1

Summary

Post Independence India Class 01

Introduction and Revision of Modern History (05:00 PM)

A. INTEGRATION (05:07 PM)

• Integration of Princely states=

• a) Integration of nation- a.1) Integration of state and territory

• b) Integration of people into the nation-

• 1) SPC (States People's Congress) or Praja Mandal was an organization set up by people of
Princely states for their grievances, Democratic reforms, and for integration with India [* INC
in British India and SPCs in Rest of India i.e. 565 Princely states]

• 2) Initially main active centres were Hyderabad, Gujarat, and Mysore.

• 3) Relationship with INC/ People of the Princely states

• 3.1) 1920, Nagpur Session- INC opened membership for people of states (* 565 Princely
States) but they were not allowed any political activity in the name of INC

• 3.1.1) Due to the absence of colonial rule in the domestic sphere as the ruler was Indian until
1929, the Goal of INC was Swaraj within British Raj, and in 565 princely states, there was a
Raj of Indian rulers and not of British in the Domestic Sphere. Therefore, the demand for
democracy was to be from the Indian ruler therefore no anti-British agenda was available

• 3.1.2) States people were not trained in mass politics as no rich history of India like British
India.

• 3.1.3) INC has no presence in 565 Princely states therefore in the case of repression by an
Indian ruler, INC won't be able to protect people.

• 3.2) In 1927, AISPC (All India state peoples congress) was set up as an All India organization
of people of states,

• 3.3) In 1929, INC Lahore's session with Nehru as the president stated that the People of
states can't be excluded from the Indian national movement but INC continued with the
1920 stand.

• 3.4) 1937-39- 28 months of INC rule in provinces under the GoI Act 1935 that brought
Provincial Autonomy, ended dyarchy and brought fully responsible government in provinces.
Therefore, the prestige of INC increased among the people of the states. Also, state people
were motivated to set up Praja Mandals/SPCs, where they did not exist and membership of
existing SPCs increased.

• If INC could extract democracy from the mighty British then why could they not from the
Indian ruler?

• 3.5) 1938, Haripura session, with Netaji Bose as president- 1920 stand maintained but INC
declared that Poorna Swaraj is the goal for the whole of India and 565 Princely states are an
 integral part of India. [* Poorna Swaraj goal for British India- 1929; Poorna Swaraj goal for
British India+ 565 princely states/ Whole of India- 1938].

• 3.6) 1939, Tripuri session with Netaji Bose as president- Finally change in INC policy as INC
declared that people of states will be part of future movements of INC.

• 3.7) In the Ludhiana session of AISPC (in 1939) Nehru was appointed as president [* Will lead
to better organizational linkages between INC and AISPC].

• 3.8) QIM, 1942-45 was the first movement where people of states participated and
demanded

• 3.8.1) British to Quit India immediately

• 3.8.2) Democracy from an Indian Ruler

• 3.8.3) Integration of states with the rest of India.

• Therefore, they raised the slogan of United India, bringing states into INM and laying the
foundation of the territorial integrity of India. People of state later played an important role
in the integration of those princely states where Indian rulers refused to sign the Instrument
of Accession. Examples- Hyderabad, Junagarh, Travancore, etc.

B. TERRITORIAL INTEGRATION OF INDIA (06:01 PM)

STATUS AS ON 3rd JUNE 1947

Status at the time of 3rd June Plan/Mountbatten Plan of 1947

Pondicherry, Goa, Daman & Diu, and Dadara &

565 Princely Nagar Haveli (With Portuguese)
British India Chandranagar with
States
French.

• Pondicherry- First Indo-china War 1946-54 led to the realization in France that
decolonization can't be delayed anymore as the people of Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia won
independence by defeating the French army supported by the US. Therefore, French
possessions in India were handed over to India via negotiations in 1954.

• Goa- There was a movement for independence in Goa against the Portuguese but India did
not intervene until 1961 when the people of Goa demanded help. In Operation Vijay, the
Portuguese surrendered without a fight. 12th Constitutional Amendment Act 1962- Goa
became a part of India.

Integration of 565 Princely states- (06:19 PM)

• Instrument of Accession

• Instrument of accession (IoA) had a legal basis in section 6 of the GoI Act 1935.

• Also, Section 6(6) stated only the signature of the ruler was valid for the IoA to be valid.

• Also, the Indian Independence Act of 1947, Stated that for GoI 1935 to be applied until the
Constituent Assembly frames the Constitution of India
 • IoA gave defence, Foreign affairs, and communications to the union government i.e. Princely
states exceeded in 3 subjects while the rest subjects remained with the Ruler of Princely
states.

• Merger Agreement (MA)

• [* IoA= Sugar crystals in the water, Merger agreement means- When sugar crystals melt in
water, it becomes part of India, It is political loss of identity ]

• The merger agreement was signed alongside or after signing IoA and led to accession in all
subjects. Therefore princely states became equal in all aspects to an Indian province.

• As per the cabinet mission plan 1946, Paramountcy was not to be transferred to any GoI of
Independent India unless IoA signed and the same position in the Indian Independence Act
1947. Also, Paramountcy came to an end on the 15th of August.

• Their net legal status was that it was legally possible for each princely state to be a fully
independent country.

• However, the Mountbatten Plan, 3rd June plan 1947 promised that India be as large as
possible. Therefore, unofficially, no right of independence to any Princely states

• 13th June 1947

• States department was set up. It had two branches, one for India and the other for Pakistan

• Sardar Patel was a minister and V P Menon was secretary for the Indian branch of the states
department. The role of the states department was to manage issues related to partition and
relations and negotiations with 565 princely states.

STRATEGY OF PATEL (06:52 PM)

• He brought Mountbatten on board who gave a speech in Narendra Mandal 1920 to convince
Princes to sign IoA with India.

• Princes agreed and most of them signed within 3 weeks of 13th June as-

• a) Mountbatten was viewed as a friend since he came from the royal family and
paramountcy was a personal relationship between British Monarch and an Indian prince.

• b) Mountbatten argued that IoA was only for acceding in 3 subjects which at present were
also not with princes. Also, Britain won't be able to help after the lapse of paramountcy.

• Also persuasion by Britain

• He gave the option to princes to accede only in 3 subjects and promised autonomy in other
subjects. Otherwise, India won't be able to control people after the 15th of August.
Therefore, gave an implied threat of anarchy if persuasion did not work.

• Problems

• Bhopal, Travancore, Manipur, and Jodhpur (* BhoTMaJo) along with Hyderabad, Junagarh,
and J&K (* HJJ) did not sign IoA immediately.

• Bhopal, Travancore, Manipur, and Jodhpur signed before 15th August.

• Hyderabad, Junagarh, and J&K signed after 15th August.

 • Pakistan was luring princes with a blank cheque of Autonomy and other privileges especially
of border states so they sign IoA with Pakistan.

BHOPAL (07:18 PM)

• The majority of the population was Hindu that wanted to be part of secular India while
Ruler Habibullah was Muslim and resisted signing IoA.

• Pressure by Patel and communists led to the signing of IoA.

TRAVANCORE (07:21 PM)

• Ruker was Maharaja Thirunal but the real power centre was Diwan C P Ramaswamy Aiyyar,
who argued that Travancore would follow the American model of voluntary union and
therefore won't sign IoA.

• Since October 1946, under CPI there was a movement called Punnapra Vayalar movement
with the method of Armed struggle and participation of workers and peasants. They were
protesting for their class rights and for uniting with India.

• Now they gave the slogan- "Go Into the Arabian Sea with your American Model" and started
protests. They were violently repressed.

• June 1947- Negotiations by Patel failed and Travancore declared independence.

• July 1947- Attack on the life of Aiyyar therefore fled away and Travancore signed IoA.

MANIPUR (07:33 PM)

• After long negotiations finally on 11th August 1947 Maharaja Bodhchandra signed IoA on
assurance of Autonomy in subjects other than 3 subjects of IoA.

• First elections in Independent India in Manipur in June 1948 after public pressure for
democracy led to a constitutional monarchy with a popular legislative assembly.

• Problems

• Maharaja signed the merger agreement but without consulting the popular Legislative
assembly

• SPC was in favour of signing the merger agreement but other parties were not. This
contributed to the separatist movement later.

JODHPUR (07:38 PM)

• It was important as a shared border with Pakistan.

• The pressure applied by Patel on the young King led to the signing of IoA.

• Therefore Bhopal, Travancore, Manipur, and Jodhpur signed IoA before 15th August 1947.

HYDERABAD (07:40 PM)

• Geography- It was on the Indian mainland and it was the largest princely state.

• The majority population was Hindu which wanted integration with secular India while ruler
Nizam, Mir Osman Ali was Muslim.
 • The real ruler was Kasim Rizvi, an advisor to Nizam who along with MIM (Majlis-E-Ittehadul
Muslimeen), a political party opposed signing IoA

• Kasim Rizvi was an anti-Hindu radical, desperate for independence, and gave a threat to the
security of Hindus.

• The rule of Nizam was unjust and unpopular and Muslims who were 25% of the population
dominated the administration.

• On 12th June 1947, Hyderabad declared independence.

• Patel offered local autonomy and Nizam was promised special status for Hyderabad and
20,000 personnel troops but he rejected it.

• But now people's movement began under communists and the SPC of Hyderabad with
participation from peasants, workers, women, and students from Telangana.

• In response unleashed violence by Razakars, his private army.

• Now negotiations led to the signing of a standstill agreement between GoI and Hyderabad
(November 1947).

