a Definition of Set A set is a well defined collection of objects and these objects are termed as the members or elements of the set. But we need to elaborate on the term “well-defined” it means that each element bears certain characteristics with which it can be identified under a particular head. For example (i) The set {a, e, i} belongs to family of vowels (ii) The set {1, 2, 3, 4} belongs to natural numbers (N). Set Notation The two most common way of expressing a set are: (i) Roster, Tabular or Enumeration Form In this method all the elements are listed within braces { } or brackets [ ] or parentheses () separated by commas. For example All natural numbers less than six can be written as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} 1ay ‘Set builder Form In this method all the elements are listed according to characteristics or properties For example () The Set A= fa, ¢, i, 0, u} can be written as A= (x | x is vowel in English alphabet} or A= (c:x is vowel in English alphabet} (i) The Set B= (1, 3, 5, Town) can be written as B= {x | xis a odd number integer} Note: A Colon (), a vertical line (|) or a semi colon (;) can be used after x and read as “such that” ‘Types of Set w ay (uy (iw) Finite set A set in countable form is @ finite set and it means each element can be counted physically. For example Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5) is a finite set with five elements. Infinite set ‘A set in uncountable form is an infinite set. The elements in the set cannot be counted. For example ‘The set of natural numbers (N) AR, 2,3,00) Null, empty or void set A set which has no elements is called as null, empty or void set denoted by (0) and read as phi in Greek and Latin For example Set A= {0} is a null set. Singleton set ‘A set containing only one element is called as singleton set. For example Set A= {1}w ro) (wit) (wid) Equality of sets ‘Two sets A and B are termed equal if only if every element of Set A is also an element of Set B and also every element of Set B is an clement of Set A i.e. A= B if only if (x ¢ A and x € B). Also called as Axiom of Extension or Axiom of Identity For example If Set A= (2, 3, 4} and Set B = (4, 3, 2}. Here Set A = Set B because both sets have common and equal numbers of elements. Equivalent set If the elements of one set can be set to one-one correspondence with the elements of other set, then the sets are called equivalent set denoted by the symbol -. Here we mean by one-one correspondence is that each element in Set A can be matched with one element in B and vice-versa. For example Set A= (fa, b, cj and Set B = fx, y, 2}, here set Ais not equal to set B but the elements of Set A can be put into one-one correspondence with each elements of Set B then Set A ~ Set B. Subset If A and B are two sets such that every element of Set A is also an element of Set B then Set A is said to be a subset of Set B or read as “Set A is contained in Set B” or “Set A is a subset of Set B” We can write this relationship as AS B or B 2 A, i.e. it means if xeAand ASB thenxe B For example Set A= {1, 2, 3) and Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then all elements of Set Aare also elements of Set B which means AS B Properties of Subsets (If Set A is subset of Set B then Set B is called the super set of Set A. (i) If Set A ¢ Set B and Set B & Set A then Set A = Set B. (iil) If Set A S Set B, Set BS Set C then Set AS Set C Proper Subset A Set A is called proper subset of a Set B, if each and every element of Set A are contained in Set B and there exists at least(x) # (xi) one element in Set B such that it is not an element of Set A. Symbolically denoted as A ¢ B For example IfSet A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} here Set A is a proper subset of Set B. Comparable Sets ‘Two set A and B are said to be comparable if one of them is the subset of the other i.e. AS Bor BS A. Non Comparable Sets ‘Two set A and B are said to be