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Engineering mechanics notes
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Short notes for Heat transfer
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
ar
me
2 a
* a
leat transfer in given direction.
+ A= Cross-sectional area perpendicular to heat flow direction.
© dT= Temperature difference between two ends of a block of thickness dx
+ dx=Thickness of solid body
a
ak
= Temperature gradient in direction of heat flow.
‘© Carterisan Coordinates (side parallel to x, y and z-directions)
@ a), od a) @ a a
2h ig Fa Sh S| Sf S |g, = pe %
ais) 365) (42) Pro,
4o= intemal heat generation per unit volume per unit time
‘Temperature at left face of differential control volume
ik, k, ky = Thermal conductivities of the material in x, y and z-directions respectively
heat of the material
speci
p= Density of the material
(-
‘a= Thermal diffusivity PC:
de Instantaneous time.
‘0 For homogeneous and isotropic material
k
kok kek a~*
5 pe
Gt Ot St my 1H
O&O a k adr
© For steady state condition (Poisson’s equation)
© For steady state and absence of internal heat generation (Laplace equation)
Gt Pt et
+5455 =0
ae eB
© For unsteady heat flow with no internal heat generation Cylindrical Coordinates
‘© For homogeneous and isotropic material,
[2 la, 1 ae
ee.
Fre Pag a
© For steady state unidirectional heat flow in radial direction with no internal heat
k aot
generation,
Spherical Coordinates
© For homogeneous and atop a
1_ Of, a 29(,,,
Fane og * Pano 00 ="
0 For steady state uni
ale Foe fe 1 a
jirection heat flow in radial direction with no internal heat
generation,
23(°9]
Thermal resistance of hollow cylinders
Heat transfer through a composite cylinder a"
R= ee ean ee
Int, !¥,
= Fant’ aakd
_ 1
©" Wg2ard
+ Heat Transfer through a Composite Sphere
ky [os
TR Re Ry Ty Y
OMA Aen
sphere
ak, 7,
5-1,
RAR, +R ER,
* Critical Thickness of Insulation:
© Incase ofeyinder,
el
om
where, k= Thermal conductivity, and h = Heat transfer coefficient
‘© The drop in temperature across the wall and the air film will be proportional to their
resistances, = AL/k.,
‘+ Steady Flow of Heat along a Rod Circular fin Circular fin diagram
‘* Generalized Equation for Fin Rectangular fin
0, 1d eB
aA dk dk kA, de
* Heat balance equation if A. constant and A; © P(x) linear
2
2 eg yo
do kA,
a
©)
eo]
a
* Heat transfer by conduction at base
Qp= fkAPHU-t,)
© Heat Dissipation from a Fin Insulated at the End Tip
6 cosh m(i—x)
6 , cosh mL
Op, =A[Phk A, (¢,— f,)tanh ml
© Heat Dissipation from a Fin loosing Heat at the End Tip Fin Efficiency
Fin efficiency is given by
Actual heat rate from fin Q
‘Maximum heat transfer rate Q._,
n=
IF 1 ©» (infinite length of fin),
irl a6, 1 fe
1 TPL 868,
__ 8 fnPA, tan h mi
nie,
BAR orm,
tan h mi +
0, RPRA, .|—
"taints mi
mk
WPL 08)0,
Fin Effectiveness
‘Actual heat transfer from fin surface (Q)
Rate of heat transfer without fin
= 8-fhP es tanh mi _ tamil os, 2
hAG
Lumped Parameter System
a= Cp EE = bat ~Ta)
It
aT
i =p! ‘ ‘+ Nusselt Number (Nu)
© Itisadimensionless quantity defined as=
h= convective heat transfer coefficient,
Lis the characteristiclength
kis the thermal conductivity of the flui
‘+ The Nusselt number could be interpreted physically as the ratio of the temperature gradient
in the fluid immediately in contact with the surface to a reference temperature gradient (T, —
To) AL
* Newton's Law of Cooling says that the rate of heat transfer per unit area by convection is
fiven by |
Q/A=h(T,—T..)
Sac, -1,.) =a
>
Rate of heat transfer by convection _h_A_AT
Rate of heat transfer byconduction y, OT.