• However, Violence by Razakars continued, and finally in Operation Polo/ Caterpillar, in

September 1948, Indian Army entered Hyderabad.

• Kasim Rizvi was imprisoned until 1957 and then sent to Pakistan.

• MIM (Majlis-E-Ittehadul Muslimeen) was banned. Also, Nizam was made governor and
Hyderabad merged with India.

JAMMU & KASHMIR (07:53 PM)

• Important players

• Maharaja Hari Singh wanted independent status.

• Shiek Abdulla was anti-monarchy, Pro-democracy, Anti-Pakistan, and Pro-socialism, and had
good relations with Nehru.

• India and Pakistan- Both wanted J&K.

• Muslims were in majority and they were poor ryots and faced economic oppression by
Zamindars who were a minority Hindus.

• Therefore supported Land reforms and other socialists' demands of Sheik Abdulla.

• Sheik Abdulla started "Kashmir Choro Aandolan" against the monarchy.

• Hari Singh offered a standstill agreement to India and Pakistan.

• Pakistan signed but India did not and this made Pakistan anxious.

• Hari Singh wanted a Standstill agreement for the uninterrupted movement of people and
goods in and out of J&K.

• Anxious Pakistan now tried to force J&K into signing IoA by applying an economic blockade.
Then in October 1947, Pashtuns invaded Kashmir. Hari Singh requested Military help from
 India. But India gave conditions of signing IoA and making Sheik Abdulla head of
administration.

• Both demands were accepted and now the Indian army entered J&K but before the Pakistan
army could be pushed out completely, Mountbatten convinced Nehru to take the issue to the
UN.

• Therefore, in July 1949, a ceasefire was signed between India and Pakistan under a UNSC
resolution. Therefore ceasefire line in 1949 and PoK came into existence.

• A UN mission was set up to monitor the ceasefire.

• Then a UNSC resolution in 1951 decided in favour of a plebiscite but with condition that
Pakistan withdraws with PoK. Till now, no plebiscite since Pakistan never withdrew.

• In 1951, the Constituent Assembly of J&K met and drafted the constitution of J&K by 1956.

• In 1954, the Constituent Assembly of J&K ratified IoA with India. [* Therefore people
accepted joining India].

• However, from 1948 onwards, US and Britain sided with Pakistan in UNSC as Pakistan joined
the capitalist bloc during the cold war while India followed a policy of Non-Alignment (NAM).
Therefore, India is against any third-party intervention in bilateral disputes.

The Topic for the next class:- Junagarh, Partition and its aftermath, State reorganization.

Summary

Post Independence India Class 02

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:00 PM)

JUNAGARH (05:06 PM)

• The Nawab of Junagarh was Mohabbat Khan, It had no border with Pakistan, also it had a
small state on Saurashtra Coast. The majority population was Hindu which wanted
integration with secular India.

• It was surrounded by Indian territory.

• Problems- Announced accession to Pakistan and Shah Nawaj Bhutto of Muslim League
(1906) joined the government of the state.

• Solution

• A people's movement began that forced Nawab to flee, therefore Patel's strategy of the
threat of Anarchy was in operation.

• Now Shah Nawaj Bhutto requested military help from Pakistan but Jinnah refused as his main
focus was J&K and Junagarh was just a bargaining chip.

• Indian troops entered Junagarh and a plebiscite in 1948 led to Merger with India.

PARTITION AND ITS AFTERMATH (05:13 PM)

•
 Partition and its Aftermath

Rehabilitation

West

o NWFP East

Violence @ Migration o Baluchistan o

o Sindh o

o Punjab

Strategy- Immediate- Short-term/Long-term.

• Responsibility for Communal Violence during Partition

• 1) 3rd June plan 1947- Here British decided to exit India, one year in advance i.e. by 15th
August 1947 instead of 30th June 1948 as stated in Atlee's statement of February 1947. This
led to poor preparation for partition on part of the government and people.

• Example- Punjab governor Jenkins- "Peaceful partition will take years and not 72 days".

• Commander in Chief Lockhart (15th August- December 1947)- "Punjab Tragedy won't have
happened if the partition had been delayed by one year".

• Mountbatten did not want responsibility for communal violence and therefore escalated
British exit.

• 2) Delay in announcing boundary commission award-

• Under the Mountbatten Plan and Indian Independence Act 1947, two commissions were set
up under Radcliffe, a British Jurist, for boundary demarcation to be done before or after 15th
August 1947. The award was ready before 15th August but announced on 17th August so the
British don't have responsibility for violence during migration

• 3) Radcliffe did not have any past experience in boundary demarcation nor he had much
prior knowledge of India. Also, the commission had no boundary experts and the award was
to be prepared with a deadline of six weeks.

• Therefore people did not know on 15th August if they are on the right side of the border
which led to last-minute chaos.

• Violence (05:42)

• Important cities like Calcutta and Amritsar got divided into communal zones. Women were
raped and at times killed by family members to save the family's honour. Overall roughly 10
lakh people were killed and 80 lakhs in total migrated.

• Rehabilitation
 • Two classes of migrants to India- The rich who preplanned and came before 15th August and
the second one was the poor who had hope of honourable living in Pakistan but then came
due to communal violence (Upto September- October 1947)

• Indian Response

• A department of rehabilitation was set up with a special cadre of officers. Many refugee
camps were set up as an immediate measure.

• Example- Kurukshetra camp received migration from Pakistan Punjab

• Kolvada camp in Bombay received migrants from Sindh.

• In total 200 camps for Migrants from Pakistan and Punjab and 5 camps for migrants from
Sindh in Mumbai/ Bombay.

• As a short-term measure, Temporary plots of 4 Acres were given to every family along with
loans to Buy seeds and equipment so they could start cultivation.

• Permanent Rehabilitation

• It was a rehabilitation operation. A rehabilitation secretariat was set up in Jalandhar [*

Secretariat- Will report to Rehabilitation department]. Its job was to collect, verify and
execute land claims. 7000 officials were working here at any time.

• Challenges (06:03 PM)

Land left behind

2.7 million hectare 1.9 million hectares

o By Hindus and Sikhs in Pakistan Punjab o By Muslims in Indian Punjab

• Fertility was greater in Pakistan Punjab as it was better irrigated. Also, Indian western Punjab
was better irrigated than Indian eastern Punjab therefore the dual challenge of lesser land
available for distribution and lower fertility

• Applications were invited for permanent plots and the basis of allocation was to be land left
behind in Pakistan.

• Verification of land claims was done via assemblies of people, so ex-neighbours could verify
claims by a family. Further to resolve the problem of overclaiming, false claims were
punished by decreasing land to be allotted ideally and even a brief spell of jail. The claimed
inflation was 25%.

CONTRIBUTION OF SARDAR TARLOK SINGH, ICS (06:14 PM)

• He gave concepts of Standard Acre and Graded Cut.

• One Standard Acre = Land that could produce 10-11 mounds of rice (1 mound= 40 KG).

• This solved the problem of inequity as people now got more land in Indian eastern Punjab
which had lower fertility than Indian Western Punjab. For example- One Acre is equal to one
 standard Acre in the west and 4 Acres are equal to one standard Acre in Indian eastern
Punjab.

• Graded cuts meant more percentage cuts in the land allotted when more land was claimed.
Example- 25% cut for claims between 1- 10 Acres. 30% cut for 10-30 Acres and even 95% cut
for claims greater than 500 Acres.

• By November 1949, Tarlok Singh made 2.5 lakh allotments. Also, review applications led to
80000 acres changing hands again.

• By 1951 task was completed in the West, however, cultural loss to Sikhs could not be
compensated and they lost important Gurudwaras in Pakistan Punjab.

• Rehabilitation in the East-

• There was a long-term inflow of refugees for years due to periodic communal riots in East
Pakistan (* EP)

• The poor economy of East Pakistan

• After 1971, Inflow continued due to the poor economy of Bangladesh. Migration caused
socio-cultural and political problems in India in form of Ethnic and Linguistic tensions and
even insurgency. Example- ULFA 1979 in Assam. [* Wanted independent Assam].

• There was the problem of language for migrants as Bengali immigrants had to be settled
even outside Bengal as very less property was left behind by those who migrated to East
Pakistan. [* Connect with modern history- Permanent Settlement in Bengal, therefore
masses were tenants ryots and less number of Muslim ryots].

REORGANIZATION OF STATES (06:50 PM)

• During the Home rule league movement, Tilak demanded the creation of regions based on
language.

• In 1917, Congress also accepted formally the linguistic reorganization of states. In the 1920
Nagpur INC Session, Provincial Congress Committees were set up on linguistic lines.

• Dhar Commission by Constituent Assembly in 1948 rejected demand due to concerns of

national unity as a partition on religious lines recently, thus, did not want the rise of
communalism on basis of language.

• In 1948 JVP Committee setup (Jawahar Lal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Pittabhi Sitaramayya)
favoured a linguistic basis for reorganization but argued that now was not the right time due
to concerns for national unity.

• REFER TO THE HANDOUT

TRIBAL CONSOLIDATION (07:08 PM)

• Revise the reasons for tribal revolts from Modern Indian History.

• Broadly they always enjoy autonomy and preserve their unique identity but under the British
era their life was turned upside down due to-

• a) Autonomy hurt by application of British criminal and civil law

 • b) British land revenue systems led to an influx of and domination by outsiders i.e. Zamindars
of plains, Revenue farmers, Merchants, and Moneylenders

• c) There was the loss of land to these outsiders and also due to railroad projects and mining
projects in form of land acquisition for these projects. Further, there was the loss of home
and loss of access to forest produce due to British forest laws that classified forests into
Reserved, Protected, and Open to all.