non-comparable, if there exists and one element in Set A which is not in Set B and one element in Set B which is not in Set A. Symbolically denoted by A ¢ Band Be A. For example Set A= (1, 2, 3} and Set B = (3, 4, 5} then both the sets are said to be non-comparable. Disjoint sets Set A and Set B are said to be disjoint. If no element of set A is in B and no element of set B is in A. For example If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {4, 5, 6}, then there is no common elements between Set A and Set B. Set of sets or family of sets If the elements of a set are sets themselves then it is called set of sets or family of sets. For example If Set A= {1, 2} then, The Set = (9, {1}, (2), (1, 2}) is a family of sets whose elements are subset of A, Power set If for a given Set A, a set consisting of all the subsets of A is called the power of the set. The power set this is denoted by P(A). For example If Set A= {1, 2} then P (A) = {@}, (1), (2), (1, 2}.Note: Suppose a set contains ‘n’ elements then 2x subsets can be formed. The set consisting of these 2» subsets is called power set. (xiv) Universal Set Ifeach set is a subset of some other set. A set which is superset of all the sets under consideration is called as Universal set and is denoted by U. For example If Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4) and set B = {5, 6, 7} then both sets A and B are subsets of the universal set of natural number. Union of Set (Set Operation) If A and B are two sets then the union of Set A and Set B is the set consisting of either all the elements of Set A or Set B or both and denoted by “A UB” and read as A union B or A cup B ie, AU B= (x: x eAorx €B orx « both A and B} For example If'Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4} and Set B = (4, 5, 6, 7} then AUB={1, 2,3, 4,5, 6,7} And hence the union of two Sets A and B is the logical sum of A and B where each element is written only once. Properties of Union of Sets (i) If Set A and Set B are two sets then A U Bis also a unique set For example If Set A= {1, 2, 3} and Set B= (3, 4, 5) Therefore, A UB = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is also a set. (i) Commutative Property Union of set is commutative i. then AUB=BUA For example If Set A= {1, 2, 3) and Set B = (3, 4, 5}, then AUB={1, 2,3, 4, 5}. Similarly BUA=8,4,5,1,2) . if Set A and Set B are two sets(iti) = (1,2,3, 4,5) =AUB Clearly AUB=BUA Alternative Proof Union of sets is Communicative i. if Set A and Set B are two sets then AUB=BUA. In order to prove AUB=BUA, We first prove that AUB BU Aand then BU AS AUB, if both of them holds good then AUB=BUA. Let xe any element belongs to A u B. Sox€AUB => x€AorxeB = x€BorxeA = x€BUA SoAUBS BUA vores (I) Again let’s assume y be an element such that yeBUA => yeBoryeA = yeAoryeB => yEAUB SoOBUAS AUB vesssesn (2) From (1) and (2) we get AUB S BUA and BUAS AUB, therefore we get AUB=BUA. Union of sets is associative i.e. If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets then AU (B UC) = (A UB) UC For example If Set A= (1, 2, 3}, Set B= (3, 4, 5} and Set C= {5, 6}, then (AUB)= (1, 2,3, 4, 5) Therefore (AUB) UC= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) U5, 6) = (1, 2,3, 4,5, 6) Similarly, BUC = 3,4, 5,6ts) Therefore, Av BUC)={1, 2,3) U8, 4,5, 6} =(1,2,3,4,5, 6) and hence, AU(BUC) = (AUB)UC Alternate Proof If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets then AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC Let x be an element which belongs to A U (BUC) Then x€AU (BUC), = x€Aorx€ (BUC) = x € Aor (x € Borxe C) = (k€ Aorxe B)orxeC = xe (AUB)UC Thus, AU (BUC) = (AUB)UC. IfSet Aisa set, then AUS = where @ isa null set For example IfSet A= (1, 2, 3}, then AU O = (1, 2,3} U (Q} =11,2,3) =A Alternate Proof If Set A is any set then AU@=A Let x be any element such that x € A U @ then x € A or x € @ but { @ } being null set therefore x ¢ {0}, thus x € A. Hence AUO=A Union of sets is idempotent If Set A