Notes on the Gastrointestinal System

Slide 1: Introduction

● The gastrointestinal (GI) system, also called the digestive system or alimentary canal,
breaks down food into small particles that can be absorbed into the bloodstream and
used by the body.
● The GI tract extends from the mouth to the anus.
● The digestive system is comprised of two groups of organs:
○ Alimentary Canal: This continuous, coiled, hollow muscular tube includes the
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The
alimentary canal is responsible for all digestive functions—ingesting, digesting,
absorbing, and eliminating waste products.
○ Accessory Digestive Organs: These organs assist in the digestive process.
They include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

Slide 2: Functions of the Digestive System

The digestive system performs six main activities:

● Ingestion: Taking food into the mouth (eating).

● Propulsion: The movement of food from one organ to the next.
○ This includes swallowing, which moves food from the mouth to the esophagus.
○ Peristalsis, which is a wavelike motion that propels food through the esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, is the major means of propulsion.
○ Segmentation, a back-and-forth mixing motion, occurs primarily in the small
intestine.
● Mechanical Breakdown: Physical processes that reduce food to smaller particles.
○ This includes chewing in the mouth, churning in the stomach, and segmentation
in the small intestine.
● Digestion: The process of breaking down large food molecules into smaller molecules
that can be absorbed.
○ This is accomplished by enzymes secreted by the salivary glands, stomach,
pancreas, and small intestine.
● Absorption: The transport of the end products of digestion from the lumen of the GI
tract to the blood or lymph.
○ This primarily occurs in the small intestine, which is well-suited for absorption due
to its large surface area, provided by its length, villi, and microvilli.
● Defecation: The elimination of indigestible substances from the body as feces.

Slide 3: Mouth (Oral Cavity)

 ● The mouth is the beginning of the GI tract, where ingestion and the initial stages of
mechanical and chemical digestion occur.
● Structures of the mouth:
○ Lips: Protect the anterior opening.
○ Cheeks: Form the lateral walls.
○ Hard palate: Forms the anterior roof.
○ Soft palate: Forms the posterior roof.
○ Uvula: A fingerlike projection of the soft palate that prevents food from entering
the nasal cavity during swallowing.
○ Vestibule: The space between the lips and cheeks externally, and the teeth and
gums internally.
○ Oral cavity proper: The area contained by the teeth.
○ Tongue: A muscular organ on the floor of the mouth, it mixes food with saliva
and aids in swallowing.
○ Lingual frenulum: A fold of tissue that anchors the tongue to the floor of the
mouth.
● Teeth: Mechanically break down food into smaller pieces, a process called mastication.
○ Humans have two sets of teeth:
■ Deciduous teeth ("baby teeth"): 20 teeth that appear around 6 months
of age and are lost by age 12.
■ Permanent teeth: 32 teeth that replace the deciduous teeth.
● Salivary Glands: Secrete saliva, which moistens food, begins the chemical digestion of
carbohydrates, and cleanses the mouth.
○ There are three pairs of major salivary glands:
■ Parotid glands
■ Submandibular glands
■ Sublingual glands
● Saliva Composition:
○ Mucus: Moistens food and binds it together into a bolus for swallowing.
○ Serous fluids: Contain salivary amylase, an enzyme that begins the chemical
digestion of starches.

Slide 4: Pharynx

● The pharynx, or throat, is a muscular tube that serves as a passageway for both food
and air.
● The pharynx is divided into three regions:
○ Nasopharynx: The uppermost section behind the nasal cavity.
○ Oropharynx: The middle section behind the oral cavity.
○ Laryngopharynx: The lowermost section that connects to the esophagus.
● Deglutition (Swallowing): This complex process moves food from the mouth to the
stomach.
○ It has two major phases:
 ■ Buccal phase: A voluntary phase in the mouth, where the tongue forces
the bolus into the pharynx.
■ Pharyngeal-esophageal phase: An involuntary phase controlled by the
autonomic nervous system, where food is transported through the
pharynx and esophagus by peristalsis.

Slide 5: Esophagus

● The esophagus, or gullet, is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach.
● It transports food from the pharynx to the stomach via peristalsis.
● The esophagus has no digestive function.