• d) Forced labour on railroad projects etc

• e) Hunting was banned and so was Jhum cultivation as the British wanted settled peasant
communities for ease of land revenue collection and for greater land revenue collection.

• f) From 1813, Christian missionaries' activities threatened Tribal identity.

CHALLENGES FOR TRIBAL CONSOLIDATION (07:31 PM)

• Post-independence biggest challenge was tribal consolidation

• A. Policy of isolation-

• Proposed by British anthropologist Verrier Elwin.

• He argued that tribals are special people who must be kept in separation from the rest of
society to preserve and conserve their unique culture and ethnic identity.

• He suggested the creation of National Parks where tribal people could live safely without
being victims of overhasty and unregulated development/ modernization.

• [* Liberals- give best ideas of the age to Indians- The problem was that the best idea was
synonymous with British ideas, therefore best language became English, the best education
became Western education, best religion became Christianity. Therefore, it became a loss of
identity]

• However, this policy was viewed as a proposal to create a museum or a zoo and therefore
rejected.

• B. Policy of assimilation

• This was proposed by G S Ghurye (Father of Indian sociology).

• He said that tribals are simply "Backward Hindus" who need to be brought into the
mainstream but in that process, their unique identity may be lost.

• C. Policy of integration

• It is also called as "Tribal Panchsheel, 1952". It was given by J L Nehru (* Middle Path).

• This policy argued that tribal areas and tribals (* Connect with Constitution of India and
Scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of rights) Act 2006) must
progress but in their own way (* Link orientalism- Rule India the India way).

• Principles of Tribal Panchsheel, 1952

• a) Tribals should be allowed to develop according to their own genius (* i.e. as per their
capability and skills. for Example- maybe traditional medicine as against pure allopathy &
maybe bamboo bridges were feasible ).
 • b) Tribal rights in land and forest should be respected (* Scheduled tribes and other
traditional forest dwellers (recognition of rights) Act 2006 or FRA 2006 and also link 5th
schedule powers of Governors @ land)

• c) Tribals should be trained to undertake administration and development tasks without too
many outsiders being inducted. (* I.e lower bureaucracy should be tribals, maybe doctors
should be tribals, Teachers should be tribals).

• d) Tribal development should be undertaken without disturbing tribal social and cultural
institutions. (* Example- Eklavya model residential schools where tribal culture is promoted +
delegating implementation authority to Self-help groups led by the tribal leader).

• e) Index of tribal development should be the quality of life and not the money spent. (*
Longer road, uneconomic but prevents digging a tunnel through a hill worshipped by tribals);
(* Money spent as indicated by utilization certificates submitted by DM is an important
metric today to judge the quantum of development).

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS (08:04 PM)

• Article 366- Definitions

• [* Article 366 (25) defines STs as tribes or tribal communities as defined in Article 342]

• Article 342- Scheduled Tribes

• STs are those tribes or tribal communities that are in notifications issued by President, and
parliament may include or exclude any tribe from this notification.

• Article 244- Administration of scheduled areas and tribal areas

• Article 244(1) says that the 5th schedule will govern the administration of scheduled areas
and STs

• Article 244(2) says that the 6th schedule will govern the administration of Tribal areas in
Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Assam

• 5th schedule

• It talks about the tribal advisory council that is to advise the State government on the
welfare of STs. Also, the governor may make regulations for the good government of
scheduled areas and may prohibit or restrict the transfer of tribal land, and may regulate the
business of moneylenders

• 6th schedule

• It talks about autonomous districts and autonomous regions within districts. It also mentions
autonomous district councils and autonomous regional councils and their powers to make
laws.

• It also defines tribal areas.

• Other articles

• Article 243 D- Reservation of seats for SC and STs in panchayats

• Article 243 T -Reservation of seats for SC and STs in Municipalities

 • Article 330- Reservation of seats for SC and STs in the House of People

• Article 332- Reservation of seats for SC and STs in State legislative assemblies

• Article 46- It is a DPSP- Promotion of educational and economic interests of SCs and STs and
other weaker sections

• Article 48 A- Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding forest and

wildlife. [* Forest means home of tribals].

• Article 29- Protection of interest of minorities

• Article 30- Rights of Minorities to Establish and administer educational institutions

• Article 335- claims of SC/ST to services and posts shall be taken into consideration
consistently with the maintenance of efficiency in administration. [* Example- ISRO chief
choice should have no basis in any caste or religion]

• Article 31 A- Saving of laws @ acquisition of estates etc in the public interest

The topic for the next class:- Schemes related to tribals, FRA 2006, PESA 1996, SC judgments related
to Niamgiri hills, 1962 war.

Summary

Post Independence India Class 03

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:00 PM)

SCHEMES RELATED TO TRIBALS (05:02 PM)

• Important role of TRIFED (Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India

Limited) in the Ministry of Tribal Affairs

• a) Eklavya model residential schools 1997-98- Modern education with residential facilities
along with a focus on preserving tribal culture.

• b) MSP for MFP (Minimum support price for Minor forest produce)-

• b.1) MSP for minor forest produce like Tendu patta, Bamboo, Sal products like Sal leaves and
seeds, wild honey, lac, tamarind, etc.

• b.2) Important because, MFP has high social and economic value for tribals as it not only
provides food, medicine, and other consumption items but also cash income.

• b.3) Sustainable harvesting of MFPs and sustainable demand for MFPs is ensured by the
scheme

• b.4) Under this scheme, procurement and marketing operations are conducted (* Marketing
implies connecting MFP with bias- Industrial or Retail)

• c) PM Van Dhan Yojana- The goal is to generate livelihood by utilizing forest wealth. It
promotes MSP for the MFP scheme by additionally focusing on value addition to MFP with
the help of self Help Groups of tribals before the final sale.
 •
• d) Bharat Rural Livelihood Foundation, 2013 (BRLF)-

• d.1) Its goal is to generate rural livelihood with a special focus on women and tribals

• d.2) It uses the human resource capacity of NGOs for skill development and other
development projects by doing capacity building of this Human resource.

• d.3) BRLF integrates government, Private sector, and Civil society, therefore is an example of
network governance

• d.4) BRLF also aims to strengthen the SHG movement and develop tribal leadership.

• d.5) Funding by private partners to BRLF is eligible for being counted as CSR contribution
(Corporate social responsibility- Compulsory for companies having turnover of more than
500 crores to contribute 2% of profits towards social welfare activities)- Initial corpus was
1000 crores- 500 cr by GoI and 500 cr from other partners i.e. private companies and
institutions like NABARD.

PANCHAYAT (EXTENSION TO SCHEDULED AREAS) ACT, PESA, 1996 (05:37 PM)

• Scheduled areas are governed by 5th schedule (Article 244(1))

• 5th schedule created the Tribal advisory council (TAC) which has 3/4th of members as ST
MLAs, however, TAC proved ineffective as it largely has advisory functions. Therefore, PESA in
1996 gave more autonomy to local tribals and other communities by establishing PRIs.

• PESA mandates state government to devolve certain political, administrative, and financial
powers to local governments/ PRIs.

• Tribals are guaranteed 50% of seats and the seat of chairperson at all levels of the panchayat
system.

• However, PESA has not been fully implemented by the state government [* Federalism
decreases the powers of the centre, PRIs decrease the power of state governments ]

• 1997, Samata judgment- SC ruled that the 5th schedule mandated governors to bar the
purchase of tribal lands for mining activity by private players, After this GoI gave Governors
unrestricted authority in the transfer of ST land to the government and then allotment to
non-tribals, therefore hurting the goal of tribal autonomy.
SCHEDULED TRIBES & OTHER TRADITIONAL FOREST DWELLERS (RECOGNITION OF RIGHTS) ACT
2006 (06:00 PM)

• It is commonly known as Forest Rights Act 2006 or FRA 2006

• [* During Britishers time- Tribal autonomy hurt, Landlessness increased, Forest produce +
Culture (added by SC)

• Tribal Autonomy was handled by- PESA in 1996.

• Landlessness and Forest produce rights were resolved by FRA 2006]

• It is For the 5th schedule areas

• It gives the right to land and community rights over MFP, Water bodies, and grazing areas

• It also gives responsibility to STs and OTFDs for the protection of wildlife, Forests, and
biodiversity i.e. Right to manage and protect their forests. [* Use in the environment, SDG ]
[** Implements 48 A]

• Maximum forest land rights that can be recognized is up to 4 hectares also rights are
heritable but not transferable. [* Therefore, FRA 2006, has the consequence of preventing
the transfer of land of tribal people to non-tribals ]

• Those persons are eligible who are living in and are dependent on forests for livelihood and
to cultivate their land before December 2005. [* Satellite photo December 2005, cultivation,
trees- FRA bans land use change after December 2005 ]

• FRA mandates the need for consent of Gram Sabha for forest land acquisition [* Therefore
Gram Sabha created by PESA 1996 and now empowered by FRA, therefore, FRA strengthens
PESA]

• 2013 SC judgment in Vedanta's Bauxite mining project case in Niyamgiri Hills in Odisha-
here Dongria Kond tribals were protesting against the Mining of the hill they worship i.e.
Niyamraja. SC recognized customary/ traditional rights of ST and OTFDs. for example-
Religious rights, therefore they were given the right to protect the Hill and later Gram Sabha
voted against the mining project.