is any set then AUA=A. For example IfA= (1, 2, 3} then AUA®={1, 2, 3)U (1, 2, 3} =(1,2,3) =AAlternate Proof If Set A is any set then AUA=A Let x be any element so that xe AU A = XE AorxeA = xe AthusAUVA=A (vi) If Set A is a subset of universal Set U then AU U=U For example If Set U= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and Set A= {1, 2, 3} AuUu={1, 2, 3}U [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} =(1,2,3,4,5,6,7} =u (vii) If Set A and Set B are two sets such that AS B then AU B=B and ifB Athen AUB=A For example If Set A= (1, 2, 3} and Set B= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Then ASB AUB={1, 2,3) U{1, 2,3, 4, 5} =(1,2,3,4,5)*B Similarly If A = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B={1, 2,3} In this case BS A AUB={1, 2,3, 4, 5}U U1, 2, 3} AUB={1,2,3,4,5}=A Alternate Proof IFA and B are two sets then AG AU Band BC AUB let x be any element of the Set A such that xEA@ xE€AorxeB x€(AUB) OASAUB Similarly B ¢ AUB can be proved.Intersection of Sets Let A and B are two sets then intersection set of Set A and Set B is the set which consist of common elements which belongs to both A and B denoted by A 1 B and read as “ A Cap B ” or “A intersection B”. Symbolically represented as ANB={x:x € Aandx € B} Otherwise ifx ¢ ANB => xe Aandx ¢ B For example If Set A= {1, 2, 3} and Set B= (3, 4, 5} then AN B= 3} ‘The Venn diagram representation is shown below as: AOB s Properties of Intersection of Sets The following are the properties which hold with respect to intersection of sets (i) Communicative Property Intersection of sets is communicative i.e. if Set A and Set B are two sets then ANB=BNA For example IfSet A= {1, 2, 3) and Set B= (3, 4, 5} then ANB = (1, 2, 3} (3, 4, 5} = Gh Similarly, BNA=(3,4, 50 (1, 2, 3} = 8).Therefore AN B= BOA. Alternative Proof Let x ¢ ANB then x ¢ AandxeB @ x ¢ Bandxe Aie. xe BNA. Hence AN B= BOA. (il) Associative Property ‘The intersection of sets are associative ie. if Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets then (ANB) NC=AN BNC. For example IfSet A= 1, 2, 3, 4}, Set B = (3, 4, 5} and Set C = {4, 5, 6} ‘Then ANB= (1, 2,3, 4) (3, 4, 5} 6,4). Hence (ANB) NC = 3, 4} 0 14, 5, 6} - Similarly, BNC=8, 4,5} 014, 5,6) = (4, 5 Hence, AN BNC)=11,2,3,4)9 4,5} =) ‘Therefore (AN B)NC=AN(BNC) Alternative Proof: Let x ¢ (ANB) NC & thenx ¢ (ANB) and x eC © (¢ Aandx ¢ B)andx eC © x ¢ Aand (x € Bandx € C) @ xe ANBNC). Hence (AN B)NC=ANBNC). (ii) Idempotent Property The intersection of sets is idempotent i.e. if Set A is any set, then ANA=A(iv) For example IfSet A= (1, 2, 3, 4) then ANA=8, 2, 3, 4.01, 2,3, 4} 1, 2, 3, 4} =A Alternative Proof Let x be any element such that x ¢ A) A, then @ x € A and KEA oxea Hence AN A= A. If Set A is any set then A 1 @ = @, @ is the null set For example IfSet A= (1, 2, 3,4) and @={ } then, AN@=11,2,3, 4196) tt =o. If Set A is any set subset of an Universal Set U then ANU =A For example If Set U = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) and Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4} then ANU = {1, 23,4, 5, 6,7) (1,2, 3, 4} = (1, 2,3, 4} =A Alternative Proof Let x be any element such that x ¢ A => x ¢ Aand x € U since ASU Therefore x ¢ ANU, And hence AS ANU But ANUSA ... From 1 and 2, we get, A=ANU.(vi) If A and B are disjoint sets then ANB = For example if Set A= (1, 2, 3, 4) and Set B = {5, 6, 7} then AN B= {1, 2,3, 4) (5, 6,7} -@ (vii) IF Set A and Set B are two sets then AN BGA and ANBEB As A B contains only those elements which are in common A as well as in B, Therefore AN BSA and ANBSB. For example IfSet A= (1, 2, 3, 4) and Set B = (3, 4, 5, 6) ANB={1, 2,3, 4}, 4, 5, 6) = (3, 4} which is a subset of Set A and Set B Alternative Proof Let x be any element such that x ¢ ANB then x ¢ Aandx ¢ B © x € Aas ANBGA. Similarly the other part AN B&B can also bbe proved in similar manner. Distributive Laws of Unions and Intersections Result 1 