Slide 6: Stomach

● The stomach is a J-shaped, muscular organ that acts as a temporary storage tank for
food and begins the chemical digestion of proteins.
● Stomach Anatomy:
○ Cardia: The region surrounding the opening of the esophagus into the stomach.
○ Fundus: The rounded portion superior to and to the left of the cardia.
○ Body: The large central portion inferior to the fundus.
○ Pylorus: The funnel-shaped terminal end.
■ Pyloric antrum: Connects to the body of the stomach.
■ Pyloric canal: Leads to the pylorus.
■ Pyloric sphincter: A muscular valve that controls the flow of chyme from
the stomach into the small intestine.
○ Lesser curvature: The concave medial border.
○ Greater curvature: The convex lateral border.
● Stomach Functions:
○ Mixing chamber: Churns and mixes food with gastric juices.
○ Food reservoir: Stores food until it can be released into the small intestine.
○ Secretion: Produces gastric juice, which contains hydrochloric acid, enzymes
(pepsinogen), mucus, and intrinsic factor.
● Gastric Juice:
○ Hydrochloric acid (HCl): Activates the enzyme pepsin and kills bacteria.
○ Pepsinogen: An inactive enzyme that is converted to pepsin by HCl. Pepsin
begins the chemical digestion of proteins.
○ Mucus: Protects the stomach lining from the corrosive effects of HCl.
○ Intrinsic factor: Necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the small
intestine.

Slide 7: Small Intestine

● The small intestine is the longest section of the alimentary canal, where the majority of
digestion and absorption occur.
 ● Small Intestine Anatomy:
○ Duodenum: The first and shortest section, it receives chyme from the stomach,
bile from the liver, and pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
○ Jejunum: The middle section, where most nutrient absorption occurs.
○ Ileum: The final section, which connects to the large intestine.
● Structural Adaptations for Absorption:
○ Villi: Fingerlike projections of the mucosa that increase the surface area for
absorption.
○ Microvilli: Tiny projections on the surface of the villi that further increase the
surface area for absorption.
○ Circular folds (plicae circulares): Deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa
that increase surface area and slow the passage of chyme.

Slide 8: Liver and Gallbladder

● Liver:
○ The liver is the largest gland in the body, located under the diaphragm, primarily
on the right side.
○ It has many metabolic and regulatory roles, including the production of bile.
● Bile:
○ Bile is a yellow-green, alkaline solution that emulsifies fats (breaks them down
into smaller droplets), aiding in their digestion and absorption.
○ Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
○ It enters the duodenum through the bile duct.
● Gallbladder:
○ The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped sac located under the liver.
○ It stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver.
○ When stimulated by the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK), the gallbladder
contracts and releases bile into the duodenum.

Slide 9: Pancreas

● Pancreas:
○ The pancreas is a soft, oblong gland located behind the stomach.
○ It has both endocrine and exocrine functions.
○ Its exocrine function is to produce pancreatic juice, which contains enzymes that
digest all major food groups (carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids) and bicarbonate
ions to neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach.
○ Pancreatic juice is delivered to the duodenum through the pancreatic duct.

Slide 10: Large Intestine

● The large intestine is the final section of the GI tract, responsible for absorbing water,
electrolytes, and some vitamins produced by intestinal bacteria.
 ● Large Intestine Anatomy:
○ Cecum: A pouch-like structure at the beginning of the large intestine.
○ Appendix: A small, fingerlike extension of the cecum.
○ Colon: The main portion of the large intestine, divided into four sections:
■ Ascending colon
■ Transverse colon
■ Descending colon
■ Sigmoid colon
○ Rectum: The final section of the large intestine, where feces are stored before
defecation.
○ Anal canal: The short, terminal segment of the large intestine, ending at the
anus.
● Functions of the Large Intestine:
○ Absorption: Absorbs water and electrolytes from indigestible food residues.
○ Elimination: Propels the remaining fecal matter toward the rectum for
defecation.
● Defecation Reflex:
○ When feces enter the rectum, they stretch the rectal wall, initiating the defecation
reflex.
○ This reflex causes contraction of the rectal muscles and relaxation of the anal
sphincters, allowing for the expulsion of feces.