• Therefore, FRA 2006 gives protection to customary rights as well after this development.

INDIA- CHINA WAR, 1962 (06:39 PM)

•

• Source- The Economist magazine

• As per the Jhonson line- Aksai chin is part of India.

• As per the McCartney-Mcdonald line- Aksai chin is part of China.

• China annexed Tibet in 1950.

• India was the first to recognize the PRC (People's Republic of China) in 1949 [* PRC=
Mainland China =Chinese Communist Party led state, 1921]

• India believed that we have common past experiences of colonialism and therefore can
share good relations. There were good relations until the 1950s as India and China did not
share borders.

• Post-1950, when China annexed Tibet, Border disputes began over Aksai chin and NEFA.

• Also, India-USSR relations were improving while post-1953, china-USSR relations turned bad
which made China anxious.

• Patel did not trust China on the issue of borders while Nehru was overtrusting.

• The entire border is disputed.

• Western sector-

• a) Jhonson Ardagh line, 1897- Jhonson was a surveyor and recommended this line in 1865. It
was accepted by the British government officially in 1897 on the recommendation of Ardagh,
head of military intelligence. Jhonson's line puts Aksai's chin in India.

• b) McCartney- Mcdonald line, 1899- It puts Aksai chin in China. In 1899, the British proposed
this line to China via Envoy Mcdonald but no response from China, therefore this line was
not finalized and the British GoI reverted back to the Jhonson Line 1897

• Eastern sector- Macmahon line 1914 (07:20 PM)

• It was the result of the Shimla Agreement of 1914 between the British and Tibet. China was
invited to the conference but did not attend.

• Post-1949, CCP led government in China did not recognize the Macmahon Line 1914.

• Post-1950, Nehru sent an envoy to China to assess the view of Chinese President Zhau
Enlau/Lai

• [* Chinese system- Party is supreme and not the state. State includes parliament, Judiciary,
etc. A state is a tool for the party to implement communism. There is only one party i.e.
Chinese communist party- one party system. Mao Zedong was the chairman of the party. The
chairman of the party is the top person. President of state was given foreign policy]

• As per the response, India got the impression that China had no interest in border areas and
its only interest was trade across borders.

• A satisfied Nehru went ahead and signed the 1954 treaty of friendship with China based
on Panchsheel principles to guide future relations

• a) Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity.

• b) Mutual non-aggression [* Can raise a territorial dispute without aggression e.g In United
Nations]

• c) Mutual non-interference in each other's Internal affairs [* Rarely news item on India or
China commenting on Xinxiang or Punjab/ Maoism in NE]

• d) Equality and Mutual benefits [* Subsidiary alliance was not based on equality because one
partner was subordinate to another]

• e) Peaceful coexistence [* Xi Jinping said- "There is enough space in the world for India and
China both to grow", India also promotes Vasudaiva Kutumbakam].

• However, the Mistake was that the treaty was silent on border disputes and gave no clarity
on borders. Also, India accepted Tibet as part of China.

• Another mistake was that, in 1956, Dalai Lama sought asylum in India but Nehru Rejected it
for good India-china relations. [* Jhataka/ Shock- 1957 report stated that China had
constructed a road in Aksai Chin]

• Earlier Nehru had called Zhau Enlau and he was assured that China won't ever claim Indian
territory but it was never clarified "what is Indian territory as per China".

• The road created uproar in Indian politics and Nehru wrote to China. No reply for one month
and Zhau Enlau proposed that if India recognizes Aksai Chin as part of China then China will
recognize Mcmahon Line 1914 i.e. NEFA with India.

• Nehru propose this in parliament and argue that Aksai Chin is a barren land to which there
was high opposition. Example- Mahavir Tyagi responded that if he was bald then should the
head be removed from the body, therefore with no agreement in Parliament, Nehru pulled
out from negotiations.

• 1959- Dalai Lama was given asylum but political activities were not allowed.

• 1960-62- Forward policy by India and in 1962, in October china started the war.
REASONS FOR WAR (08:00 PM)

• Unsettled border dispute.

• The India-USSR relationship was improving while the China-USSR relationship deteriorated
and turned sour in 1953. This made China anxious therefore china wanted to assert itself
militarily as a show of strength.

• [* World history- Mao accused Nikita Krushev (1953-64) of comprising core principles of
Marxism when Nikita talked about peaceful coexistence with the capitalist West and
introduced some capitalistic features in USSR's economy. This created demands in China for
similar reforms that irked Mao Zedong, therefore he took the Anti-USSR stand.]

• Also, china wanted to be the leader of the socialist world instead of the USSR. Further, both
had long-pending border disputes since 1858 when Russia took over all territory above river
Amur.

• China was facing domestic problems due to the initial failures of the "Great leap forward"
(Maoism) whereby agrarian communism was promoted instead of focusing on heavy
industry, a centralized industry based on mechanization and the rapid industrialization model
of the USSR.

• Now focus was to be on the agrarian economy, labour-intensive industry, light industry that
improves the standard of living (* Consumer durables and non-durables ), decentralized
industrialization i.e. Six lakh small steel factories spread across rural areas, and gradual
industrialization. This hurt GDP growth (* Agri-GDP roughly 4% whereas industrial GDP was
20% ).

• Also, due to geographical events, there were bad harvests, and therefore even the agrarian
economy suffered, therefore Mao Zedong wanted to distract the Chinese Public and leaders
away from domestic problems.

The Topic for the next class:- Continuation of the 1962 war.

Summary

Post Independence India Class 04

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND Q&A SESSION (05:04 PM)

1962 WAR- CAUSES OF WAR (05:14 PM)

• Trigger was the forward policy of India (1960-62) whereby Indian troops crossed the
Macmahon line in 1914 and skirmishes began. In response, China also adopted the Forward
policy leading to tensions.

• Cuban Missile Crisis October 1962- USA, USSR, and other major powers were busy in this
crisis, therefore, an opportunity for China as fewer chances of foreign intervention in favor of
India.

• War continued for one month followed by a unilateral ceasefire by China on 28th November
1962, China defeated Indian forces and also captured both Aksai Chin and NEFA. Upon
 ceasefire, China Withdrew from NEFA but not from Aksai Chin [* Therefore achieved by war
what was proposed in negotiations].

REASONS FOR LOSS (05:30 PM)

• Poor political leadership and poor planning. Example- When skirmishes began after the
forward policy, Nehru opined that China won't ever go to war as it may lead to WW III. Also,
Defence Minister V K Krishna Menon opined that Pakistan is a bigger threat than China [* In
response to Army Chief]

• India did not get foreign help due to our NAM (Non-Aligned Movement) policy which
prevented assurance of Military help also foreign powers were busy in the Cuban missile
crisis.

• Impact-

• First time Nehru faced a No-confidence motion and also was blamed for failing to protect the
national interest.

• The government was blamed for political interference in the conduct of war.

• Due to high war expenditure third Five-year plan was badly affected.

• Huge loss of Military prestige for India and the Indian military.

BORDER TALKS (05:39 PM)

• From 1976 onwards, relations improved leading to 1981 high-level border talks but then the
1987 Sumdorng chu incident in Arunachal Pradesh led to the derailment of talks.

• 1988- Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China led to the setting up of a Joint working group [In JWG,
senior bureaucrats meet regularly to find solutions and overcome differences small and big
].

• Finally 1993, agreement on the maintenance of peace and tranquillity along LAC (Line of
Actual Control).

• In 1996, the Agreement on CBM (Confidence building measures) in the military field along
LAC.

• 2003- After 14 rounds of JWG talks, two special representatives were appointed to find
political solutions (* From the Indian side, the special representative is the National security
adviser, NSA and three stages were envisaged in the peace process )

• In 2005, the first stage was completed as we signed an agreement on political parameters
and guiding principles

• a) Solve peacefully and don't affect other bilateral engagements.

• b) Must be mutually accepted solutions also final and whole solutions.

• c) Be Flexible and respect each other strategic interests.

• d) Consider historical evidence and national sentiments.

• e) Geographically sensible boundaries.

 • f) No exchange of populated areas.

• g) Pending final agreement, maintain Peace and continue CBMs and respect LAC and special
representatives should develop a framework for the second stage.

• Second stage-

• Develop a framework for boundary settlement that will be the basis for demarcating borders
with the help of officials and surveyors.

• We are in the second stage at present.

• Third stage

• Demarcate border on the map and ground.

LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI ERA, 1964-66 (06:37 PM)

• After the death of Nehru in 1964, congress had to choose the next PM

• Syndicates were a group of powerful leaders from Non-Hindi speaking areas example-
Kamraj, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, S K Patil, etc.

• They wanted a puppet PM who would follow party directions, therefore, they chose Lal
Bahadur Shastri who had a polite personality, was honest and hard-working, and was not
very commanding.

• Challenges inherited by Lal Bahadur Shastri

• Economic- Third Five-year plan was badly affected due to unexpectedly high war expenditure
also consecutive droughts in 1962 and 1963 hurt agrarian GDP and contributed to the
challenge of food security and food inflation, Therefore, economic slowdown. This also
contributed to law and order instability.

• Political- Lal Bahadur Shastri was not viewed as a strong personality like Nehru, therefore,
perception of weak political leadership and pressures of factionalism.

