CHAPTER 6

USING ENTROPY
 Table Of Content…
• Introducing Entropy
• Developing Entropy Change
• Retrieving Entropy Data
• Entropy change in Internally Reversible Processes
• Entropy Balance For Closed Systems
• Entropy Rate Balance For Control Volumes
• Isentropic Processes
• Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, Nozzles, Compressors, and Pumps
• Heat Transfer And Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow
Processes
 1. INTRODUCING ENTROPY…
Clausius Inequality:-
The Clausius theorem states that:
For a system exchanging heat with external reservoirs and undergoing a
thermodynamic cyclic process (i.e. a process which ultimately returns a
system to its original state), the clausius inequality states that cyclic integral
of dQ/T for a natural cycle/irreversible cycle is always less than zero or
always less than the cycle integral of dQ/T for a reversible cycle with same
end states i.e
•

……………..(1)
1. INTRODUCING ENTROPY…

Where;
: heat transfer at a part of
the system boundary during
a portion of cycle

T : absolute temperature at that

part of boundary

: integral perform over all

parts of the boundary and
over the entire cycle.

Fig: 1) illustration used to develop the

Clausius inequality
 6.1. INTRODUCING
ENTROPY…
Equation :1 can be expressed as;

= - cycle ………… (2)

Where;
cycle is identified as ;
Entropy produced by internal irreversibilities during the cycle. It can be
viewed as representing the “strength” of the inequality.

In summary, the nature of the cycle executed by a system is indicated

by the value for cycle as follows:
cycle = 0 : no irreversibilities present within the system

cycle > 0 : irreversibilities present within the system

cycle < 0 : impossible

 6.2. DEFINING ENTROPY CHANGE…
Definition of Entropy…
Entropy can be define as;

A thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability

of a system's thermal energy for conversion into
mechanical work, often interpreted as the degree of
disorder or randomness in the system.

• The second law of thermodynamics says that entropy always

increases with time.
2. DEFINING ENTROPY CHANGE…

• Definition of property…
A quantity is a property if, and only if, its change in value between
two states is independent of the process.

• Intensive property…
An intensive property is a bulk property, meaning that it is a
physical property of a system that does not depend on the system
size or the amount of material in the system.

• Extensive property…
By contrast, an extensive property is additive for subsystems.
2. DEFINING ENTROPY CHANGE…
• Consider two cycles, each composed of two internally reversible
processes, process A plus process C and process B plus process C, as
shown in the figure.
• Applying Clausius Equation to these cycles gives,

…………(3a)

……...…(3b) Fig 2) two internally

reversible cycle.

Where cycle is zero because, the cycle is composed of internally

reversible process.
2. DEFINING ENTROPY CHANGE…
When equation 3b is subtracted from 3a;

The above equation shows that;

• the integral of is the same for both processes.

• the integral of has the same value for any internally

reversible processes between the two states.

• The value of the integral depends on the end states only.

 2. DEFINING ENTROPY CHANGE…
Selecting the symbol S to denote the change in some property of
the system, which is called entropy , its change is given by;

…………………….(4a)

On a differential basis, the defining equation for entropy change

takes the form
.……..…………...…(4b)

Entropy is an extensive property.

• Units of entropy…
S.I units (KJ/K) , for specific entropy s:(kJ/kg.K) or (kJ/kmol.K)
for s .
 3. RETRIEVING ENTROPY DATA
3.1 General Consideration…
The value of entropy at any state y relative to the value at the
reference state x is obtain;

……….............. (5)

Where;
•The integral is taken between the X (lower bound) and Y (upper
bound)
•Sx is the reference value for entropy at the specified reference state.

Vapor Data: Table : A- 4 or A -4E

3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..
Illustration: Consider two states of water.
State 1: Pressure is 3 MPa, temperature is 500˚C.
State 2: Pressure is 0.3 MPa, the specific entropy is the same
as at state 1, s2 = s1.
Determine: Temperature at state 2.
• Using T1 and P1, Find the specific entropy at state 1 from Table A-4
as s1 = 7.2338 kJ/kg K.

• State 2 is fixed by the pressure, P2 = 0.3 MPa, and the specific entropy,
s2 = 7.2338 kJ/kg K.

From, Table A-4 at 0.3 MPa and interpolating with s2 between 160
and 200˚C results in T2 = 183˚C.
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..