If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets, then. AN (BUC) =(ANB)UANC) If Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4}, Set B= {3, 4, 5} and Set C = (4, 5, 6} Then BUC 84,50 4,5, 6) =8,4,5, 6) AN BUC ={1,2,3, 4,083, 4, 5, 6) 3,4) Similarly, (ANB)= (1, 2,3, 4398, 4, 5) = 8,4) and (ANC)= 11,234), 5, 6) =‘Thus, ANB YUANG=8,4) U4) = 8, 4) ‘Therefore AN (BUC) = (ANB) U (ANC) Alternative Proof Let x be any element belonging to AN (BU C), then, xEAN(BUC) @xeAandxe (BUC) © xe Aand (x Borx eC) © (x « Aandx ¢ B)or (x ¢ Aandx ¢ C) © xe (ANB) or xe (ANC) © xe (ANB)JU(ANC) Hence AN (BUC) = (ANB)U(ANC) Result 2 If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets, then AU(BNC)=(AUB)N (AUC) IfSet A= {1, 2, 3, 4}, Set B= {3, 4, 5} and Set C = (4, 5, 6} Then BNO=8,4,5}014,5, 6 = (4,5) and AU(BNC)=11, 2,34) 4,5} =(12,3,4,5) Similarly (AUB) =(1,2,3, 4013, 4,5} =(1,2,3,4,5) (AUC =, 2,3, 4)U 14, 5, 6 = (1, 2,3, 4,5, 6 ‘Then (A UB) 9 (AUC) = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) = (1, 2,3, 4, 5} ‘Therefore A U (BNC) = (AU B)N(AUC}Alternative Proof Let x be any element belonging to A U (BNC), then, xe€AU(BNC) xe Aorxe (BNC) © xe Aor(x « Band x C) © © Aorx < B)and (x < Aorxe C) @ x © (AUB) and xe (AUC) © xe (AUB)N (AUG) Hence Au (BNC) = (AUB)N (AUC) Complement of a Set ‘The complement of a Set A is that set which contains all those elements of the universal set U which are not in A. The complement of set A is the set U~A and is denoted by As, A’, A or ~ A. It can symbolically written as, A =U-A=(xx¢ Uandxe A} For example If Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and the Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then A'=U-A=(6, 7,8). Properties of the Complement of Set (The intersection of Set A and its complement A’ are disjoint sets i.e. AA’ is a null set (Q} For example If the Set U = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set A= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then A=U-A=(6,7,8,9) ‘Therefore A. A'= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). (6, 7, 8, 9} =@) Alternative Proof Let x be an element such that xe ANA >xeAandxcA > xe @} (i) The union of Set A and its complement is the universal set i.e. AUA' = U, the universal set.(it) fw) ) For example If the Set U = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then A'=U-A=(6,7,8,9} ‘Therefore AU A’ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} U (6, 7, 8, 9} = (1, 2,3, 4, 5,6, 7,8, 9) = Set U. Alternative Proof As every set is the subset of the universal set, therefore A U A’ SU. Let x € U that implies x ¢ A orx c A’ => x € AU A’ Therefore USAUA. Hence AU A'=U. Complement of complement a Set A is the set itself i.e. (A! = A For example If the Set U = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then A= U-A=(6,7, 8,9} ‘Therefore (A')'= U-A'= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = Set A Alternative Proof Letxe (AY @x€N xed If the Set A is equal to the universal Set U then A’ = (9). If Set A and Set B are two sets then A-B = ANB For example If the Set U = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9}, SetA= (1, 2,3, 4,5) and Set B = (4, 5, 6, 7} then A-B={1, 2,3, 4, 5)-{4,5,6,7} = (1,2, 3), But B'- U-B=({1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8, 9}-(4, 5,6, 7} =(1,2,3,8, 9 Thus ANB’ = {1, 2, 3,4, 5} {1, 2, 3, 8, 9} = (1,2, 3) =A-BAlternate Proof letxe A-B >xeAandx¢B © xcAandxe Boxe (ANB) and hence A-B= ANB’. (vi) IfASBthenAv (B-A)-B For example If the Set B = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B-A=(1, 2,3, 4, 5,6, 7,8, 9}-(1, 2,3, 4, 5} = 6.7.8, 9}. Therefore AU (B- A) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5) Uf6, 7, 8, 9). = (1,23, 4,5, 6, 7,8, 9} -B Alternate Proof As given ASB let x € AU (B-A) @ x € Aorx € (B-A) © < Aorx ¢ B)and (x ¢ Aorxe A) © x €(AUB) and xe Bas (AUA'= Bas ASB) © xe (AUB) © xe B, hence AU (B-A)=B Difference of Sets Let Set A and Set B are two sets then the difference of Set A and