Slide 11: Regulation of Digestive Processes

● Nervous System Control:

○ The autonomic nervous system regulates digestive activity, primarily through
the parasympathetic division, which stimulates digestive processes.
○ Mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors in the walls of the GI tract detect
changes in stretch, pH, and the presence of specific molecules.
○ These receptors trigger reflexes that activate or inhibit the secretion of digestive
juices and hormones, and the contraction of smooth muscle for mixing and
propelling food.
● Hormonal Control:
○ Gastrin: Released by the stomach, stimulates the production of gastric juice.
○ Secretin: Released by the duodenum in response to acidic chyme, stimulates
the release of bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice and bile.
○ Cholecystokinin (CCK): Released by the duodenum in response to fatty chyme,
stimulates the release of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice and the contraction of the
gallbladder.
● Table of Digestive Hormones: | Hormone | Source | Stimulus | Target Organ(s) |
Actions | | :----------- | :------- | :-------------------------------------------------------------------- |
:--------------- | :----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | |
Gastrin | Stomach | Food in the stomach (especially proteins), high pH, stomach
distension | Stomach | Increases HCl secretion, stimulates gastric emptying, increases
 stomach motility | | Secretin | Duodenum | Acidic chyme (low pH) entering the duodenum
| Pancreas, liver | Increases the output of pancreatic juice rich in bicarbonate ions;
increases bile output by the liver | | CCK | Duodenum | Fatty chyme and partially
digested proteins entering the duodenum | Pancreas, gallbladder | Increases the output
of pancreatic juice rich in enzymes; stimulates gallbladder contraction |

Slide 12: Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients

● Carbohydrates:
○ Digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase.
○ Pancreatic amylase continues digestion in the small intestine.
○ Brush border enzymes (lactase, maltase, sucrase) in the small intestine break
down disaccharides into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) for
absorption.
● Proteins:
○ Digestion begins in the stomach with pepsin, activated by HCl.
○ Pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase) continue
digestion in the small intestine.
○ Brush border enzymes (aminopeptidase, dipeptidase) in the small intestine
complete digestion, breaking down peptides into amino acids for absorption.
● Lipids (Fats):
○ Digestion primarily occurs in the small intestine.
○ Bile from the liver emulsifies fats into smaller droplets, increasing their surface
area for digestion.
○ Pancreatic lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol for absorption.
● Absorption:
○ Most nutrients are absorbed through the epithelial cells lining the small intestine
and enter the bloodstream.
○ Lipids are absorbed into lacteals, lymphatic vessels within the villi, and eventually
enter the bloodstream.

Slide 13: Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System

● The digestive system develops early in embryonic life from a simple tube.
● By the fifth week of development, the alimentary canal is a continuous tube from mouth
to anus.
● Digestive glands bud from the mucosa of the alimentary tube.
● Aging can cause a decline in digestive system function, including decreased enzyme
production, reduced motility, and decreased absorption.

Slide 14: Interrelationships with Other Body Systems

The digestive system interacts with other body systems to maintain homeostasis:
 ● Cardiovascular System: The cardiovascular system delivers oxygen and nutrients
absorbed by the digestive system to the body's tissues and transports hormones
produced by the digestive system.
● Respiratory System: The respiratory system provides oxygen needed by the digestive
system organs and removes carbon dioxide produced during cellular respiration.
● Nervous System: The nervous system controls digestive functions, with the
parasympathetic nervous system stimulating digestive processes and the sympathetic
nervous system inhibiting them.
● Endocrine System: The endocrine system produces hormones that regulate digestive
functions, including insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar levels.

Slide 15: Homeostatic Imbalances

Disruptions in digestive system function can lead to various conditions, such as:

● Peritonitis: Inflammation of the peritoneum, a serious condition that can be caused by

infection, injury, or other factors.
● Gallstones: Hardened deposits of digestive fluid that can form in the gallbladder,
potentially causing pain and blockage.
● Malabsorption: A condition in which the small intestine cannot properly absorb nutrients
from food.

This information can be found in the sources provided. Please note that the sources do not
mention anything about the circulatory system's role in transporting immune cells to defend
against pathogens that enter the body through the digestive system. This is, however, an
important function of the circulatory system in relation to the digestive system, and you may
want to independently verify this information.