 Saturation data

……………………(6)
Example…
Determine the specific entropy of Refrigerant 134a,
 At a state where the temperature is 0˚C and the specific internal energy is
138.43 kJ/kg.
 Referring to Table A-10, we see that the given value for u falls between
uf and ug at 0˚C,so the system is a two-phase liquid–vapor mixture.
 The quality of the mixture can be determined from the known specific
internal energy.
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..

x = u – uf / ug – uf

x = 138.43 – 49.79 / 227.06 – 49.79

x = 0.5

Then, the values from table A-10;

s = (0.5)(0.1970)+(0.5)(0.9190)

s = 0.5580 KJ/Kg.K
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..

Liquid data:
…………..…(7)
Example:
Suppose the value of specific entropy is required for water at 25 bar,
200˚C.
The specific entropy is obtained directly from Table A-5:
s =2.3294 kJ/kg K.
Using the saturated liquid value for specific entropy at 200˚C from
Table A-2, the specific entropy is approximated with Eq. 7 as
s = 2.3309 kJ/kg K, which agrees closely with the previous value.
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..

Using graphical entrophy data

T-s diagram:
Vertical axis : Temperature
Horizontal axis: Entropy

Shows other constant property

lines;
• Constant pressure
• Constant Quality
• Constant Enthalpy
• Constant specific volume Fig 3. T – s diagram
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..

• Mollier diagram:
It is also known as h-s diagram.

Vertical axis: Enthalpy

Horizontal axis : Entropy

Shows other constant property

lines:
• Constant Temperature
• Constant Pressure
• Constant Quality

Fig 4. h – s diagram
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..
Example for Mollier Diagram:
Consider two states of water.

State 1: T1 = 240˚C, p1 = 0.10 MPa.

State 2: Specific enthalpy and quality are required at state 2.

P2 =0.01 MPa and s2 = s1.

Fig. A-8: State 1 is located in the superheated vapor region.

Dropping a vertical line into the two-phase liquid–vapor region, state 2 is located.

The quality and specific enthalpy at state 2 read from the figure agree closely with
values obtained using Tables A-3 and A-4:

x2 = 0.98 and h2 = 2537 kJ/kg.

3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..

Using The TdS Equations:

The TdS equations allow entropy changes to be evaluated from other
more readily determined property data.

First TdS equation:

dU = (δQ) intrev - (δW)intrev …..………….(8)
The boundary work of a closed system is

δWrev = PdV ..…………..…(9a)

On rearrangement of equation 4b,the heat transfer is:

(δQ)intrev =T dS ……………….(9b)
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..
Substituting equation (9) into equation (8) gives;
dU = TdS- PdV
First TdS equation: TdS = dU + PdV ………(10)
Second TdS equation:
As, we know that;
H = U + PV
Forming the differential;
Close system
dH = dU + d(PV)
dH = dU + PdV + VdP
On rearrangement;
dU + PdV = dH – VdP ..……..(A)
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..

Substituting equation (A) into equation (10)

Second TdS equation TdS = dH – Vdp …………(11)

TdS equations can be written on a unit mass basis as;

Tds = du +pdʋ ………....(12a)

Tds = dh –ʋdp …………(12b)
On a per mole basis as;
Tds̅ = du̅ +pdʋ̅ …………(13a)
Tds̅ = dh̅ –ʋ̅dp …………(13b)
To show the use of TdS equations, consider a change in phase from
saturated liquid to saturated vapor at a constant temperature and
pressure.
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION… CONT..
Since pressure is constant, equation 12b reduces to give;
ds = dh/T
Then, because temperature is also constant during phase change;
sg – sf = hg – hf / T ………….(14)
This relationship shows how sg – sf is calculated for tabulation in property
tables.

Example:
Working Fluid: Refrigerant 134a,
At temperature 0˚C.

Table A-10: hg - hf = 197.21 kJ/kg,

so with Eq. 14: sg - sf = (197.21 kJ/kg) / (273.15 K)

sg – sf = 0.7220 KJ/Kg.K
 3. RETRIEVING ENTROPY DATA
3.2 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
It is convenient to begin with Eqs. 12a expressed as
ds = du/T + pdʋ/T ………….(15)
ds = dh/T - ʋdp/T ………….(16)
For an ideal gas:
du = cʋ(T)dT dh = cp(T)dT pʋ = RT
With these relations, equation 15,16 become, respectively
………….(17)
Since the two specific heats are related by;
cp (T) = cʋ (T) + R
On integration, equation 17 give, respectively
…...……..(18)

…………..(19)
 3.2 ENTROPY CHANGE OF AN IDEAL GAS

Using Ideal Gas tables:

The value of the specific entrophy is set equal to zero at the state were
temperature is 0 K and the pressure is 1 atmosphere. Then using Eq 19
The specific entropy at a state where the temperature is T and the
pressure is 1 atm is determined relative as;

………..(20)
Where;
s˚(T) is specific entropy at temperature T and a pressure of 1atm, because s˚ is
temperature dependent only .