B is the set which consist of those elements which belongs to A but does not belong to B denoted by A - B and read as “A difference B “or A minus B” and also denoted by A ~ B. The symbolical representation is A-B = (x:x ¢ Aandx ¢ B) similarly B-A=(x:x Bandx¢A). For example If Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4}, Set B= {3, 4, 5} then A-B= {1, 2, 3, 4-3, 4, 5} = 11, 2) Similarly B-A=(3, 4, 5}-(1, 2,3, 4}Properties of Difference of Sets f a (ii) A-A=0. For example If Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5) then A-A=(1, 2,3, 4, 5}~ (1, 2,3, 4,5) =o Alternate Proof Let x ¢ A~A then x € Aand x € A but there is no such element satisfying both the conditions and hence, there is no element belonging toA-Aie A-A=9. A-O=A. For example If Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and @ be a null set then A-O={1, 2, 3,4, 5}- Q}. = (1,2, 3, 4, 5) =A, hence A-@ =A. Alternate Proof Let x € A-@ then x € A and x € © which mean x belongs to A, since there is no element belonging to @. Conversely, x ¢ A thenx € A-@ie. A-O=A. A-B,AN Band B-A are mutually disjoint. For example If Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Set B = (4, 5, 6, 7} then, A-B =(1,2,3,4,5}- (4,5, 6,7} = 0,2, 3) ANB={1, 2,3, 4,5} 4, 5, 6,7) 14,5} and B-A=(4,5,6,7}-{1,2,3,4,5} =6.7)ow) “ Alternate Proof We need to prove that (A~B) 1 (ANB) = & Let x € (A-B) 9 (A.B) then x ¢ (A-B) and x ¢ (ANB) © (x © Aand x ¢B)and (x ¢ Aandx ¢ B) © x © Aand x ¢ as there cannot be an element satisfying both the condition ie. x ¢ B and x ¢ B) oo xe8. Similarly other results can be equally proved in the same lines. (A-B)UA=A For example If Set A= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Set B= {4, 5, 6, 7) then A-B~= (1, 2,3, 4,5}-(4,5, 6, 7) =,2,3). ‘Therefore, (A-B)UA={1, 2,3) (1, 2,3, 4, 5} (1,2, 3,4, 5}. Alternate Proof Let x belongs to (A-B)UA then x ¢ (A~B)orx xe Uand x€ (AUB) xe Uand (&« €Aor xB) © (xe U but x A) and (x © U but xB) © xe A'andx eB exe ANB Hence (AU By’ = A' 0B 24 Law Let Set A and Set B are two sets then (An BY = A'U BY For example Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4) and Set B= (6, 7,8, 9) Then (ANB)={1, 2,3, 4) (6,7, 8, 9} = 0} Now, (AnBy' = U-(ANB)={1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9-1} =11,2,3, 4,5, 6.7, 8,9}. U-A=(1,2, 3,4, 5,6, 7,8,9}- 11, 2,3, 4) =15,6.7,8,9) U-B=(1, 2,3, 4,5, 6,7, 8, 9 - (6, 7,8, 9}. =(1,2,3,4, 5) Now, A'UB'=§5, 6, 7,8, 9} U (1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = (1,2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9} ‘Therefore (A By’ = A’ UB’Alternate Proof (An By =A UB To prove the above result, let x be any element belonging to (AN By then xe (ANB) & x€ (ANB) ox€ AorxeB @xeW orxeB © xe AUB. Hence,(AN BY = A’ UB’ De Morgan’s Law on Difference of Sets A-(BUC)=(A-B)n (A-C) For example Set A= (1,2, 3,4, 5,6, 7,8, 9, Set B= (1, 2, 3, 4) and Set C= (6,7, 8, 9} Then (BUC)= (1, 2,3, 4,6, 7,8, 9} And A-(BUC)= (5) But (A - B) = (5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and (A-C) = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Therefore (A -B) 9 (A~C) = {5} Hence A~(B UC) = (A-B) A (A-O} Alternate Proof Let x be any element such that x€A-(BUC) &xeAand x ¢(BUC) @ xeAand «¢ Bor x€C} © (c € Abut xB) and (x « Abut x €C) © xe (A-B) andx ¢ (A-C) © xe (A-B)N(A-C) Hence A - (BU C) = (A-B) 0 (A-C)i) A-(BAC)=(A-B)U(A-C) For Example Set A= (1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8, 9}, Set B= {1, 2,3, 4) and Set C= {6, 7, 8, 9} Then BAC) =O And A~ (BC) = {1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6,7, 8, 9}. But (A ~ B) = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and (A~C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Therefore (A - B) U (A~C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} Hence A- (BC) = (A-B) U(A-C) Alternate Proof Let x be any element such that XEA-(BAQ @xeAand xé BAG = xeAand (x¢ Bandx¢C) © (ee Aand x¢ B)or(x ¢ Aandx¢C) © xe (A-Bjor x¢ (A-C) © xe (A-B)UIA-Q) Hence A - (BNC) = (A~-B) U(A-C). Some Important results on Difference, Union and Intersection a If Set A and Set B are two sets then AU B= (A-B) UB For example Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) and Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4) then AUB={1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8, 9} And (A-B) = (5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, then, (A-B) UB={1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8, 9} Hence AUB=(A-B)UBai) (iii) tiv) 4) If Set A and Set B are two sets then An (B - A) = (@} For example Set A= (6, 7, 8, 9} and Set B= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then (B-A) = {5}, Then, An(B-A) = (6, 7, 8, 9) {5} = Hence proved, If Set A and Set B are two sets then (A-B) nB=(Q} For example Set A= {1, 2, 3, 6, 7,8, 9} and Set B= {1, 2, 3, 4) then (A-B) = 16, 7, 8,9) Therefore (A-B)n = 16, 7, 8, 9} 041, 2, 3, 4} =} Hence proved If Set A and Set B are two sets then A-(A-B)= ANB For example Set A= 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set B= {1, 2, 3, 4 then (A-B) = 6,7, 8,9) ‘Therefore A-(A-B)= (1, 2, 3,6, 7,8, 9) - (6,7, 8,9} = (1,2, 3} But ANB=(1, 2, 3,6, 7,899 11, 2,3, 4) = 11,2, 3). Hence, A-(A-B)=ANB If Set A and Set B are two sets then (A-B) u (B-A) = (AUB)-(ANB).(wi) (vii) For example Set A= (1, 2,3, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4} then (A~B) = (6, 7, 8, 9} and (B-A) = (4 ‘Therefore, (A-B) U(B-A)= 14, 6,7, 8, 9), Similarly, (AUB) =(1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9) and (ANB) = {1, 2, 3} Therefore (AUB)-(ANB) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9-H, 2, 3) = (4,6, 7, 8, 9}, hence proved. If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets then (An B)-C=(A-C)n (B-C), For example Set A= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9}, Set B= (1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6} and Set C = (3, 5, 6, 7, 9}, then, (ANB)=(1,2,3, 4,5, 6. Therefore (AnB)-c (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) — 13, 5, 6, 7, 9) 1, 2, 4} Similarly (A-C) = (1, 2, 4, 8} and (B-C)={1, 2, 4}. ‘Therefore (A-Cjn (B-C) = (1, 2, 4, 8). 9{1, 2, 4) = (1,2, 4} And hence (A B)~C = (A~C)n (B-C} If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets then AN (B-C)*(ANB)-(A0C). For example Set A= {1, 2,3, 4, 5,6, 7,8, 9},(iii) (x) Set B= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and Set C= {3, 5, 6, 7, 9}, then, (B-C)= 41, 2,4). Therefore AN(B-C)={1, 2,3, 4, §, 6, 7, 8,9} (1, 2,4), = (1,2, 4). Similarly (ANB)= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and (An C) = {3, 5, 6, 7, 9}. Therefore (A.1.B)- (ANC) = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}-13, 5, 6, 7,9) =11,2,4) And hence AN (B=C) = (AN B)- (ANC) If Set A and Set B are two sets then (A- B) = An B For example If Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9}, Set A= {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set B= (6,7, 8,9} then (A-B) = (1, 2, 3) And B' = U-B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)~{6, 7, 8, 9} = 11,2, 3,4, 5} ANB = (1,2, 3,6, 7,8, 9} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 = (1,2, 3}. Hence (A-B) = AB If Set A and Set B are two sets then (A-B) = B’- A’ If Set U = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, Set A= (1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set B= (6, 7, 8,9} then (A-B) =(1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9} ~ (6, 7, 8, 9 = 41, 2, 3} And A'= U-A~={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}-{1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9} = 14,5). B 1, 2, 3, 4, §, 6, 7, 8, 9}— (6, 7, 8, 9}. = {1, 2, 3,4, 5}() Therefore B’ - A’ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}- (4, 5}. = (1, 2, 3}. Hence (A - B) = B’- A’. If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets then A U (B - C) # (AU B) - (auc) For example