• [* Link factionalism of Modern Indian History post-Ranjeet Singh 1801-1839, Post Strong
Peshwa, Nana saheb (1740-1761), Post- Aurangzeb (1658-1707), etc].

• There was a problem of Demand for the creation of Punjab as a sikh Majority state, also the
official language issue created a problem.

• Military- 1965 Indo-Pak war (07:20 PM)

• Reasons/ Background

• a.) Pakistan felt militarily confident due to

• a.1) Defeat of India in the 1962 war

• a.2) Sale of sophisticated weapons by USA example- Paton tanks

• a.3) 1963- Pakistan gave Shakshgam Valley to China from PoK, therefore expected Chinese
help.

• a.4) Pakistan expected USA support as Pakistan had joined Military alliances led by the USA
like SEATO 1954 and CENTO 1958.
 • a.5) Also known assurances of military help to India by USSR since India followed NAM.

• a.6) Also Indian economy wasn't doing well and perception of weak political leadership.

• b) Also Pakistan expected support from Kashmiris if it attacked J&K. This was due to ongoing
protests and unrest created by Sheikh Abdulla and others (Sheikh Abdulla was demanding
autonomy greater than as given by Article 370 Example- Wanted their own military for J&K
also he began demanding plebiscite under USA influence).

• Events during the War

• Pakistan checked Indian military preparedness by attacking Rann of Kutch and found India
unprepared. Rann of Kutch is a marshy Area and India was not expecting an attack on this
front. And therefore, wasn't ready. Pakistan demanded 9100 Sq km. After this attack, Britain
mediated leading to a ceasefire and a tribunal which in 1968, gave Pakistan 910 Sq Km.

• Operation Gibraltar- August 1965- By Pakistan whereby 40000 Militarily trained infiltrators
entered India with the goal of starting a civil rebellion by Kashmiris. However, the operation
failed as they did not get the desired response from Indians, and effective intelligence with
Indian forces led to their suppression.

• Operation Grandslam- September 1965- By Pakistan-

• i) Akhnoor connects J& K to the rest of India. The goal was to attack Akhnoor and cut off
supplies to Indian forces in J&K.

• ii) Meanwhile Lal Bahadur Shastri was being criticized for his indecisiveness/ Inaction during
the conflict in Rann of Kutch. Example- Vijay Laxmi Pandit stated that Lal bahadur shastri is
the prisoner of indecision.

• Along with Army Chief, Lal Bahadur Shastri decided to open a second front in Punjab so
Pakistani forces could be diverted from J&K leading to the failure of Operation Grandslam.
This decision could have brought external players like China and USA into war in favour of
Pakistan as now it would have been an all-out war on multiple fronts. [* Good leadership-
Strong decision-making ability and action followed words]

• India successfully captured 1920 Sq Km in Pakistan and reached the outskirts of Lahore while
Pakistan captured 540 Sq Km. India also captured Haji Peer, which connected PoK with J&K
and therefore was a highly strategic location.

• Also, India also destroyed many Paton tanks in Pakistan, therefore real Gains during War
were made by India.

• The USA did not help Pakistan as it was heavily involved in the Vietnam War, 1961-75 (Under
Jhonson- 1963-69, who sent a million troops and heavily bombarded North Vietnam).

• Russia did not openly support India but made it clear to China that USSR would be forced to
come to the military aid of India if China supported Pakistan.

TASHKENT AGREEMENT 1966 (08:11 PM)

• USSR feared the involvement of the USA and escalation of war if the war continued longer,
therefore putting pressure on India and Pakistan for a ceasefire and Pakistan accepted.

The Topic for the next class:- Tashkent Agreement and the aftermath of the war.
1

Summary

Post Independence India Class 05

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS & RESOLVED QUERIES: (01:00:00 PM)

• Tashkent Agreement.

CONTINUATION OF TASHKENT AGREEMENT: (01:05:00 PM)

• 1. However, LB Shastri consulted the army chief if there was a chance of an all-out victory.
But in response got the feedback we were running short in arms and ammunition.

• (This was an assessment/intelligence failure. Hence India accepted the ceasefire.)

• 2. Taskent Agreement restored status-quo ante- both sides returned to each other's occupied
territory.

• Unfortunately, therefore India had to give back Hajibi.

• 3. India agreed due to USSR's pressure and did not want to lose the support of the USSR on
Kashmir Issues.

• Also, fear of the entry of the US that could lead to a long-drawn war is Not good for the
Indian economy.

• India was allegedly short of arms and ammunition.

• 4. During the war stature of LB Shastri (LBS) improved manyfold.

• LBS raised morale and led from the front for example, in Allahabad Speeshc he stated that:

• a. Ayub Khan said that he will meet us in Delhi to which I responded that you are a man of
high status therefore we would come to Lahore to pay respects.

• b. Also gave the slogan of Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan.

• 5. Agrarian Crisis and LBS:

• It was inherited by LBS and now again war expenditure led to the diversion of resources, and
to punish India for not declaring a ceasefire in the Initial phase, the USA stopped exporting
PL-480 food grins to India.

• (PL-480- Food grains of Low quality, exported to poor countries by Public Law 480).

• Therefore, now LBS highlighted the importance of self-sufficiency and food security, and the
crucial role of peasants in the Indian economy and gave the slogan of Jai jawan, Jai Kisan.

• LBS gave ideas of fasting once a week and kitchen gardens- Every family growing basic
vegetables near their home, and his own family was the first to practice these ideas.

• Therefore, LBS set the public and political narrative for the future green revolution. (Even if
for the vote bank politics, food security can't be ignored anymore by political leaders.)

INDIRA GANDHI ERA: (02:04:00 PM)

 • After the death of LBS in February 1966 in Tashkent, a new PM had to be appointed.

• Gulzari Lal Nanda(GLN) and Morarji Desai wanted to be the PM but were viewed by the
syndicate as over-ambitious candidates who may not follow party directions.

• Kamaraj was a strong leader but did not know Hindi and English, therefore realized that he
may not be accepted as the PM.

• IG projected herself as not interested and the syndicate thought she would be a weak PM
being inexperienced and being a woman.

• The syndicate thought that IG would also have sympathy from the public being Nehru's
daughter, therefore chose her and India got its first woman PM.

CONGRESS SPLIT, 1966: (02:14:00 PM)

• 1966-67:

• IG took decisions independently of the syndicate.

• For example, devalued Rupee due to pressure from IMF and the World Bank as India faced a
BOP crisis and devaluations may increase export earnings, ie forex.

• This decision backfired as India was a net importer and was not industrialized and imported
raw materials, especially fuel.

• Therefore the cost of imports increased.

• The real issue was that IG acted independently.

• (Profits of exporters= Revenues(sales in the international markets) - Cost of raw materials.

• More Profits -> More factories -> More exports -> More profits ->More forex.)

IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICTS BETWEEN IG AND SYNDICATE: (03:00:00 PM)

Indira Gandhi Syndicate

Pro-poor socialist ideology. More pro-capitalists.

Strong welfare state. Therefore favored the Wanted a strong private sector and opposed
nationalization of industries and banks. nationalization.

Wanted a weak state in the economy and

decision-making powers with the private
Wanted a welfare state and planned economy.
sector, therefore wanted to abolish five-year
plans.

Favored land redistribution in favor of the poor

Not in favor. They were pro-landed class.
via the land ceiling.

Favored better relations with USSR. Favored better relations with the US.

• 1967 Elections at Centre & States:

 • To control IG who was the PM face of Congress, the syndicate decided to distribute tickets to
their allies.

• However, there was an anti-congress wave due to food shortages, inflation, poverty, and
corruption.

• Therefore, for the first time, Congress lost elections in 8 states and the era of regional parties
began.

• But at the center there was no alternative, therefore IG was able to get a thin majority.

• Therefore syndicates were weakened.

• Death of President Zakir Hussain:

• It was the trigger for the split.

• Syndicates wanted Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy to be the President to control IG.

• The conflict led to Congress not declaring an official candidate as IG and started propaganda
that the syndicate wanted to remove her as the PM.

• IG declared that she will vote for VV Giri.

• Finally, VV Giri emerged victorious. (Fewer MLAs of syndicates due to poor 1967 elections)

• Humiliated syndicate expelled IG and now Congress- O of Syndicat and Congress- R of IG.

• However, IG continued to be the PM as had the support of more MPs.

ELECTIONS, 1971: (03:26:00 PM)

• These elections were declared prematurely by IG as she wanted:

• The strong majority implemented her reforms.

• For example, IG wanted to abolish the Privy purses but did not have the majority in Rajya
Sabha and therefore brought Ordinance.

• It was overturned by the SC.

• Nationalization of banks, but overturned by the SC in RC Cooper Case.

• (Link 24th to 42nd CAA).

• Syndicate, Jan Sangh, and all other parties set up a grand alliance and gave the slogan "Indira
Hatao" while IG gave the slogan "Garibi Hatao".

• RM Lohiya said, "IG is a Gungi Gudiya, how will she rule"?

• March 1971- IG came to power with an absolute majority.

BANGLADESH LIBERATION WAR, 1971: (03:35:00 PM)

• Reasons:

• 1. East Pakistan(EP) and West Pakistan(WP) had cultural differences.

 • For example, EP felt closer to West Bengal culturally than WP due to the common Bengali
language.

• 2. EP wanted official language status for Bengali which was resisted by WP.

• (Jinnah imposed Urdu on Pakistan because he wanted an Islamic image).

• 3. Pakistan's State and Military were dominated by WP.

• 4. EP was poor while WP was relatively rich.