• The value of s˚(KJ/Kg.K) for air as an ideal gas can be taken from
Table A-22.
• Values for s̅˚ for several other common gases are given in Tables A-23
with units (KJ/Kmol.K)
 3.2 ENTROPY CHANGE OF AN IDEAL GAS

Since the integral of equation 19 can be expressed in terms of s˚,

It shows that equation 19 can be written as:

…………(21a)

As on a per mole basis as:

…………..(21b)
 3.2 ENTROPY CHANGE OF AN IDEAL GAS

Example: Working Fluid: Air as an ideal gas

Evaluate the change in specific entropy, in kJ/kg K.

• State 1: T1 = 300 K and P1 = 1 bar to a state 2

• State 2: T2 = 1000 K and P2 = 3 bar.
Using: Eq. 21a and data from Table A-22

s₂ - s₁ = s˚(T₂) - s˚(T₁) – R ln p₂ / p₁
s₂ - s₁ = (2.96770 – 1.70203) – 8.314/28.97 ln 3/1
The pressure units will cancel out and the final value will be equal to;

s₂ - s₁ = 0.9504 KJ/Kg.K
 3.2 ENTROPY CHANGE OF AN IDEAL GAS
Assuming Constant specific Heat:
When the specific heats cv and cp are taken as constants, Eqs. 6.18 and 6.19 reduce,
respectively to
…………(22)

………….(23)
Example: Working Fluid: air as an ideal gas
Determine the change in specific entropy.
• State 1: T1 = 300 K, P1 = 1 bar
• State 2: T2 = 400 K, P2 = 5 bar.
Because of the relatively small temperature range, we assume a constant
value of cp evaluated at 350 K.
Using: Equation 23, i.e. ∆s = cp ln T₂/T₁ – R ln p2/p1
cp = 1.008 from Table A-20.
∆s = (1.008) ln 400/300 – (8.314/28.97) ln (5/1)
∆s = - 0.1719 KJ / Kg.K
 3. RETRIEVING ENTROPY DATA
3.3 Entropy Change of an Incompressible substance
Assumption: 1) Specific volume is constant.
2) Specific heat depends solely on temperature, cʋ = c(T).
Accordingly,

Equation 15 reduces to:

On integrating, the change in specific entropy is:

When the specific heat is assumed constant, this becomes;

….….(23)
Table A-19 can be used for determining the specific heats of some common
liquids and solids.
4. ENTROPY CHANGE IN INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE
PROCESS

As a closed system undergoes an internally reversible process. Its

entropy can increase, decrease, or remain constant.

From eq. 4b;

When a closed system undergoing an internally reversible process

receives energy by heat transfer, the system experiences an increase in
entropy ,and vice versa for energy removed by heat transfer.

Isentropic process:
The process, in which the entropy of a given mass does not change during a
process that is internally reversible and adiabatic.
4. ENTROPY CHANGE IN INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE
PROCESS

On rearrangement, the eq. 4a gives,

( ) int rev = T dS

Integrating from an initial state 1 to a final State 2,

Q int rev = T dS …...........(25)

The figure 5 representing area of heat transfer for Figure 5

an internally reversible process of a closed
system.
4. ENTROPY CHANGE IN INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE
PROCESS
Carnot Cycle:
It consist of four internally reversible processes in series:
• 2 isothermal processes alternated with 2 adiabatic processes
Iso-thermal processes:
Process 2-3: Entropy increases and Q23 = TH (S3 – S2)
Area 2–3–a–b–2 on Fig. 6a represents the heat transfer during the
process.
Process 4-1: Entropy decreases and Q41 = Tc (S1 – S4)
Area 4–1–b–a–4 on Fig. 6a represents the magnitude of the heat
transfer Q41
Adiabatic process:
Process 3-4: From TH-Tc
Isentropic process(internally reversible process)
Process 1-2: From TH-Tc
Isentropic process(internally reversible process)
4. ENTROPY CHANGE IN INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE
PROCESS

Fig 6a. Carnot power cycle Fig 6b. Carnot Refrigeration

or heat pump cycle
 5. ENTROPY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS
5.1 Developing Entropy Balance

…(26)

Where:

With this, equation 26 becomes;

…(27)
Fig 7. cycle used to develop
Entropy Entropy Entropy the entropy balance
change transfer production

The above equation is an equation of entropy for closed system.