If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ,6} and Set C=, 5, 6, 7, 9}, then, (B-C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} - {3, 5, 6, 7, 9} = {1, 2, 4} Therefore, AU (B-C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} U{1, 2, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Similarly (Au B) = (1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and (Au C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} Therefore (A U B) - (AUC) = (@} Hence A u (B- C) # (AU B) - (AUC) stnn n 4Cardinal Number of a Set ‘The numbers of elements in a finite set say Set A is called as cardinal number of A and symbolically represented as n (A). For example If Set A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} then nA) = 7 as A contains only seven elements. Some Important Results @ 9 AUB) =n) +n(B)-n ANB) Note: If Set A and Set B are disjoint sets then (AB) = {@}. ‘Therefore n{A UB) = n{A) + n(B) (i) n(AUBUC)=niA) + n(B) + n(C)~n (ANB)-2 BNC) -n(ANC)+n(ANBNC). (ii) 2 (A) = m1) - nA), (iv) nA) =n [(ANB)U(ANB)] =n [(A-B) U(ANB) [= (A -B) +n (ANB) () nA UB) =n{A-B) +n (AN B) + n(B- A). Ilustration No. 1 In a class of 30 students, 14 has taken mathematics, 10 has taken mathematics but not economics. Find the number of students who had taken mathematics and economics also find the number of students who had taken economics but not mathematics? Solution: Let A= Set of students who have taken mathematics as subject. B = Set of students who have taken economics as subject.‘Then given are n(A UB) = 30,n(A) = 14 and n(ANB) = 10. Now we need to find the students who have taken both the subjects, ie. n{A MB) and the number of students who have taken economics as subject but not mathematics i.e. n(B 9 A) But nA) = n(A. 1B) + n(A.0.B) 14= 10+ n(ANB). nA 1B) = 14-10. =4 But nA UB) = nfA) + n(B) - nA B). 30= 14 +nB)-4. n(B) = 30-10 = 20. ‘Therefore, n(B) = n(B 0A} + n(A.B) 20 = nBNA)+ 4. (BNA) = 20-4 = 16. Illustration No. 2 Out of 200 students in a management school 120 students read Indian Economic Review and 100 read Harvard Business Review if the number of students who read neither of the journals is 40 then find the number of students who read both them? Solution: Let A = Set of students who read Indian Economic Review. B = Set of students who read Harvard Business Review. ‘Then given are n(U) = 200, n(A) = 120, n(B) = 100 and nf’ B) = 40. We need to find the number of students who read both the journals i.e. Indian Economic Review and Harvard Business Review i.e. n (A. B) But, ANB’ = (AU By' therefore n{A UB) 40.Since n(A v By' = n (U)- n(A UB) or n(A UB) = 200 - 40 = 160 But as we know, nfA UB) = n(A) + n(B) - (ANB). 160 = 120 + 100 - n(A NB). n{A NB) = 220 - 160 = 60. ‘Thus there are 60 students who read both the journals. Illustration No. 3 In an examination 100 students secured 80% and more marks in Economics or Accounts. Out of these 70 obtained 80% and more marks in Economics and 20 in both Economics and Accounts. Then find how many of them have secured 80% and more marks in Accounts only? Solution: Let A= Set of students who scored over 80% in Economics. B = Set of students who scored over 80% in Accounts. ‘Then given are n(A U B) = 100,n(A) = 70, and n(AN B) = 20. We need to find the number of students who scored over 80% in Accounts. But we know, n{A U B) = n(A) + n(B) -n (AN B) 100 = 70 + n(B) - 20. n(B) = 100 - 50 = 50. As we need to find the students who scored over 80% in Accounts are N(A’ NB) = n(B) -n (ANB) = 50-20 = 30.‘A Venn diagram is a way to graphically represent sets and set operations. Each Venn diagram begins with a rectangle representing the universal set. Then each set is represented by a circle inside the rectangle. We will only be studying with Venn diagrams that have 2 or 3 overlapping Circles (sets). There are Venn diagrams that contain more than 3 circles (sets). In this section we will learn how to graphically represent union, intersection and complement. of sets using Venn diagrams. We will start with Venn diagrams that have two sets as they are easier. Venn diagrams for two sets: Here is a Venn diagram for two sets A and 8. The universal set is depicted with a rectangle. The two sets “A” and “B” are depicted with overlapping circles inside the rectangle. api v This is a Venn diagram associated with the set A. Notice we shade the set that the Venn diagram depicts.