• Even during the British Era, irrigation infra was not developed in the Permanent Settlement
areas of Bengal, Orissa, and Bihar as Land revenue could not be increased.

• Therefore, more canals were built in the undivided Punjab.

• 5. EP felt that revenue from the Jute export was used for the industrialization of WP instead
of the development of EP.

• 6. Poor Administration in EP.

• 7. Trigger was Bhola cyclone in EP after which poor relief work led to anger.

SHEIKH MUJIBUR REHMAN: (03:56:00 PM)

• He was a highly popular leader of the Awami League(AL) in EP.

• He raised the political, economic, and socio-cultural demands of EP.

• There was an agreement with WP on elections and consequent amendments to the

constitution to bring real federalism.

• WP leaders were confident of victory.

• Yahya Khan was a military leader who supported Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, a very popular leader of
WP.

• Election results were a big surprise for WP as Awami League won nearly all seats in EP and
therefore got the majority in the parliament.

• WP refused to convene Parliament and Bhutto was declared the PM.

• Now, a peaceful CDM was started by AL with demands for the right to form the government
and federalism.

• 25th March 1971, Pakistani Army launched "Operation Searchlight" where lakhs were
executed and Hindus were selectively targeted.

• Therefore, Hindu and Muslim Bengalis suffered brutal repression.

• 10 lakh refugees entered India overall, threatening internal stability as India already faced
challenges in food security, poverty, and unemployment.

• Also, cultural conflicts between the Non-Bengalis of NE and Bengali Immigrants.

• IG and Sam Manekshaw discussed the possibilities of war.

TOPICS FOR THE NEXT CLASS: Continuation of Bangladesh War.

1

Summary

Post Independence India Class 06

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:02 PM)

BANGLADESH WAR (05:06 PM)

• However India decided not to directly interfere, immediately.

• a) Rains will soon to follow in East Pakistan which would make terrain tough for military
movement. For example- Rivers would swell making it hard to cross them

• b) In the summer china would be able to help Pakistan, therefore, India may have to fight the
war on multiple fronts.

• c) USA was not that heavily involved in Vietnam after Jhonson's presidency (1963-69)
therefore may come to the aid of Pakistan, its military ally.

• d) Also India did not have a military alliance with USSR as we followed NAM, therefore no
assurance of military help.

• Further India should not be seen as an aggressor by the International community (Can lead
to sanctions)

• Therefore we decided till winter also Indira Gandhi began raising awareness internationally
on genocide by Pakistan and refugee issues faced by India. Also, India began operation
jackpot where India decided to support Mukti Vahini with arms, training, and money. So the
people of East Pakistan could fight their war on their own

• Meanwhile USSR offered and we agreed to sign, a Treaty of Friendship, peace, and
Cooperation, in 1971 that led to a form of military alliance (* USSR did not want South Asia
under the domination of the US and its allies i.e. Pakistan and China). [** US- china were
friends since 1971 and the US agreed to UNSC seat to the Chinese communist party]

• Finally, Pakistan attacked on 3rd December 1971 and India was well-prepared.

• India immediately recognized Bangladesh. Also, Pakistan, implemented an Air blockade in

the Indian Air space, therefore cutting off supplies from West Pakistan to East Pakistan.

• The US brought two resolutions to UNSC for a ceasefire but USSR vetoed them, therefore
buying India time.

• The US wanted China to intervene but China did not respond as did not want direct war with
USSR.

• The US started Gunboat diplomacy i.e. use of naval powers and resources to threaten
others. The US sent a Naval fleet to the Bay of Bengal/ Indian Ocean and in response, USSR
also sent its fleet, therefore again buying time for India. However, now also the threat of a
nuclear war.

RESULT (05:25 PM)

• Pakistan was defeated in 13 days. It was a big humiliation to Pakistan as the Pakistan army in
East Pakistan was made to surrender in Public at the Dacca race course where 93000
surrendered on 16th December 1971.

• India regained military pride. Also, it was a big strategic victory as two fronts with Pakistan
ended. [* Imagine East Pakistan supporting insurgency or ethnic conflict in North East or
threatening Chicken Neck Corridor, also it nullified two front war].

• The secular credentials of India were reaffirmed as we helped Muslim Majority East Pakistan.
Also, it was a big blow to the two-nation theory as the creation of Bangladesh negated the
creation of Pakistan as a nation on the basis of religion in 1947. [* Language and culture
defeated religion].

• Mujib-ur-Rahman declared 4 principles that would guide Bangladesh in the future. [* NDSS]

• a) Nationalism- [* Linguistic nationalism was suppressed as part of Pakistan]

• b) Democracy- [* Election results were not respected by West Pakistan]

• c) Socialism- [* East Pakistan was poor and neglected by West Pakistan]

• d) Secularism-[* Hindus and Muslims of East Pakistan did together during and after
Operation Searchlight, therefore secularism in the future, also Bangladesh for Bangla
speakers and not for just Muslims.]

• Sheikh Abdulla in J&K realized that no use in confrontation with the Government of India,
therefore Indira-Sheikh Agreement of 1974 where he gave up plebiscite demand and agreed
to autonomy as provided by Article 370.

• Political Gains in India for Indira Gandhi

• Shimla agreement, 2nd July 1972-

• It was signed between Indira Gandhi and Bhutto and it was much more than a peace treaty
as not just an exchange of Prisoners of war (PoWs) but also the withdrawal of troops from
each other's occupied areas.

• Pakistan also recognized Bangladesh but also aimed at the blueprint for peaceful coexistence
by providing guiding principles for Indo-Pak relations [* Therefore like Panchsheel with
China]

• a) Territorial respect for each other's territorial integrity, unity, and political independence

• b) Sovereign equality

• c) Non-interference in international affairs

• d) Take all aspects to prevent Hostile propaganda

• e) Peaceful resolution of all issues vias direct bilateral talks or by any other peaceful means
mutually agreed upon [* i.e. Third party can be there if India-Pakistan both agree] [** In
diplomacy, options are kept alive- Example- If in future foreign intervention in India's favour
then we may be open to it]
 • 1949 ceasefire line was replaced by the ceasefire line on 17th December 1971 and named
LoC. 740 km LoC was to be the de-facto border not to be altered unilaterally or by force.
Also, LoC to be inviolable i.e. can not be violated in any circumstance.

• Pending permanent settlements, both shall prevent the organization and encouragement of
any act that hurt peaceful relations [* Therefore, Kargil, support to Khalistanis and to
terrorists is a legal violation by Pakistan]

• CBMs like promoting people-to-people contact, & open communication via post, telegraph,
land, air, sea & cross border movement, & improved trade & cultural contact, & science and
technology cooperation [* Link Lahore Bus yatra, Samjhauta express, Kartartpur corridor &
Sarabjit able to write letters to India & Indian businessman visiting Pakistan and vice versa &
World cup match to be held in Gujarat.]

LAHORE AGREEMENT, 1999 (06:12 PM)

• Commitment to goals and objectives of SAARC, 1985 [* i.e. Dream of a Possible European
Union]

• Prevent Nuclear war and Nuclear proliferation [* Both Nuclear weapon states since 1988],
therefore both agreed to the principle of universal nuclear disarmament and non-
proliferation.

• Condemnation of terrorism in all forms. Also, commitment to human rights and freedom.
Also, to Implement Shimla Agreement 1972 in letter and spirit

• Question- Examine reasons that forced India to play a decisive role in the emergence of
Bangladesh.

• Question- Unlike the 1965 war, the 1962 and 1971 wars were decisive. Analyze.

JP MOVEMENT, 1973-1980 (06:44 PM)

• Indira Gandhi wanted to eliminate poverty but the challenge was big due to high war
expenditure due to 3 wars in a decade. Also, 1972-73 were drought years and this led to
economic slowdown and unemployment & inflation.

• The global oil crisis of 1973 led to imported inflation that rose as high as 22%.

• Yom Kippur War 1973 between Israel v/s Egypt, and Syria (1948 Arab-Israel War, 1956 Suez
war, 1967- Six-day war involving Arab countries and Israel ). Gulf countries reduced oil supply
to hurt Israel and its allies and this led to Fuel inflation that hurt the Middle class.

• Also, corruption cases and unemployment increased anger in Urban areas.

• The biggest strike in the history of India took place i.e. All India railway strike as inflation was
22% in May 1974 therefore corruption, unemployment, inflation, and the authoritarian
leadership of Indira Gandhi (* 42th CAA) contributed to the JP movement 1973-1980.

• The ideology of the JP movement

• It was a fight for the revival of values in society and to end the system that forced everyone
to be corrupt. This is called total revolution by JP (* Link Anna Hazare movement)

• Events
• 1973, Patna- JP came out of political retirement and gave a call to the youth to fight against
dishonesty in society

• 1974, Gujarat- Students began protests in January 1974. JP gave leadership and later other
political parties also joined with the demand of the dissolution of the assembly and fresh
polls. Centre dissolved the Gujarat Legislative Assembly but instead of fresh elections,
applied the president's rule. Now old Morarji Desai began fast unto death forcing Indira
Gandhi to declare elections which were won by candidates supported by JP.

• 1974, Bihar- Like Gujarat, JP took leadership of students who were protesting for the
dissolution of the legislative assembly and fresh polls, inspired by Gujarat's success. JP's plan
was to win state after state. However, Indira Gandhi did not accept demands.