1
+ Temperature distribution in a boundary layer: Nusselt modulus
+ The heat transfer by convection involves conduction and mixing motion of fluid particles. At
the solid fluid interfacéily = 0) the heat flows by conduction only, and is given by
Q (=
Q__y {at
A ay},
i).
(t—T..) we (Vorhea and
*% (T)/2”
in dimensionless form,
(t, —1)/(ty —T,
a(y/1)
+ Reynold Number (Re):
Inertia force
Re= oes
Viscous force
res
x
Re-¥@
v
+ Critical Reynold Number: It represents the number where the boundary layer changes
from laminar to turbine flow.
© Forflat plate,
=) RE<5 ¥ 105 (laminar)
= Re > 5x 10% (turbulent)
© Forcircular pipes,
= Re < 2300 (laminar flow)
+ 2300< Re < 4000 (transition to turbulent flow)
+ Re > 4000 (turbulent flow)
+ Stanton Number (St)
Heat transfer coefficient
st=_ PLP panaen _.
Heat flow per unit temperature rise
a=
Re xPr
+ Grashof Number (Gr)
if a body with a constant wall temperature Tw is exposed to a qui scent ambient fluid at T., the force
per unit volume can be written as:
PEB(t.— t--)
where p =mass density of the fluid, B = volume coefficient of expansion and g is the acceleration due
to gravity. Inertia force x buoyancy foce
Gi
viscous force
B = Coefficient of volumetric expansion = 1/T
(PV) xpe0(t, -To)L?
(uviY
— P78B(Ty Taw LP
: BBL’ (T,,—T,.)/v?
-
Gr=
‘© The magnitude of Grashof number indicates whether the flow Is laminar or
turbulent.
© If the Grashof number is greater than 10%, the flow is turbulent and
© For Grashof number less than 108, the flow is lamit
r.
© For 10* 10°
«For Pr <<1 (in case of liquid metals), the thickness of the thermal boundary layer will be
much more than the thickness of the momentum boundary layer and vice versa.
«The product of Grashof and Prandtl number is called Rayleigh number. Or,
Ra=Grx Pr
+ Rayleigh Number (Ra)
gBPat
via
Ri
Gr Pr,Ra
«Free or natural convection
© 20* 10° (turbulent flow)
+ Turbulent flow over flat plate _Nuc= 0.0292 (Re (Pr)?
Nu =0.036 (Re) Pr)'*
037x
T
Re,
b=
+ Turbulent flow in tubes
Nu = 0.023 (Re? (Pr)"
where, n= 0. if fluidis being heated,
= 0.3 if fluid is being cooled.
‘Nu = 0.0036 (Re) Pr)"
Empirical Correlation for Free Convection
+ Heated surface up or cooled surface down
+ Laminar flow
2.x 10°m,c,, R= ME
mc,
m,c,
If myc,< m,c,, R= **
if mex ma
+ Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger:
(Q,.)actual heat transfer
(Q..)maximum possible heat transfer
Ques = Myon by ~f)
=m.6G,=%)
1)
A winaareraui
300 =m, G,-1,)
Mahe) tata
4,
kn
0 Wimen < MnCn => Coin = MHC
> Dra = Mey by —E,)
men ty) ty ty
mc, G, nt
+ Number of Transfer Units (NTU):
nru= VA
Sonia
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient
A= Surface area
min =
inimum capacity rate
IF men Cin = Mele
IF mic Cin = TCH
UA
> MU=
my
Effectiveness for Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
1—exp[-NTUG+8)]
14R
€ Parallel flow ‘Counter flow
Heat exchanger for parallel and counter flow
+ Effectiveness for the Counter Flow Heat Capacity:
exp[-NTU(1—R)]
‘Rexp[-NTU
+ Heat Exchanger Effectiveness Relation:
+ Concentric tube:
© Parallel flow:
on EE neu
° Counter flow:
e 1—exp[-N(I-R)]
1-R exp[-N(I-R)]
€=N/(1+N) forR =1
sR<1
+ Cross flow (single pass):
e=1- exp (7) (8) {exp (xo0"")-}]
© Comm mixed , Coin unmixed:
e=(1/R)[1—exp {-R (1-exp(—N)}]
© Grin mixed, Crax unmixed:
€=1-exp[-R“{1-exp(-RN)}]
Total Emissive Power (E)
+ Ibis defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit time and area. = oT! W/m?