• The first term on the right side of Eq. 27 is associated with heat transfer
to or from the system during the process.
 5.1 DEVELOPING ENTROPY BALANCE

Entropy Production:

σ = 0 : no irreversibilities present within the system

σ > 0 : irreversibilities present within the system ...........(28)

This can be described by saying that entropy is produced within the

system by the action of irreversibilities.

The value of the entropy production cannot be negative.

By contrast;
………….(29)
 5.1 DEVELOPING ENTROPY BALANCE
ILLUSTRATION:
Consider:
• System consist of gas or liquid.
• Paddle wheel is use for stirring.
• Portion of a boundary is at temperature Tb.
• Reservoir is free of irreversibilities.
• Fluid friction and other irreversibilities are
also present within the system. Fig 8. Illustration of the entropy
transfer and entropy production
• Apply entropy balance to the system and concept.
reservoir.
• Tb is constant.
• Let us now apply the entropy balance to the system
and to the reservoir, since Tb is constant, the integral
in Eq. 6.27 is readily evaluated, and the entropy
balance for the system reduces to
 5.1 DEVELOPING ENTROPY BALANCE

……………..(30)

Where:
Q/Tb = entropy transfer into the system accompanying heat transfer
Q.

As the reservoir is without irreversibilities so = 0 , and Qres = -Q

Because entropy is carried away from reservoir accompanying heat.
5. ENTROPY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEM
5.2. Other Forms Of The Entropy Balance
If heat transfer takes place at several locations on the boundary of a system where
the temperatures do not vary with position or time, then eq 6.27 takes the form.
as:

……………(31)

Qj/Tj is the amount of entropy transferred through the portion of the boundary at
temperature Tj.
Closed system entropy rate balance:
……………(32)

Entropy balance in differential form:

…………….(33)

When there are no internal irreversibilities, vanishes and Eq.6.33 reduces to

Eq 6.4b.
 5.5. Increase of Entropy Principle
• Our study of the second law began in sec. 5.1 with a
discussion of the directionality of processes. In
present development, it is shown that the energy and
entropy balnaces together can be used to determine
the direciton.
• Here an enlarged system is considered comprising of
the system and that portion of the surroundings
affected by the system as it undergoes a process. The
enlarged system can be regarded as an isolated
system.
5. ENTROPY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEM
5.5. Increase of Entropy Principle

• An energy balance for the isolated system reduces to

…………(34a)

• The energy of the isolated system remains constant.

• Energy is an extensive property, so its value is the sum of its

values for system and surroundings.

• So equation 34a can be written as;

….……….(34b)
5.5. INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

An entropy balance for the isolated system reduces to:

So,
…………………….(35a)
Where,

σ isol : Total amount of entropy produced.

• The increase of entropy principle is sometimes considered an alternative
statement of the second law.
…………………….(35b)
• The sum of the entropy change for system and surrounding must be
positive.
 STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION OF
ENTROPY
Statistical Thermodynamics:
• In statistical thermodynamics, entropy is associated with the
notion of disorder

• On the microscopic level the particles making up the matter are

continually in motion.

• Accordingly, a vast number of possible microscopic states

correspond to any given macroscopic equilibrium state.

• The total number of possible microscopic states available to a

system is called the thermodynamic probability, w.
 STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION OF
ENTROPY

• Entropy is related to ω by the Boltzmann relation ,

S = k ln ω ………………….(36)

Where;

k is Boltzmann’s constant.

ω is the disorder of the system.

We can say, then, that the only processes an isolated system

can undergo are those that increase the disorder of the system.
6. ENTROPY RATE BALANCE FOR CONTROL
VOLUMES
Control Volume Entropy Rate Balance.
The control volume entropy rate balance can be obtained by modifying
the closed system form to account for these entropy transfers as:

…….(37)

Where;

ṁiSi and ṁeSe respectively, rates of entropy transfer accompanying

mass flow at inlets i and exits e.
6. ENTROPY RATE BALANCE FOR CONTROL
VOLUMES
Integral Form:

• and s denote, respectively, the local density and specific entropy.

• Scv (t) represents the total entropy associated with the control volume at time t.