‘Now for some set operations. Example: Create a Venn diagram for A’. That is shade the area depicted by the set A’, Recall that the complement of A (denoted A’) is everything in the universal set that isnot in set A. We shade everything except what's in the A circle. Here is the Venn diagram that depicts set x. Example: Create aVenn diagram for AU B. To do this: first create a shaded Venn diagram for each set described in the problem. | will create a Venn diagram for set A and another for set B. oc ‘Now put them together. Notice that I darkened the area that is shaded in both diagrams. This is a union problem so anything that gets shaded at least once isin the union, so here's the Venn diagram that shows the answer. AUBExample: Create a Venn diagram for An B. First create a shaded Venn diagram for each set described in the problem. A B ‘Now put them together. A B v This isan intersection problem. The final Venn diagram should be shaded only where the two sets cross. Here is the answer: ANB‘There are the basics, now let's try a couple that are more involved. Example: Create a Venn diagram for A'nB First create a Venn diagram for each set described in the problem. w 8 Next, put them together. ‘The intersection is the common region that is shaded. Here is my final answer. AnExample: Find a Venn diagram for (A U B)'. First shade what's in the parenthesis, that is A U B. (I took this shading from an earlier example.) AUB Now take the complement of that set. The complement is the region that is not already shade This is my answer. (ausy |Homework #1-9: Sketch the region. 1) AnB’ 2) a'nB’ 3) A'UB 4) AUB 5) (AnBy' 6) (AnB’y’ 7) (A'uBy' 8) (AUB'y’ 9) AUB Homework #10-23: Sketch the shaded region. 10) ANB'UC 11) AnBuCc’ 12) ANB'NC 13) ANBAC’ 14) AUBUC’ 15) A'UBUC 16) (BNC)'UA 17) (AnBy'UC 18) BU(ANC) 19) AU(BNC) 20) BN (AUC) 21) An (BUC) 22) BN (AUC) 23) AN (BUC)Answers: 2 ii) 45) a) p 33)39) 23)Example: Create a Venn diagram that represents AU BU C. To do.a Venn diagram for a union of three sets, first shade each set. "Now put them together ‘Anything that gets shaded at least once is in the union, so here's the answer. AUBUCExample We need to work from left to right. First we will find An B feate a Venn diagram for ANB UC. First shade each set. sy ‘Now put them together ‘A Bis the region where the two graphs overlap. ANB"Next put the graphs of An B and of Cnext to each other. AnB ut the graphs together The union consists of any region that is shaded. This is my answer. ANBUCExample: Create a Venn diagram for A’ B UC. Let’s work from left to right. Find A' 9 B. Create a diagram for each set w Put the sets together. A‘ 1B is the region where the two graphs overlap. An"Next we put the graphs for A''n B and next to each other. An € ‘Now put them together. We are finding the union of the two sets. Anything that gets shade part of my answer. Here is the answer. A'nBUCExample: Sketch (AU BY' NC We need to work on the inside of the parenthesis of (4 U BY' first. We will frst graph A UB First shade each set 6, e ‘Now put them together. We are finding the union of the two sets. Anything that gets shaded is part of my answer. This is a diagram for AUB "Now we can find (A U BY’, which is just the complement of the set A UB, which is anything not shaded in our last drawing. (uey‘Now we can get back to the problem: (A UB)'NC ut the sets (A U B)' and C next to each other. auBy € "Now put the graphs together Remember the intersection only includes the region where the shadings overlap. Here isthe answer. avayinc