• Now JP gave the call to Total Revolution 1974 against the corruption and authoritarianism of
Indira Gandhi and also demanded that people don't pay taxes and that they set up parallel
governments [* Recall no Tax campaign and parallel governments during pre-1857 revolts
and QIM 1942-45].

• In Bihar, people stopped paying taxes and set up parallel governments.

• However, by the end of 1974, Movement declined and youth went back to college as Indira
Gandhi did not accept demands. Also, there was a poor organization and movement did not
attract the poor, and participation was limited to students, the Middle class, and the
intelligentsia. [* Recall Struggle-Truce-Struggle of Mahatma Gandhi where Truce was
because the masses got tired if demands were unmet]

• Allahabad HC judgment in June 1975 re-ignited the JP movement. HC invalidated the

elections of Indira Gandhi on grounds of misuse of official machinery.

• SC gave partial relief as Indira Gandhi was allowed to continue as PM but disallowed from
voting as MP until the final decision.

• Now JP gave a call for Daily protests. Also on 25th June in a rally in Delhi, JP asked Army,
police, civil servants, and people to stop obeying the government orders and to follow the
constitution of India.

• He also declared that on 29th June will start the Civil disobedience movement, therefore on
midnight of 26th June 1975. emergency applied under Article 352 on grounds of internal
disturbances which further ignited JP's movement.

• Oppression during the emergency of 1975-77 led to public anger and Indira Gandhi lost the
1977 election. [* 1967- Big loss in states, 1977- loss at centre]

• Janta Party, which was created by merging opposition parties won, and finally, Morarji Desai
became PM.

• This government was unstable due to conflicting political ideologies and fell in 1980 before 5
years.

• The Janta party split in 1980 led to the creation of the BJP (Bhartiya Janta Party).

• Therefore JP movement ended with the victory of Indira Gandhi in the 1980 elections. The
government had failed to meet the objectives of the JP movement
 • JP movement failed due to (07:25 PM)

• a) Ideological difference between opposition parties who joined the movement

• b) Goal got limited to the overthrow of the Indira Gandhi movement instead of social change
or total revolution

• c) Flawed method of advocating Anarchy. Example- Government officials and the Army
disobeying elected government could have hurt democratic institutions and the spirit of the
Constitution of India.

• d) No viable alternative as JP's Idea of party-less democracy with power only in the hands of
people [* Parallel governments, can link with village republics of Mahatma Gandhi] in
practice meant chaos.

• e) Limited social base as the poor did not participate.

• Question- Critically examine the JP movement regarding its ideology, goals, and methods.

EMERGENCY (07:34 PM)

• Trigger was Allahabad HC judgment in the case of Raj Narain v/s Indira Gandhi, June 1975
where the election petition against Indira Gandhi for misuse of the election machinery.
Example- use of PWD and some government officials as poll agents.

• Indira Gandhi was disqualified for six years from holding any elected office. Indira Gandhi's
supporters felt she has been removed as PM for crossing a red light/ traffic offence as she
had won by 1 lakh votes. Sanjay Gandhi held rallies in her support.

• SC gave partial relief- can continue as PM but can't vote as MP. Opposition and the press
wanted her to resign. On the day of the SC judgment, JP gave a call for Daily protests and
asked Army, police, Civil servants, and people to stop obeying the government, therefore on
the 26th of June emergency was applied without the knowledge of the Council of Ministers.

• Government Rationale-

• Economic crisis- Growing recession, Unemployment, and inflation. Also, there was a
monsoon failure in 1972-73. Also, the 1971 war depleted forex reserves. Also global oil crisis,
of 1973 and the Rising public anger example- The all India railway strike, in May 1974 and the
JP movement that threatened internal stability

• Fear of external powers taking benefit of internal instability to further destabilize India.

• Some argue that Indira Gandhi wanted major changes in the Constitution of India, therefore
applied emergency. Example- 42nd CAA 1976.

• During an emergency (07:44 PM)

• Initially, acceptance among the public as Law and order improved. Also, anti-social elements
were arrested. Also, the efficiency of administration was improved. Also, there was an
improvement in the economy due to the good monsoon. Masses also felt that emergency
was applied as per the Constitution of India.

• Also, 20 point program by Indira Gandhi was focused on the land ceiling and re-distribution,
abolition of bonded labour, reduction of prices etc
 • However, later economic growth did not sustain, the authoritarian behaviour of government
officials, misuse of preventive detention i.e. arrests, anger against the suspension of
elections & president's rule in non-congress states, press censorship, Suspension of
Fundamental Rights, 42nd CAA December 1976 that hurt independence of the judiciary, a
ban on organizations like RSS, Jamat-e-Islami, etc, Forced slum clearances by Sanjay Gandhi
and forced sterlisation campaign by Sanjay Gandhi & cases of even double sterilization and
political opponents got sterilized

• Result of emergency

• Indira Gandhi lost the 1977 elections and the Janta Party government set up the Shah
Commission to fix accountability for atrocities during an emergency.

• 44th CAA reversed most changes of the 42nd CAA. Also, now internal emergencies under
Article 352, are only on the grounds of armed rebellion and not on the ground of internal
disturbances. Also, the cabinet must give in writing the advice to impose an emergency to
President.

• However with time Janta Party failed to issues of the people and the masses felt that the
Shah commission was doing witch-hunting Indira Gandhi was already punished with a loss in
1977, therefore Indira Gandhi won the 1980 elections.

ASSAM NATIONALIST MOVEMENT, 1975-1985 (08:01 PM)

• Reasons

• Migration of Bengalis since 1947 continued even after the creation of Bangladesh due to the
poor economy therefore fear of immigrants @ jobs, land grabs, economic capture, cultural
subjugation, and political domination among Assamese. Example- Important issue of the
faulty voter list.

• Assamese felt that since the British era, their natural resources and economy benefitted
outsiders. Exam- Assam tea garden was owned by foreigners and local trade was under
outsiders, and oil though extracted in Assam was refined outside Assam hurting employment
potential in Assam.

• Peaceful protests, 1975- 1979- It failed

• All Assam Student's Union, 1979 (AASU) now began violent protests and demanded-

• a) Stop immigration of Bangladeshi, and Deport those already present

• b) Bring new economic policy for Assam so natives of Assam benefit from their natural
resources.

• c) Greater participation in administration i.e. reservation for natives and administrative

autonomy.

• Result

• Assam Accords 1985 by Rajeev Gandhi settled movement led by AASU (ULFA 1979, and Bodo
movement came later)
 • For foreigners- Those who came before 1961 to have all citizenship rights, 1961-71- to have
all citizenship rights except the right to vote for 10 years, and 1971+ - to be declared illegal
immigrants and to be deported. [* 25th March 1971]

• For economy- A second oil refinery, a Paper Mill, and IIT Guwahati were announced

• For culture- Promise of administrative and legislative safeguards for cultural identities and
heritage

• Assam Gana Parishad was set up as a political party and Prafulla Mahanta of AASU 1979
became CM at the age of 32.

• ULFA 1979 was majorly active after 1983 when huge malpractice of faulty voter lists was
revealed again after 1978. Its method was an armed insurgency and its goal was pre-1826
status when there was Ahom kingdom i.e. Full independence.

• 1992- ULFA declared that their movement is for all natives of Assam and not just
Assamese. 2011- ULFA signed the ceasefire.

• Today following demands for statehood from Assam- Bodoland, Karbi-Anglong, Dimaland,
Kamtapur- they have a sixth scheduled Autonomous council at present.

The Topic for the next class:- Issue of Khalistan.

Summary

Post Independence India Class 07

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:00 PM)

KASHMIR CRISIS (05:07 PM)

• After the 1971 war, the Indira- Sheikh Agreement 1974, therefore Shiekh Abdulla came to
power in 1975. He was old, therefore on the advice of Indira Gandhi declared Farrukh
Abdulla as his Successor.

• In 1982, upon the death of Sheikh Abdulla, Farrukh Abdulla came to power. But during the
elections, he took an Anti-congress stand instead of being in a coalition. Now brother-in-law,
Gulam M D Shah removed Farrukh Abdulla from power by doing a coup within the party.

• However, Gulam M D Shah raised communal tensions. Example- In Jammu, he declared his
desire to construct a mosque in the vicinity of a temple, and in Kashmir, he began
propaganda that Islam is under threat from non-muslims. Now communal violence began
and with it exodus of Hindus

• Gulam M D Shah was removed as CM and Farrukh Abdulla was reinstated. But he was not
able to manage the crisis. Further, Hizbul Mujahideen and JKLF escalated communal violence
and killings. They also forced Kashmiri Pandits to leave Kashmir.

• 1986 onwards, the president rule in J&K on and off.

PUNJAB CRISIS (05:19 PM)

•
 Punjab Crisis

Central Government
Electoral Politics and
The demand of Sikh Religion o Akali Dal
Modern Indian
majority states within
history- Akali Dal Anandpur Sahib o Khalistan
India
Resolution
o Bhindrawale

• Akali movement, 1920-25-

• For getting control of Gurudwaras from Udasi Sikh Mahants to people. After this movement,
Akali Dal came to exist as a party with a focus on Sikhism.

• Post-1947, Akali Dal led the Punjabi Suba Civil movement for a Sikh-majority state within
India (the 1950s- 1960s). Example- Master Tara Singh argued that a Sikh organization should
be ruling Punjab.

• The demand of Sikh majority state within India

• State Reorganisation Commission 1955 report rejected the demand as it was based on
religion. Also, there was no critical difference were there between Punjabi and Hindi for
reorganization on the basis of language. There was concern about national unity since
Punjab shared borders with Pakistan and the recent partition on the basis of religion.