= Stefan Boltzmann constant
© = 8.67 x 108 W/m? K
Monochromatic (Spectral) Emissive Power (E:)
+ Ibis defined as the rate of energy radiated per unit area of the surface per unit wavelength.
B= [" Edxwl a
Emission from Real Surface
+ The emissive power from a real surface is given by
E=s0AT W
of the surface,
T= Surface temperature
Emissivity (¢)
‘+ Itis defined as the ratio of the emissive power of any body to the emissive power of a black
body of same temperature.
+ For black body, e=1
+ forwhite body, e=0
«For gray body, O< ect
Reflectivity (p)
«tis defined 25 the fraction of total incident ratio that are reflected by material
= Energy reflected (Q,)
Re flectivi = ee
eflectivity(?)= et incident radiation (Q)
Absorptivity
+ tei defined asthe fraction of toil indent radiation that are absorbed by material
fo Energy absorbed (Q,)
Absoptivit =
Y(@)— = sal incident radiation (Q)
Transmissivity
+ It is defined as the fraction of total incident radiation that are transmitted through the
material,
Energy transmitted (Q,)
Transmissiy (©) = fat incident radiation (Q,) + For black body:
‘+ For opaque body =0,a+p=1
+ For white body p= 1,a=1andr=0
Kirchoff’s Law
‘+ The emissivity and absorptivity a of a real'Surface are equal for radiation with identical
temperature and wavelength.
E
a=e=—
+ Emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature.
E,= oT!
= Emissive power of a black body,
= Stefan Boltzmann constant (5.67-10*W/m?-K'
T = Absolute temperature of the er
ting surface, K.
Wien’s Displacement Law
+ Wien’s displacement law state thet the product 6fXmawand T is constant.
Amax T= constant
Jax = Wavelength at which the maximum value of monochromatic emissive power occurs.
Gray Surfaces
The gray surface is a medium whose monochromatic emissivity (E1) does not vary with wavelength.
5B. / Ey
But, we know the following:
E fe dd
B,= [8,d\=or"
° Therefore,
View Factors:
+ Define the view factor, Fi2, as the fraction of energy emitted from surface 1, which directly
J ais 10086" a, 080d,
strikes surface 2
Gua
fu mint al-A
hag Sh e088, -cos8, -dd,-dA,
eR
Reciprocity:
088,008 8, .dA,-dd,
oon,
mst a
oa xR
c0s@,-cos6,-dA, - df,
A, -F, =ff —arree
ty Fas T
w4 Lie
Aly =A Fn
Planck’s Law:
‘+ Planck suggested following formula, monochromatic @missive power of a black body.
+ Total emissive power
4-fr@,a
Electrical Network Approach for Radiation Heat Exchange
Evy A be Eon
WA
iF ote
Anes ALFy-2
An electrical network between two non black surfaces
Fy- Fu
(Qa due
4a AR Ae,
© Qawe= F240( ZT) New Gray Body Factor
£, = Emissivity for body 1
£2 = Emi
vity for body 2
+ Incase of black surfaces, €: = €2 = 1, (Fx)s2 = Fi
Qu = Fs40(T'- B')
In case of parallel planes, A=Az and Fiz =1
1
rr a
ae
In case of concentric cylinder or sphere, F:.2=1
1
).
aT Te
444 NeA
a a
ALK
where, 42 7 (tor-concentre cylinder)
oe
42 "(for Gonentric sphere}
When asmall body lies inside a large enclosure
4
Fam os=
Th Ach
f-
Radiation Shield
1 3 2
Radiation shield diagram Eo, A Jy Eo, Js de Ex
1 1 f-ey tae 4 1-@
AC, AiFig Arey Aves AsFag Age
+ Radiation network for 2 parallel infinite places separated by one shield
Qs) mr=(Qh dur (A= A= 4)
soli - 8), 4003 BD
|
a es Be
[Q, .)..] with shield
[(Q_,)ee] without shield
(e+ a {
A
Lit 1a
—+—-1]+ 1423]
as 4%
fer=e2=€3
Then,
1
Qe dur= 5 Qra dus
and
ne SQcn)
