear transversal equalizer (LTE, made up of tapped delay lines)

Basic linear transversal equalizer structure

Finite impulse response (FIR) filter

Infinite impulse response (IIR) filter
 Equalizer Techniques

Tapped delay line filter with both feedforward and feedback taps
 Structure of a Linear Transversal Equalizer

N2
• d k = ∑ C n y k − n • E [e(n) ] =
π
ˆ * 2 T No
dω
2π
∫ T
π
) + No
− jω t 2
n=− N 1 T F(e

F(e jωt ) :frequency response of the channel

N o :noise spectral density
Structure of a Lattice Equalizer

The structure of a Lattice Equalizer

 Characteristics of Lattice Filter

Advantages
Numerical stability
Faster convergence
Unique structure allows the dynamic assignment of the most
effective length

Disadvantages
The structure is more complicated
 Linear Equalizers
• Zero-forcing
– Design H eq (z) so that ISI is totally removed.
• Minimum mean square error (MMSE)
– Design E(z) to minimize the mean square error (MSE)

MSE = ∑ ε = ∑ (c k − c k )
2 2
k
ˆ
k k

25
Linear Equalizers
• System modeling
 u (− K ) 0 0 ... 0 0   e− K   cˆ− 2 K 
u ( − K + 1) ...   M   M 
K
u (− K )
∑ en u i − n
0 ... ...
ĉi = ⇒ =
n=− K
  M   M 
    
 0 0 0 0 u ( K )   e K   cˆ2 K 

• Zero-forcing solution

1, k = 0
cˆk = 
0, k ≠ 0

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 Linear Equalizers
• MMSE
 Linear Equalizers
• Algorithms
– To reduce the computation complexity of
−1
e=R p (~ (2K+1)3 operations!)

– Least-mean-square algorithm (LMS)

∇ˆ n = − 2pˆ n + 2 R
ˆ e
n n

e = e − µ ∇ˆ
n +1 n n
• µ determines convergence and residual errors
– Recursive-least-squares algorithm (RLS)
R n−1−1u Tn
kn =
λ + u n R n −1u n
* −1 T
, R n−1 =
1
λ
(R −1
n −1 )
− k n u *n R n−1−1 ,

e n = e n −1 + k n ( c n − e n −1u Tn )
• λ determines the tracking ability of the RLS equalizers.
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 Nonlinear Equalization

Used in applications where the channel distortion is too severe

Three effective methods
1. Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)
2. Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection
3. Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimator (MLSE)
 Nonlinear Equalization--DFE

Basic idea : once an information symbol has been detected and decided
upon, the ISI that it induces on future symbols can be estimated and
subtracted out before detection of subsequent symbols

Can be realized in either the direct transversal form or as a lattice filter
N2 N3
• dˆ k = ∑ C y k − n + ∑ F i d k − i
*
n
n=− N1 i =1

[
• E e(n)
2
] T Tπ
= exp{ ∫− π ln[
2π T
No
]dω}
F( e ) + N o
jωT 2
min
Nonlinear Equalizer-DFE

Decision feedback equalizer (DFE)

 Nonlinear Equalization--DFE

Predictive DFE , proposed by Belfiore and Park.

Consists of an FFF and an FBF, the latter is called a noise predictor

Predictive DFE performs as well as conventional DFE as the limit in

the number of taps in FFF and the FBF approach infinity

The FBF in predictive DFE can also be realized as a lattice structure.

The RLS algorithm can be used to yield fast convergence

Nonlinear Equalizer-DFE

Predictive decision feedback equalizer

 Nonlinear Equalization—ML &MLSE

Effect of a symbol is spread to other symbols, it is intuitive that the optimal receiver
should observe not only the segment of received signal concerning the desired
symbol, but the whole received signal instead.(Trellis diagram)

MLSE tests all possible data sequences (rather than decoding each received
symbol by itself ), and chooses the data sequence with the maximum probability as
the output.

Usually has a large computational requirement.

First proposed by Forney using a basic MLSE estimator structure and

implementing it with the Viterbi algorithm
 Nonlinear Equalizer-MLSE

The structure of a maximum likelihood sequence equalizer(MLSE) with an adaptive matched filter

MLSE requires knowledge of the channel characteristics in order

to compute the matrics for making decisions

MLSE also requires knowledge of the statistical distribution of the
noise corrupting the signal
 Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

Performance measures for an algorithm
1. Rate of convergence
2. Misadjustment
3. Computational complexity
4. Numerical properties

Factors dominate the choice of an equalization structure and its
algorithm
1. The cost of computing platform
2. The power budget
3. The radio propagation characteristics
 Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

The speed of the mobile unit determines the channel fading rate and the

Dopper spread, which is related to the coherent time of the channel

The choice of algorithm, and its corresponding rate of convergence,

depends on the channel data rate and coherent time

The number of taps used in the equalizer design depends on the

maximum expected time delay spread of the channel

The circuit complexity and processing time increases with the number
of taps and delay elements
 Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

Three classic equalizer algorithms :

zero forcing (ZF),

Least mean squares (LMS), and

Recursive least squares (RLS) algorithms
 Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization

Zero Forcing: The equalizer coefficients are chosen to force the
samples of the combined channel and equalizer impulse response to a
δ -function.
Hch ( f )Heq ( f ) = 1 f < 1/(2T )

Least Mean Square Algorithm: Update the coefficients according to the
error.
dˆk (n) = w TN (n)y N ( n)
e ( n) = x (n) − dˆ (n)
k k k

w N ( n + 1) = w N ( n) − α ek* ( n) y N (n)

Recursive Least Mean Square Algorithm: Similar to LMS,

computationally complex but fast convergence.
Summary of algorithms