• Under the State Reorganisation Act 1956, Punjab was expanded by adding PEPSU States (The
Patiala and East Punjab States Union= Princely states during the British era clubbed post-
1947). Therefore, Punjab was a three-language state- Punjabi, Hindi, Pahari, and Sikh were
not in the majority.

• Indira Gandhi created Punjab as a Sikh-majority state in 1966 due to

• a) Demands continued by Akalis.

• b) Rising demand for Harayana by Hindi Speaking community.

• c) Sant Fateh Singh assured that demand is linguistic and not communal. [* No anti-Hindu
policy or politics post-reorganization]

• There was no agreement on Chandigarh to Punjab and Fazilka and Pabohar to Haryana as
negotiations failed therefore Chandigarh was made a common capital and an Union territory

• However, Akalis still unable to get the majority and had to form a coalition government in the
1967 elections. Also in 1971, the Rival Congress formed a government in Punjab. This was
because 25% of Sikhs were Mazhabi Sikhs (Dalits) who were not vote base of Akali dal.

Punjab

60% Sikh

o Out of this 25% were 40% Hindus

Mazhabi Sikhs
 • Therefore Akalis gave Anandpur Sahib resolution, in October 1973 to consolidate sikh votes
where they demanded

• a) Chandigarh to Punjab

• b) Punjabi Speaking Areas of other states to Punjab

• c) Resolve grievances @ River water sharing with Haryana and Rajasthan

• d) More Sikhs in the army

• e) Protection of Sikh Culture

• f) Amend the Constitution of India to bring real federalism i.e. Centre's interference in states
to be limited to defence, foreign affairs, currency, and some aspects of general
administration. [* A regional party or a minority party always demands Federalism because
can be in power in the state not usually at the centre]

• g) Political goal was defined as autonomy within India but in Preamble- "Akali dal is a
representative of a Sikh Nation" [* Nation= People who feel one, Country= Territory, State=
Organization] [* Deamand was similar to Article 370]

• [** Recall Syed Ahmad Khan- Hindus and Muslims are two separate quams].

• During the emergency 1975-77, Akalis were imprisoned and won the 1977 elections and
revived demands of Anandpur Sahib Resolution 1973.

RISE OF JARNAIL SINGH BHINDRAWALE (06:13 PM)

• 1978- Nirankaris were to hold a public meeting in Amritsar and Bhindrawale was leading
opposition to this meeting (Nirankaris consider themselves Sikhs but believed in a living guru
therefore regarded as heretics by other Sikhs). Motivated by his hate speech in Golden
Temple, a Sikh crowd attacked the meeting and 15 died.

• Personality of Bhindrawale

• An inspiring creature who had a deep knowledge of Sikh Scriptures.

• He left his family to head a seminary called Damdami Taksal.

• He wanted Sikhs to purify themselves and go back to the "Golden Past" ( * i.e. Spoke against
the consumption of Alcohol, and tobacco, not maintaining 5 Ks, etc) [* Current affairs-
Amritpal Singh- earlier he had no long hair but later he started keeping long hair]

• He raised political tensions- For example- He argued that Sikhs are discriminated against by
Hindus and are slaves in India

• Some argue that he was cultivated by Sanjay Gandhi and Gyani Zail Singh to counter Akalis by
creating bigger religious icons to cut the vote base of Akalis. Whoever promoted him, he
later displayed his own charisma

• Major Events

• Some lower Sikh castes of Artisans and labourers became followers as saw purification as a
path for social mobility. [* Upper caste is upper because follows religion in a purer manner]
 • Many Jat peasants joined him as he argued that the Green Revolution benefitted mainly big
landlords.

• There was a general increase in religiosity due to the unexpected economic benefits of the
green revolution that aided Bhindrawale.

• 1980- Sikh Pride of some sections hurt as Akalis lost and Congress came to power.

• June 1980- Khalistan was proclaimed by a group of students in Golden Temple. Their
president Jagjeet Singh Chauhan was in London and this declaration was also made in the
UK, USA, and Canada.

• But the main concern of the Government of India was Akali who began protesting for
Anandpur Sahib Resolution 1973 under new leader Longowal who operated from Golden
Temple.

• Bhindrawale also operated from Golden Temple and kept armed followers who on his orders
engaged in killings. Therefore in the 1980s, protests by Akalis and killings by Bhindrawale
followers.

• Gurcharan Singh, leader of Nirankari was shot dead in Delhi in April 1980.

• Also on 9th September 1981- Lala Jagat Narayan, editor of Punjab Kesari who was writing
against communal politics, was shot dead.

• Still, Bhindrawale was not arrested. [* Lesson- current affairs- Before Such a situation,
Amritpal was arrested]. Finally, when arrested, Gyani Zail Singh ensured that only Sikh
policemen were used.

• Violent protests led to his release on grounds of lack of evidence. This was a turning point in
his popularity as the perception that he defeated the Indian state/ Government.

• 1982- Negotiations on the Anandpur Sahib resolution between the Government of India and
Akalis failed. Therefore in 1983, Akali MLAs resigned hinting at disloyalty to the constitution
of India.

• This was the product of competition for sikh support, with Bhindrawale.

EVENTS POST 1982 (07:05 PM)

• 25th April 1983- DIG, A S Atwal was shot dead in Golden Temple and his body could not be
picked up for hours therefore, police morale crashed. Also, now Bank robberies began. Also,
the exodus of Hindus began. Therefore, centuries-old Hindu-Sikh unity started collapsing

• Bhindrawale stated that Sikhs are a separate community [* link Sir Syed Ahmad Khan]. He did
not demand Khalistan but stated that he "Won't refuse if offered".

• He also attacked the Government of India. Example- Called Indira Gandhi as Pandityain. He
decided to won't go to meet the PM and stated that She can come if she wants to meet.

• He also raised communalism. Example- Cited history of Sikh where 40 fought 10000 when
Mughals tried to destroy Gurus.

• He also argued that Israel of Jews can keep away so many Arabs then Sikhs can fight Hindus.
• October 1983- Hindus were removed from a Bus and were shot dead and the next day,
President's rule was enforced.

• By the end of 1983- Bhindrawale took residence in Akal Takht which had great symbolic value
as second in importance only to Golden Temple, and from here, Gurus gave Hukumnamas,
Guru Govind Singh here compiled Guru Granth Sahib. And Sikh warriors took blessing here
before fighting the Mughals.

• 3rd June 1984- Operation Bluestar (07:22 PM)

• Due to fear of Bhindrawale proclaiming Khalistan being eminent, the Army was sent in. 100s
of Army men were killed. Also, 100s of Bhindrawale's supporters and Bhindrwale were
killed.

• Golden Temple complex was damaged and tanks were used.

• Huge communal violence followed and even neutral youth joined militancy.

• Indira Gandhi was killed by a bodyguard on 31st October 1984.

• Anti-sikh riots in Delhi where police remained inactive for 3 days

• Agitation by Akalis led to Punjab Accords/ Rajiv-Longowal Accords 1985 on Anandpur Sahib
Resolution 1973, but this was not fully implemented. For example- Chandigarh was not given
to Punjab.

• 1987-1991- President's rule

• 1988- Operation Blackthunder.

• After Operation Bluestar and the assassination of Indira Gandhi believed that the
Government of India won't ever Golden Temple again, therefore took Safe haven in Golden
Temple.

• Much better planned on the basis of effective intelligence and without any damage to
Golden Temple, militants were flushed out, and leaders of militants neutralized.

• 1992 elections.

• It was won by Congress due to low voter turnout and now K P S Gill, an IPS was given a free
hand.

• Gill Doctrine- People don't support militants. They support stronger factions as they fear for
their own security. Therefore, police should demonstrate they are more powerful. He was
ruthless and eliminated militancy.

• The leadership of Militants was targeted and eliminated but in this process, there were
allegations of rape and murder of civilians. Therefore civilians suffered at the hands of
militants as well as police.

• Question- In the context of the Punjab crisis, it can be argued that Language, Religion, and
Regionalism combined into an explosive situation that the political elites struggled to
contain. Examine. (150 words/10 marks)

• [* Regionalism- Region demanded historically as sikh State+ Rivers + Issue of chandigarh].

RAJIV GANDHI ERA (07:47 PM)

• READ FROM THE HANDOUT

• In 1986-87, Rajiv Gandhi Govt set up six technology Missions (headed by Sam Pitroda) to
tackle some of India's fundamental problems.

• The focus areas were: Rural drinking water, Literacy, Immunisation, Edible oils,
Telecommunications, and Dairy production.

• Rajiv Gandhi did not want India to miss the ICT revolution.

• He also started Jawahar Rozgar Yojana which became MGNREGA later.

• He started "Operation Blackboard" and came up with the New Education policy in 1986.

• He gave extra focus to diplomacy. He established a separate ministry for the environment. He
set up a planet protection fund.

• Anti-defection law was brought in his era.

• Proposal for constitutional recognition for grassroots governance.

• He created an Africa Fund. He also spoke against Apartheid and Colonialism.

• China and Nepal came closer and it became a challenge for India-Nepal relations.

• November 1988- Operation Cactus in the Maldives.

• Sri Lankan Civil War.

• Kargil War 1999

• 1984- Operation Meghdoot- India took control of Siachen

• 1998- Pokharan test

The syllabus of post-Independence India got completed.