The rate of entropy transfer accompanying heat transfer can be expressed more
generally as an integral over the surface of the control volume is:

where:
• q̇ is the heat flux
• The subscript “b” represents boundary of the control volume.
6. ENTROPY RATE BALANCE FOR CONTROL
VOLUMES

• In addition, the terms accounting for entropy transfer accompanying

mass flow can be expressed as integrals over the inlet and exit flow
areas, resulting in the following form of the entropy rate balance;

…38
 6. ENTROPY RATE BALANCE FOR CONTROL VOLUMES
6.1 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State

At steady state, the conservation of mass and energy principle takes the form

Steady state entropy rate balance:

…(39)

One-Inlet, One-Exit Control Volumes

on dividing by the mass flow rate and rearranging

…(40)

where there is no entropy transfer accompanying heat transfer

…(41)
 7. ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
7.1 General Considerations
Any process where the entropy does not change is called as
isentropic process.

Fig 9. T-s and h-s diagram showing states having the same value of specific entropy.
 7. ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
7.2 Using The Ideal Gas Model
Ideal Gas Tables:-
For two states having the same specific
entropy , equation 21a reduces to:
…(42a)

• If, the T1 and the pressure ratio P2/P1 are

known.
• The T2 can be determined from:

…(42b) Fig 10. Two states of an ideal gas

where s₂ = s₁
Eqn 42a reduces in terms of pressure as

…(42c)
Eq. 42 can be used when s° data are known, as for the gases of Tables A-22 and A-23.
 7. 2 USING THE IDEAL GAS MODEL
Air as an Ideal Gas:
Eq. 42c can be re-write as;

Where;
exp [s˚(T) /R ] is a function of temperature
exp [s˚(T) /R ] = Pr(T)
So
…(43)

Where Pr₁ = Pr (T₁) and Pr₂ = Pr (T₂)

The function Pr is sometimes called the relative pressure.
Pr versus temperature for air is provided in Tables A-22.
 7. 2 USING THE IDEAL GAS MODEL

With the ideal gas equation of state, υ=RT/p, the ratio of the specific
volumes is

Eq. 43 can be introduced to give:

Where: RT / pr (T) = υr (T)

In terms of the function υr,

…(44)

υr is sometimes called the relative volume.

Values of for υr air are tabulated versus temperature in Tables A-22.
 7. 2 USING THE IDEAL GAS MODEL
Assuming Constant Specific Heat:-
For any such case, Equations 22 and 23 reduce to the equations;

Introducing an ideal gas relations:

… (3.47)
These equations can be solved, respectively, to give:
… (45)

… (46)
Eliminating the temperature ratio from Eq. 45 and 46 results:

… (47)
 7. ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
7.2 Using The Ideal Gas Model
• Polytropic Processes:

Fig 11. Polytropic processes on p-υ and T-s diagrams

 7. ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
7.2 Using The Ideal Gas Model
From equation 47, it can be concluded that;
• A polytropic process pυᵏ = constant of an ideal gas with constant k
is an isentropic process.
• A polytropic process of an ideal gas for which n = 1 is an isothermal
(constant-temperature) process.
• For any fluid, n = 0 corresponds to an isobaric (constant-pressure)
process .
• For n = ± corresponds to an isometric (constant-volume)
process.
• Polytropic processes corresponding to these values of n are shown
in Fig 12 on p–v and T–s diagrams.
8. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF TURBINES,
NOZZLES, COMPRESSORS, AND PUMPS
ISENTROPIC TURBINE EFFICIENCY:
The isentropic turbine efficiency is the ratio of the actual turbine work
to the maximum theoretical work, each per unit of mass flowing.
Assumption:
• The state of the matter entering the turbine and the exit pressure are fixed.

• Heat transfer between the turbine and its surroundings is ignored.

• kinetic and potential energy effects are negligible.

With these assumptions, the mass and energy rate balances reduce, at
steady state:
8. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF TURBINES,
NOZZLES, COMPRESSORS, AND PUMPS
The maximum value for the turbine work corresponds to the smallest
allowed value for the specific enthalpy at the turbine exit.

This can be determined using the second law as:

For fixed exit pressure, the specific

enthalpy h2 decreases as the specific
entropy S2 decreases.
Fig 12. Comparison of actual and
isentropic expansions through a turbine
8. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF TURBINES,
NOZZLES, COMPRESSORS, AND PUMPS

Therefore, the smallest allowed value for h₂ corresponds to state 2s, and
the maximum value of turbine work is:

The isentropic turbine efficiency can be written as;

……….(48)

Value Of Efficiency:

The value of ηt is typically 0.7 to 0.9 (70–90%).

8. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF TURBINES,
NOZZLES, COMPRESSORS, AND PUMPS
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE EFFICIENCY:
The ratio of the actual specific kinetic energy of the gas leaving the
nozzle (V²₂ / 2), to the kinetic energy at the exit that would be achieved
in an isentropic expansion between the same inlet state and the same
exhaust pressure (V²₂ / 2)s.

…………….(49)

Value Of Efficiency:
Nozzle efficiencies of 95% or more are common, indicating that well-
designed nozzles are nearly free of internal irreversibilities.
8. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF TURBINES,
NOZZLES, COMPRESSORS, AND PUMPS
ISENTROPIC COMPRESSOR AND PUMP EFFICIENCIES:
Assumption:
• The state of the matter entering the
compressor and the exit pressure are
fixed.

• For negligible heat transfer with the

surrounding.

• No appreciable kinetic and potential

energy effects.

Fig 13. comparison of actual and

isentropic compression.
8. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF TURBINES,
NOZZLES, COMPRESSORS, AND PUMPS
Isentropic Compressor Efficiency:
It is the ratio of the minimum theoretical work input to the actual work input,
each per unit of mass flowing.

The work input per unit of mass flowing through the compressor is

The minimum work input corresponds to the smallest allowed value for
the specific enthalpy at the compressor exit.

In an actual compression, h2 > h2s

8. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF TURBINES,
NOZZLES, COMPRESSORS, AND PUMPS
According to the definition, the isentropic compressor efficiency
can be written as;
…(50)
Value Of Efficiency:
The value of ƞc is typically 75 to 85%.

Isentropic Compressor Efficiency:

An isentropic pump efficiency, ηp, is defined similarly.
 9. HEAT TRANSFER AND WORK IN INTERNALLY
REVERSIBLE, STEADY-STATE FLOW PROCESSES

Heat Transfer:
For a control volume at steady state in which the flow is both
isothermal and internally reversible, the entropy rate balance is

Consider the temperature variation to consist of

a series of infinitesimal steps.

…(51)
Fig 14. Area representation of
heat transfer for an internally
reversible flow process.
 9. HEAT TRANSFER AND WORK IN INTERNALLY
REVERSIBLE, STEADY-STATE FLOW PROCESSES

Work:
Energy rate balance at steady state is

This equation is use when irreversibilities are

present within the control volume as well as Fig 15. Area
when they are absent. representation of ₁∫²υdp

if consideration is restricted to the internally

reversible case then:
………….(52)
9. HEAT TRANSFER AND WORK IN INTERNALLY
REVERSIBLE, STEADY-STATE FLOW PROCESSES

Entropy, enthalpy, and pressure changes are therefore related by:

Which on integration gives:

Introducing this relation, Equation 52 becomes:

…………(53a)

…………(53b)

This expression shows that the work is related to the magnitude of the
specific volume of the gas or liquid as it flows from inlet to exit.
9. HEAT TRANSFER AND WORK IN INTERNALLY
REVERSIBLE, STEADY-STATE FLOW PROCESSES

If the specific volume = constant (for liquids)

Eq. 53b becomes:

………..(53c)
Eqn 53a can also be applied to study the performance of control
volume at st state in which Wcv is zero as in the case of
nozzles and diffusers. For any such case the eqn becomes
…………(54)

which is a form of the Bernoulli equation, frequently used in

fluid mechanics.
 9. HEAT TRANSFER AND WORK IN INTERNALLY
REVERSIBLE, STEADY-STATE FLOW PROCESSES

Work in polytropic processes:

pυⁿ = constant.
Eq. 53b become:

... ... ...(55)

for any value of n except n =1. When n=1, pυ = constant, and the work is:

... ... ...(56)

Equations 55 and 56 apply generally to polytropic processes of any gas (or liquid).
 9. HEAT TRANSFER AND WORK IN INTERNALLY
REVERSIBLE, STEADY-STATE FLOW PROCESSES

Ideal Gas Case:

For the special case of an ideal gas, Equation 55 becomes:
…………(57a)
For a polytropic process of an ideal gas, Eq. 56 applies:

Thus, Equation 57a can be expressed alternatively as:

..………….(57b)

For the case of an ideal gas, Equation 56 becomes:

……………. (58)